Preserving the Autocracy 1855-1894 Flashcards

Question

How did the serf-based economy limit wage-earners in Russia?

Answer 1

Serfs were poor and struggled to survive, limiting their development into wage-earners

Answer 2

Starvation

Answer 3

Communal farming patterns

Answer 4

Money was irrelevant

Answer 5

Few goods were purchased; most were exchanged

Answer 6

By squeezing it from their serfs through service and feudal dues

Answer 7

There was little incentive due to reliance on serfs

Answer 8

Privileged land owning elite - Royals, clergy, nobility, civil and military officials, army and navy officers (10% population, owned 75% land) no tax PRODUCTIVE CLASSES- merchants, manufacturers and below them peasant serf majority There was no middle class, as was present elsewhere in Europe Small number professionals e.g. doctors, teachers, lawyers- but the educated were generally sons of nobles Society therefore feudal (based on birth, land and service)

Answer 9

Nicholas I’s attempts to increase Russian influence in Ottoman (Turkish) Empire caused Turks to declare war in Oct 1853 Brits and French supported Turks- Russia no match for West and defeated at Balaclava (Oct 1854) and Inkerman (Nov 1854) Alexander II became Tsar in March 1855. By September 1855 Sebastopol, in Russian Crimea, had fallen. Russia shocked Treaty of Paris (1856) final humiliation- preventing Russian warships using the Black Sea Crimea war revealed military and administrative problems such as: Outdated Tech Poor Transport Poor leadership Problems with having conscript army (not professional) Trade was disrupted Peasant uprisings escalated War was catalyst for change - New generation of liberal-minded nobles would influence new Tsar

Answer 10

Tsar Liberator

Answer 11

Emancipated (freed) Russia’s 51 million serfs in 1861

Answer 12

To strengthen the autocracy? Influence from tutor, Zhokovsky His European travels Circle of Nobles- Party of St Petersburg Progress Brother - Grand Duke Konstantin His Aunt - Grand Duchess Elena Pavlona ‘Enlightened bureaucrats’ e.g. Milyutin brothers and other intelligentsia

Answer 13

Morally wrong Strong Ecomomic motives (greater increase incentive to work would lead to grain surplus, provide money for land owners to invest/ mobilise peasants to towns) Social benefits- reduce growing unrest among peasants Crimean war main trigger? Dimitry Milyutin argued only a free population would provide Labour needed to improve army

Answer 14

Released political prisoners Relaxed controls on censorship Lessened restrictions of foreign travel and university entrance Cancelled tax debts Restored some of the rights of Poland and the Catholic Church

Answer 15

Applied to privately owned serfs immediately/ State serfs from 1866 Serfs granted freedom and land allotment Landlord compensation from government Landlords kept some land - but open fields given to peasant commune (Mir) Serfs to pay redemption payments over 49 years to government Remain in Mir till paid

Answer 16

Distribute land allotments Control farming Collect and pay the peasant’s taxes

Answer 17

Established to supervise the Mirs From 1863 Volosts had own courts

Answer 18

Some peasants, such as wealthy Kulaks, did well out land allotment s - bought extra land, export surplus grain Some peasants sold land, got passport to leave Mir, raised living standards by working in cities Some landowners used compensation to clear debts Enterprising landlords made profits through investment in industrial businesses

Answer 19

Land allocations rarely fair Land in each Mir divided between all male peasants - most holdings grew ever smaller as the population grew Allotments were small, little opportunity to use new farming methods Mir system very traditional - subsistence farming and little technology Loss of former benefits Restrictions on travel Redemption payment burden Resentment of kulaks and disputes over land holding and redemption payments led to violence Noble bankruptcies - landowners had to sell or mortgage their own allocated land Landowners resented loss of influence

Answer 20

Local government reforms Judiciary reforms Education reforms Military reforms Miscellaneous others

Answer 21

Elected local councils - Zemstva replaced rights and obligations of serf-owning gentry Zemstva chosen through ‘electoral colleges’ - separate college for nobles, townspeople, church and peasants - allowed degree of popular representation Composed of men who understood local needs Power to improve public services, administer poor relief, develop industrial projects - 1870 elected town councils called Dumas were set up in towns (mirroring the approach of the rural Zemstva, just in urban setting)

Answer 22

No control over taxes Voting procedure favoured nobility Provincial governors continued to appoint officials - took responsibility for law and order and could overturn Zemstva decisions Councils were never ‘people’s assemblies’ - they attracted doctors, lawyers, teachers and scientists who used meetings to debate politics

Answer 23

Emancipation required law changes Previously a judge examined written evidence - no jury system , no lawyers and no examination of evidence - guilty until proven innocent (judge’s decision final) New system modelled on West Equality- accused innocent until proven guilty and could employ lawyer Criminal cases heard before barristers and jury - selected from property owners Judges appointed by the Tsar and given improved training and pay Local justices of the peace elected every 3 years by Zemstva and independent from polictical control Courts were opened to public and events could be reported on New system fairer, however: Articulate lawyers could criticise regime New juries sometimes acquired guilty out of sympathy Therefore political crimes were tried under special procedures

Answer 24

Emancipation increased need for basic literacy and numeracy among peasants Golovnin, minister of education 1862-67), brought in following: Universities could govern themselves and appoint own staff Responsibilities for schools transferred from church to Zemstva Primary and secondary education extended Schools open to boys and girls not all classes Numbers attending schools and universities grew Universities new independence increased number of radical thinkers - after 1866 government control restored

Answer 25

Dmitry Milyutin’s changes to armed forces improved efficiency and reduced cost Conscription compulsory for ALL CLASSES from age of 21 - but length of service reduced Punishments less severe Military colonies abandoned Better provisions Better education Better healthcare Modern weapons New command structure Military colleges created - provide better training for non-noble officer corps

Answer 26

Richer people found substitutes to serve for them Officer class largely aristocratic Problems of supply and leadership continued

Answer 27

Between 1858 and 1870 press censorship was relaxed Attempts to get rid of corruption in lower levels of church Some reform of condition of Jews and ethnic minorities was done Some economic liberalisation was granted (private investment in infrastructure, such as railways)

Answer 28

After critical writing increased government tightened censorship controls in 1870s again Church reform stopped in the reactionary years of the 1870s Lenient treatment of Poles and Jews reversed after 1863 Polish rebellion Economic liberalisation remained, but largely at peasant’s expense

Answer 29

Altered Russia’s social, Ecomomic, political and military structure Some continuity with before - noble class remained dominant and peasant society changed little However, reforms changed patterns of land ownership and brought wide range of social change May have increased instability in Russia by setting expectations of further change

Answer 30

Believing in equality and individual freedoms - supporting private property and individual rights. Limited constitutional government, with tolerance etc Was Russia a liberal state under Alex II? Not really - still autocratic controls, Noble classes remained dominant and little changes to peasant society. Not much tolerance shown to Poles and Jews etc

Answer 31

Generally more repressive policies In1865 Alexander’s eldest son and heir died. Tsar spent more time with his mistress and less with the reformist Grand Duke Konstantin and Grand Duchess Elena ‘Reactionary conservatives’ thought reforms had gone too far - weakening church and nobles (who monarchy relied on) Four assassination attempts on Alexander between 1866 and 1880- need for action Alexander replaced four reformist ministers with conservatives in 1866

Answer 32

Tolstoy Wanted tight controls Eradicate western ideas and criticism of autocracy Zemstva powers over education reduced Church regained powers over rural schools Higher gimnazii schools ordered to follow traditional curriculum and new modern schools couldn’t send students to university In the universities, more liberal courses replaced with traditional curriculum Censorship tightened and student activities controlled State teacher training colleges set up to increase tsarist control, rather than improve education Tolstoy frequently vetoed university appointments

Answer 33

Shuvalov, new head of Third section (secret police) strengthened police Increased persecution of ethnic and religious minorities Phalen, new justice minister made an example of political agitators Searches and arrests increased Political offenders could be prosecuted under emergency powers and exiled Radicals who had fled could be tracked down and recalled to face justice ‘Show trials’ were held - aim to deter others - had opposite effect and in 1878 political crimes transferred to special secret courts

Answer 34

Russo-Turkish war 1877-78 Famine 1879-80 Industrial recession Pressure from reactionary conservatives Attempted Assasiantions 1879-80

Answer 35

Tried to reduce unrest by increasing Democratic consultations Count Loris-Melikov appointed minister for internal affairs He relaxed many restrictions and abolished Third Section However transferred powers to new section of regular police called the ‘Okhrana’ - just as oppressive In 1880 Loris Melikov produced a report which became known as Loris-Melikov’s constitution- recommended including elected representatives to debate state decrees. Alexander II accepted report on morning of 13th March 1881, but killed by bomb same day.

Answer 36

Terrified of revolutionary activity Strongly influenced by his tutor -!Pobedonostev - believed in unlimited autocratic power, nationalism and anti-semitism Believed he alone should decide what was right and others should obey Public ally hanged conspirators involved in father’s death Issued 1881 Manifesto of Unshakeable Autocracy and a law of Exceptional Measures Abandoned Loris-Melikov’s proposals Accepted resignations of reforming ministers - inc Dmitry Milyutin and relied heavily on CONSERVATIVES (not a political party, like in the UK)

Answer 37

Nobles reinstated to positions of authority and state authority increased 1889 Office of noble ‘Land Captain’ created - state appointed could override elections to zemstva and ignore zemstva decisions - responsible for law enforcement in countryside and overturn court judgements 1890 Zemstva election and powers altered - peasants vote reduced, Zemstva placed under central government control 1892 Town councils election arrangements altered - only property owners with property above a certain value could vote - mayor and town councils became state employees - directed by central government

Answer 38

Led by Plevhe 1881-84 and from 84 by Durnovo Number of police increased New branches of criminal investigation set up Spies and agents recruited Okhrana investigated communists, socialists and trade unionists and watched civil servants and government 1882 law on Police Surveillance gave police great powers over people’s lives Police agents could search, arrest, detain, question, imprison or exile anyone who had committed/thought to have committed/related to someone who had committed a crime

Answer 39

Partially reversed reforms of Alexander II Decrees of 1885, 1887 and 1889 gave greater powers to Ministry of Justice 1887 property and educational qualifications needed by jurors were raised 1889 Volost (Peasant) courts put under control of Land Captains in the countryside and Judges in towns

Answer 40

Again reversed some of Alexander II’s reforms 1884 University appointments subject or approval of Education ministry - now based on religious, moral and patriotic orientation- rather than acedemic grounds Universities for women were closed, separate university courts were abolished and university life supervised Low class children restricted to primary education- under church control Although numbers receiving education increased only 21% population literate by 1897 Went against attempts at Ecomomic modernisation and failed to prevent student involvement in illegal political movements

Answer 41

From 1892 censorship increased

Answer 42

Increased Central Government control over local matters Restored some of influence of nobles

Answer 43

Some of Alexander II’s reforms remained in place May 1881 -redemption fees reduced and arrears cancelled in central provinces May 1885 - poll tax abolished, inheritance tax introduced - help shift tax burden away from lowest classes Right of appeal to higher courts allowed Peasant’s land bank established in 1883 Some reformist factory legislation borough in

Answer 44

From 1866 Alexander II adopted REACTIONARY policies- Education reforms partially undone Policing strengthened Judicial system changed to prevent political enemies and unrest Attempt to improve Democratic conditions ended on Alexander II’s death. Alexander III came in and reversed many of father’s reforms and stepped up repression

Answer 45

Tsarist Russia - over 100 ethnic groups Slavs in Russia, Ukraine and Belorussian made up 2/3 of population Remaining people mixture of many different nationalities, languages, religions and cultural traditions Ethnic groups would push their own unique identities

Answer 46

Mixture of repression and concessions Repression example - suppressed Polish rebellion 1863-64 Examples of concessions - Decrees of 1864 and 1875 allowed Latvians and Estonians to re-adopt ‘Lutheranism’ instead of Orthodoxy + Allowed Finns to have their own diet (parliament) No systematic persecution Increasing intolerance towards end of Alexander’s reign- use of Ukrainian language banned in publications or performances

Answer 47

Extended intolerance Cultural Russification - merge all subjects into single nation, shared identity - controlled by autocracy and Orthodox Church Destroy non- Russian national cultures: Finland: Diet (parliament) was weakened. Use of Russian language demanded. Finnish postal service abolished, Russian coinage replaced local currency Poland: Change of administration. Polish National bank closed. Schools and Universities had to teach all subjects in Russian, literature had to be studied in a Russian translation The Baltic: the Baltic Germans had been loyal to Russia and had special protection. However, Russification aggressive here too. Russian enforced in all state offices, at school and university and in police and judicial system Ukraine: use of Ukrainian language limited and theatres closed

Answer 48

Military conscription extended to areas previously exempt Conscripts dispersed to prevent national groupings developing Ethnic uprisings crushed throughout empire Orthodox Church encouraged everywhere Laws benefited people of Orthodox faith - restrictions for non Orthodox believers (e.g. Catholics or Muslims)

Answer 49

Unrest and mass disturbances- quickly suppressed Resentment grew among educated and wealthy Finns, Poles and Baltic Germans in West of Empire National groups constantly asking tsars for more liberties Local language books were secretly published Some ethnic schools survived Russification had failed to achieve its objectives - increasing national feelings and leading to increased political opposition

Answer 50

Jews most affected by Russian nationalism 5 million confined to ‘The Pale of Settlement’ Jewish programs of 1881-84 Anti-Semitic legislation

Answer 51

Initially allowed wealthy Jews to settle outside Pale of Settlement After Polish revolt of 1863-64 changed mind Also reduced Jewish participation in Town government

Answer 52

Fear of Jewish involvement in growing opposition movement Religious reasons

Answer 53

Anti-Jewish riots April 1881 broke out in Yelizavetgrad in Ukraine. Authorities did little to stop/Okhrana May have encouraged Violence spread to other Ukrainian towns and beyond - 16 major cities Jewish property burned, shops and businesses destroyed, rape and murder Many Jews fled to Western Europe Continued to 1884 - but occasional progroms after that

Answer 54

1882-94 series of laws reduce rights of Jews May laws of 1882- Jews confined to ghettoes in towns and cities - even within pale of settlement 1886 decree -jews couldn’t run inns - by restricting right to sell alcohol 1892- Jews forbidden from participation in local elections

Answer 55

After progroms, Jews left country - either expelled or voluntarily From 1890 foreign Jews and Jews settled outside pale of settlement deported from Russia In 1891-92 30,000 Jewish artisans expelled from Moscow Drove many Jews to revolutionary groups

Answer 56

Alexander II used both force and concessions Alexander III growing intolerance became policy of Russification - Russian language and culture enforced Jews suffered particularly badly - concessions made under Alexander II (wealthy Jews outside pale) withdrawn and discrimination increased

Answer 57

Alexander II’s reforms brought hope of further change Increased freedoms allowed radical ideas to spread Educated intellectuals had more opportunities to challenge the regime Repression that followed increased demands for change

Answer 58

Moderate Liberal Opposition- mainly Westernisers or Slavophiles Radical opposition - generally younger generation - The Tchaikovsky Circle, the Narodniks (Populists), Land and Liberty

Answer 59

Number of literate and educated Russians grew in latter part of 19th century. Intellectuals had time and wealth to consider politics WESTERNISERS- wanted Russia to adopt Western values and economic and military reforms Favoured less power for Orthodox church Wanted representative assemblies and civil liberties Expressed views through Zemstva - hoped increase in local decision making would lead to greater national representation Disappointed withAlexander III’s restriction of Zemstvo powers in 1890.

Answer 60

Wanted to preserve Russia’s culture and heritage as country modernised Preferred to retain peasant based economy Wanted to preserve power of Orhodox church Declined in influence in 1890s as industrialisation progressed and Western style socialist movements began to grow

Answer 61

Great Famine 1891-92 Government failed to provide adequate relief Zemstva assumed responsibility for improving conditions Intellectuals demanded greater say in public affairs Mid 1890s again calls for a national body to advise government By 1890s intelligentsia split- some remained moderate liberals , some attracted by Marxist theory and socialism

Answer 62

In 1860s younger generation Nihilism (everything is meaningless) popular in 1860s - 1862 students created Young Russia and published manifesto calling for Bloody and Merciless revolution. 1863 ‘The Organisation’ set up by Moscow uni students - calling for radical reform Student determination was increased by repression of late 1860s onwards and influence of socialist writers

Answer 63

Nikolai Chernyshevsky - suggested peasants should be leaders of revolutionary change Alexander Herzen - editor of illegal radical journal ‘The Bell’- wanted a peasant based social structure Mikhail Bakunin- Anarchist and socialist - private ownership of land should be replaced by collective ownership- income based on hours worked- helped to introduce Marxism to Russia Sergei Nechaev - activist whose ‘Catechism of a Revolutionary’ encouraged revolutionaries to be ruthless in their aims

Answer 64

Set up 1868-69 in St Petersburg Mainly a literary society that organised printing, publishing and distribution of scientific and revolutionary literature From 1872 organised workers with intention of sending them to work among peasants in the countryside

Answer 65

Idea of ‘Going to the people’ became known as Narodynism or Populism 1874 Pyotr Lavrov encouraged 2000 young men and women (mainly nobility and intelligentsia) to go to countryside and persuade peasants to develop the existing peasant communes Peasants ignorance, superstition and loyalty to Tsar meant incomes were reported to authorities 1600 arrested Second attempt in 1876 also failed - show trials held in 1877-1878 Narodynism did, however, spread opposition in the countryside (showing government strength of feeling against them)

Answer 66

Set up in 1877, continued Populist ideas Members sought to work within the peasant commune - but discretely Some carried out political assassinations- Head of Third section murdered in 1878 Gained public sympathy and sometimes talked with Zemstva in order to encourage push for reforms (Government failed to respond to growing pressure)

Answer 67

In 1879 Land and Liberty split into 2 groups BLACK PaRTITION wanted to share black soil provinces of Russia amongst peasants , worked peacefully with peasants , wanted social change without violence - ceased to exist after arrests in 1880-81 - leaders turned to Marxism THE PEOPLE’S WILL Bigger than Black Partition Supported violence Undermining/assassinating officials Tried unsuccessfully, several times, to kill Alexander - succeeded in March 1881

Answer 68

Security and repression increased

Answer 69

Populist movement ceased to exist Secret meetings of Underground societies - continued to translate and reproduce writings of foreign socialists Contact with radicals in exile in west maintained 1883 Georgi Plekhanov (Exile Switzerland) established Emancipation of Labour group - translated and arranged for Marxist ideas to be smuggled into Russia He wanted focus of activities on workers in the cities - as it would be the proletariat (working class) that would bring Revolution (but would need to cooperate with the property owning class (Bourgeoisie) to destroy autocracy 1866- students in St Petersburg tried to reform People’s Will March 1887- group made bombs to assassinate Alexander III- arrested - 5 members inc Lenin’s elder brother later hanged By 1890s growth of industrialisation led to development of Workers’ organisations, illegal trade unions, Marxist discussion circles and other groups. Marxist ideas spread more widely

Answer 70

Alexander II’s reforms set expectations of further reforms When expectations were not met opposition to Tsarist rule grew Most of opposition was moderate, led by Liberals wanting non-violent constitutional change Growth of Industrialisation brought more radical opposition - fuelled by Marxism Radicals prepared to use extreme measures to achieve their aims

Answer 71

Beginnings of state-promoted industrial growth An industrial ‘Take-off’ Emancipation of serfs New middle class and Urban working class Strong Cultural influence of the Orthodox Church - used by state to control population (although some weakening in influence in industrialising towns/cities)

Answer 72

Finance minister Von Reutern series of reforms to boost economy and drive industrial growth (match the West) Treasury and Tax reforms Tax-farming abolished State bank established 1860 Import duties (tariffs) reduced from 1863 to promote trade Government subsidies to railway entrepreneurs Foreign investment encouraged - incentivised by state-guaranteed annual dividends/ interest payments (government paid a percentage based on capital invested) Joint stock companies were made subject to new regulations to protect investors - allowed people to invest in infrastructure companies Government support for development of Cotton and Mining industries

Answer 73

Encouraged investment and enterprise Foreign technical expertise and capital supported industrial growth Large Railway expansion Textiles dominant, but growth in coal and oil extraction, iron mining and iron working Annual average growth rate of 6%

Answer 74

Russia’s economy remained comparatively weak 1/3 of all government expenditure went on repayment of debts Russian currency (Rouble) remained unstable Tariff reductions led to decline in government revenues - so raised again in 1878 Peasantry still poor and domestic market small

Answer 75

Vyshnegrandsky finance minister 1887-1892. To increase capital, reduce budget defecit and boost home production he: Introduced a high tariff of 30% of the value of imported raw materials Negotiated loans and increased indirect taxes (Budget in surplus by 1892) Drive to swell grain exports (between 1881-91 grew by 18%, as % of total Russian exports) Peasants suffered badly - had to pay taxes and give grain to state. Many left with no reserves for winter - 1891-92 bad harvest, thousands died Vyshnegradsky dismissed 1892

Answer 76

Witte became Finance minister for the period 1892 to 1903 Maintained protective tariffs, heavy taxation and forced exports Sought further loans and presided over a huge increase in foreign investment Encouraged engineers, managers and workers from Western Europe to oversee industrial developments and advise on planning and techniques By 1897 Russia fourth largest industrial economy Exports and foreign trade increased - although mainly grain rather than industrial goods Railway network expanded massively

Answer 77

Little changed after emancipation Grain production remained low compated to West Richer peasants, Kulaks, responded positively to export drive of grain - increasing production in 1870s and 1880s Famine of 1891-1892 showed that peasants had too little land to do well

Answer 78

LANDED ELITE- mainly nobles, landholdings declined since emancipation. Retained much of previous wealth and status. Might be employed in: professional status (Uni professor), work in business, state service, Zemstva THE MIDDLE CLASS - growing class, resulting from urban/industrial expansion and education- including bankers, doctors, teachers. Businesses included building railways or factories. Lower middle class could become managers or workshop owners and traders THE URBAN WORKING CLASS- 2% population by 1890s. Some peasants worked in towns temporarily- returning to farms at peak times. Others became urban workers or building railways. Growing class by 1864- 1 in 3 inhabitants of St Petersburg born as peasants. Suffered poor living and working conditions (despite some welfare legislation 1892-1890) THE PEASANTRY - Richer peasants did well out of Emancipation. Bought up land and employed Labour. Might but grain from poorer peasants in autumn and sell back at profit in Spring. Poorer peasants suffered more after emancipation- became landless labourers- often in debt. Experienced varying, but generally poor living standards. Poor health and low life expectancy

Answer 79

Russia strongly Orthodox Church (70% population) Religion and superstition big part of peasant culture Priests has close ties with villages and state Church possessed strict censorship controls and church judged moral and social crimes and awarded punishment ma to guilty

Answer 80

Government aware of the power of the church 1862 Ecclesiastical commission established to look into Church organisation and practice 1868 reforms introduced to improve education of priests Under Alexander III Russification policy promoted Russian Orthodox Church throughout empire - became an offence to convert or criticise it. Radical sects persecuted Some evidence that faith was weakening a little bit - particularly in industrial towns

Answer 81

1883- Peasants’ land bank created (aim to help peasants buy land- take out loans to purchase) 1885 Nobles’ Land bank created (help the nobles keep their land after losing power post emancipation, competition from better run land/ poor management and mounting debts ). Long term, low interest rates loans to nobles 1891-1892 Famine 1894 Death of Alexander III