Preparation for, and the course of, a trial or proof Flashcards
What are precognitions?
The key part of the preparation for trial involves precognitions. Potential witnesses are precognosced in preparation for a trial or proof.
A precognition is a document prepared pre-trial setting out the evidence which it is hoped a witness will give:
“a precognition is any compilation of the evidence which it is hoped that a witness will give derived from statements made by him and reduced to writing” (McAvoy v Glasgow DC 1993 SLT 859, at 860 per Temporary Judge Coutts)
Can you be required to submit to precognition in civil cases?
⁃ In civil cases there is no obligation to be precognosced: Henderson v Patrick Thomson 1911[ A woman brought a civil action for damages, averring that she went into a shop and she had been stopped by one of the shop’s employees and accused of having committed a theft. She raised a civil action and asked the court to order the defendants (shop owners) to disclose the names and addresses of their employees so that she could take precognitions from them. The court held that no-one can be compelled in a civil action to give a precognition.] - but refusal will be a matter for comment and cross-examination (i.e. questions about why the the witness did not allow precognition can be asked).
Can you be required to submit to precognition in criminal cases?
(A) The “civic duty” to submit to precognition
⁃ There is said to be a civic duty[ I.e. it is the right thing to do but there is no general legal duty.] for a witness in a criminal case to give precognitions both to the defence and to the Crown: *HM Advocate v Monson (1893).
(B) However, the Crown have a general power to cite (compel) witnesses for precognition
⁃ And it is a criminal offences if the person cited to appear either refused to attend or refused to give information in respect of the offence in question.
(C) Precognition on oath
⁃ There is also a procedure called precognition on oath. This involves a witness being taken before the Sheriff where an oath is administered and the person is then asked questions and the answers are recorded. It is now the case that the defence can, in exceptional circumstances request that a would-be witness gives a precognition on oath:
⁃*Low v MacNeill 1981
- Brady v Lockhart 1985
The court held that in these circumstances the witnesses should be taken before the sheriff and precognosced on oath.[ Not really sure what is going on here.]
*HM Advocate v Monson (1893)
The judge said that every good citizen should give a precognition - but there is not a legal duty.
Low v MacNeill 1981
⁃ A man was charged with various offences. He was given a list of Crown witnesses. He had problems getting hold of one of them whom the solicitor for the accused wanted to precognosce.
⁃ The solicitor regarded this potential witness as crucial but he had been told by the Crown what the Crown believed that witness would say in evidence.
⁃ The accused’s solicitor asked that the person be brought before a sheriff and precognosced on oath but the court held that this procedure is designed only for unusual or exceptional cases and the circumstances of this case it was not necessary.
Brady v Lockhart 1985
⁃ A man was charged with assault. There were only two witnesses. Both refused to be precognosced by the defence despite the fact that the Crown agreed that the defence should be able to precognosce both witnesses. The original trial was adjourned to allow precognitions to be taken.
What use can be made of precognitions?
Precognitions are to be used in preparation of a case – generally, very little use of them can be made in court.
What does it mean when we say precognitions have absolute privilege?
But privilege in this context is NOT EVIDENTIAL PRIVILEGE. It refers to privilege under the law of defamation.
Watson v McEwan (1905)
⁃ Held that the same immunity from defamation that applies to witnesses giving evidence applied to what was said in a precognition too.
⁃ [This case just backs up the principle that precognitions are covered by privilege against defamation.]
Why are precognitions generally not admissible in evidence?
*Kerr v HM Advocate 1958
⁃ There had been a theft of stolen copper. Two men were found in possession of the copper which was found on lorries belonging to a firm they worked for. The men were arrested and charged with theft. The following day a police officer interviewed a partner in the firm who owned the lorries. The police officer asked questions and took a statement.
⁃ Later in court in giving evidence the police officer read the statement.
⁃ The court held that this should not have happened because this statement was a type of precognition (since the statement was used in preparing for the trial).
⁃ [At page 19 of the JC case report the court made clear why precogntions are not admissible in evidence - the fundamental reason being that a precognition is a compilation of what the questions and answers were - in other words the person taking the precognition constructs a document based on the questions and answers - it is “filtered through the mind of another, whose job it is to put what he thinks the witness means into a form suitable for use in judicial proceedings”.
Does the abolition of the rule against hearsay in civil proceedings render precognitions admissible?
No.
There is, however, nothing to stop a precognoser giving hearsay evidence of what the witness said to him[ This is based upon the difference between the precognition itself (inadmissible) and the person who took the precognition repeating as hearsay what the other person said to him (admissible).] in civil cases:
Anderson v Jas B Fraser & Co Ltd 1992
McAvoy v Glasgow DC 1993
s 9 of the Civil Evidence (Scotland) Act 1988.
See the definition of “statement”
Anderson v Jas B Fraser & Co Ltd 1992
⁃ This case concerned an action for damages for personal injuries. A key person involved was a fellow employee of the pursuer who was an eyewitness to the accident. A solicitor had precognosced the fellow employee and the solicitor gave evidence as to what the fellow employee had said to him during the process of taking the precognition.
⁃ It was held that the evidence of the solicitor was admissible (hearsay - which is admissible in civil proceedings) because the solicitor was not producing a precognition - he was repeating as accurately as he could exactly what the fellow employee had said to him.
McAvoy v Glasgow DC 1993
⁃ Another civil case for damages said to have come about because of the condition of the common entry to a flat. A man claimed he was injured while visiting a friend who lived there. The person he had visited died before the civil proof. Evidence was led as to what the deceased had told his family about the incident and also statements made by that man to a solicitor who was taking a precognition.
⁃ It was held that the statements made to the mans’s family, although hearsay, were admissible, but the precognition was not admissible because it was a precognition.
Does the prohibition about precognitions not being admissible apply to recognitions on oath?
The general prohibition about precognitions not being admissible does not apply to precognitions on oath as they are not subject to the same problems.
Do you have to disclose witnesses in civil cases?
In most civil cases, there is an obligation to exchange lists of witnesses.
⁃ This is to allow the other side to precognosce the witnesses in question.
What was the rule of disclosure of witnesses at common law?
At common law, there was a power to apply to the court for disclosure of the names or addresses of persons “representing” the parties in the issue under dispute: see
Clarke v Edinburgh and District Tramways 1914
⁃ An action by a woman for damages after being injured by a tram. At an earlier stage of the case she requested the court to make an order on the defenders (the tram company) to supply her with the names of the driver and conductor.
⁃ On appeal it was held that the court must make an order
Similarly: Halloran v Greater Glasgow PTE 1976
⁃ A man was injured on the subway platform. He blamed the operators of the subway. At an early stage he requested that the defenders disclose the name and address of the lookout man and th court held that it would grant that order because otherwise, how would they obtain evidence from key witnesses if they don’t know who the witnesses are.
Where are the rules of disclosure of witnesses found in statute?
There is now a statutory provision under the Administration of Justice (Scotland) Act 1972 s 1(a) (as amended by the Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions)(Scotland) Act 1985) to seek disclosure of identity of persons who:
⁃ (a) might be witnesses in existing or likely civil proceedings or
⁃ (b) might be defenders in any civil proceedings which are likely to be brought.
This statutory power has given the court greater powers than under the common law.
Moffat v News Group Newspapers 1999
⁃ Action of defamation against a news company alleging broadcasts that implied the man and woman who were not married were having an adulterous relationship. They asked the court for an order for the defenders to disclose the name of their source.
⁃ The defenders are claiming the defence of veritas - the court decided that they would not make the order because, why would the pursuer’s need evidence from these witnesses because they could rebut the allegation by their own evidence.
What are the rules for disclosing witnesses in solemn procedure?
In solemn procedure, the Crown must provide a list of witnesses with the indictment and the defence must provide one in advance of trial. See CPSA 1995, ss 66, 67 and 78(4).
What are the rules for disclosing witnesses in summary procedure?
In summary procedure there is no statutory obligation on Crown to provide list but this is normally done on request. There is no obligation at all on the defence to produce or give any prior notification of the witnesses which it intends to call.
What is the general duty of the Crown to dislose information in the course of their investigations?
NB According to ss 121-123 of the Criminal Justice and Licensing (Scotland) Act 2010, the Crown also has a continuing duty to disclose all information obtained in the course of an investigation which would:
(a) materially weaken or undermine the evidence that is likely to be led by the prosecutor,
(b) would materially strengthen the accused’s case, or
(c) is likely to form part of the evidence to be led by the prosecutor.
Failure to do so may result in breach of Article 6 ECHR (Holland v HM Adv 2005 SC (PC) 3; Sinclair v HM Adv 2005 SC (PC) 28; McDonald v HM Adv 2008 SCCR 154, 2008 SLT 993; HM Adv v Murtagh [2009] UKPC 35.) See also COPFS Disclosure Manual, available online at:
http://www.copfs.gov.uk/images/Documents/Prosecution_Policy_Guidance/Disclosur_Manual/Disclosure%20Manual%20-%20Chapters%201-13%20-%20V9%20-%20September%202011%20Edited.PDF
What is the oath requirement?
All witnesses must take the oath or affirm before giving evidence. Failure to do so is a contempt of court.
What is the prescribed form of oath?
The prescribed form of oath is as follows:
⁃ “I swear by Almighty God that I will tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.”
⁃ (Act of Adjournal (Criminal Procedure Rules) 1996, Rule 14.5 (and Form 14.5A and B); Rules of Court of Session 1994, Forms 36.10A and B.)