prep bio exam 1 pt 2 Flashcards
1
Q
third step of hierarchy of life
A
macromolecules
2
Q
fourth step of hierarchy of life
A
organelles
3
Q
fifth step of hierarchy of life
A
cells
4
Q
sixth step of hierarchy of life
A
tissue
5
Q
seventh step of hierarchy of life
A
organ
6
Q
eighth step of hierarchy of life
A
organ systems
7
Q
ninth step of hierarchy of life
A
organism
8
Q
tenth step of hierarchy of life
A
population
9
Q
eleventh step of hierarchy of life
A
communities
10
Q
eleventh step of hierarchy of life
A
communities
11
Q
twelfth step of hierarchy of life
A
ecosystem
12
Q
thirteenth (last) step of hierarchy of life
A
biosphere
13
Q
What is learning?
A
A change in behavior due to experience that reduces the possibility of a non-productive outcome.
14
Q
What is memory?
A
Physiological/anatomical changes in the nervous system.
15
Q
(In terms of chemical synapses) What is repetition?
A
The repeated firing of neurons, which causes the communicated across synapses to be strengthened. This aids in memory and learning.
16
Q
What is long term potentiation?
A
a process whereby communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier.
17
Q
What emerges from the changes caused by long term potentiation?
A
The ability to remember
18
Q
What is a component level question?
A
Recalling or knowing a single or several facts.
19
Q
What is a system level question?
A
Having an integrated understanding of systems and extended understanding to novel situations or integrate systems.
20
Q
Why is glucose homeostasis important?
A
The brain and body need glucose for fuel / energy.
21
Q
The first stage of glucose homeostasis
A
Stimulus (food) is consumed and enters the blood stream, prompting blood sugar levels to rise.
22
Q
The second stage of glucose homeostasis
A
Beta cells of the pancreas are stimulated in order to release insulin Into the blood stream.
23
Q
The third stage of glucose homeostasis
A
The liver takes up glucose and stores it as glycogen.
24
Q
Where are the beta cells?
A
In the islets of langerhans in the pancreas.
25
What does insulin do? (Fourth step)
The insulin tells the cells of your body that there is glucose available, the cells use the glucose, which in turn lowers your blood sugar.
26
Why is insulin necessary?
Without insulin notifying the cells, the cells will starve because the cells will not know that glucose is available.
27
What is glycogen?
It is a polymer. It is stored glucose.
28
What is the fifth step of glucose homeostasis?
Glucose levels keep going down as you have not eaten, turning the body hypoglycemic.
29
What is the sixth step of glucose homeostasis?
Glucagon takes glycogen to break down into glucose - putting blood sugar levels back to homeostasis.
30
What is a diabetic's problem?
The body does not produce insulin so blood sugar levels do not go down and the cells are not notified of available glucose.
31
What is glucagon?
A hormone secreted by the pancreas when blood glucose is low.
32
What is insulin?
a hormone which converts glucose into glycogen (when blood sugar levels are too high)
33
Where are the endocrine and exocrine cells located?
The pancreas.
34
What releases glucagon?
Alpha cells of pancreas
35
What are the islets of Langerhans?
groups of pancreatic (endocrine) cells secreting insulin and glucagon.
36
What is elaborative rehearsal?
A memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered, as opposed to simply repeating the word to yourself over and over.
37
What is negative feedback?
A response to a change in the body that counteracts or opposes the initial change; stimulus goes down.
38
What is positive feedback?
Feedback that increases the output of a process. Stimulus increases.
39
What is an example of negative feedback?
Insulin response to high blood sugar. If blood sugar rises, insulin is released to lower blood sugar.
40
What is one example of positive feedback?
Contractions keep increasing during childbirth because of the reinforcement of oxytocin.
41
Where is glycogen stored?
The liver and skeletal muscles.
42
What is the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory?
sensory memory -briefly holds sensations; short-term memory - holds 5-9 pieces of information for 20 seconds; long-term memory - permanent memory store- large capacity
43
What is encoding?
The processing of information into the memory system
44
What is retrieval?
The process of getting information out of memory storage
45
What is consolidation?
The process by which memories become stable in the brain; the same thing as long term potentiation.
46
The first law of thermodynamics
Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
47
How much percentage of food do we use as energy?
30% is used as energy, the rest is used as heat.
48
What makes up nervous tissue?
neurons and glial cells
49
What is a tissue?
A group of cells that act together to perform a specific function.
50
What are glia cells and where are they located?
They provide supportive functions to the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
51
What are neurons?
excitable cells that transmit electrical signals (information) which make up the nervous system.
52
What makes up the central nervous system?
The brain and spinal cord
53
What makes up the peripheral nervous system?
Nerves and other apparatus.
54
Are there nerves in the CNS?
No
55
What are the "nerves" in the CNS called?
Tracts
56
What are tracts in the CNS?
Bundles of neurons running in the same direction.
57
What are astrocytes? (glial cell CNS)
They are star shaped cells that are important because they form the blood brain barrier by forming a layer of cells in between the blood system and neurons.
58
What are microglia cells? (glial cell CNS)
Similar to white blood cells, the cells give an immune response in the brain to protect from viruses, bacteria, fungi, etc.
59
What are ogliodendrocytes? (glial cell CNS)
Branched cells that wrap around the axon of a neuron; act as electrical insulation and help transmission of nerve impulses by making it go faster on flow of axon.
60
What are radial glia? (CNS)
Cells that are important in development by helping to guide and nourish that move around - gives migrating cells aid in migrating during development.
61
What are ependymal cells? (glial cells CNS)
Produce cerebrospinal fluid by taking blood, processing it, and releasing it into the brain; causes cerebrospinal fluid to flow around the head.
62
What are choroid plexuses? (glial cells CNS)
Helps in making cerebrospinal fluid by putting it into ventricles - ependymal cells have cilia on them which beats and pauses to help flow around the brain.
63
What are Schwann and Satellite cells?
Glial cells associated with the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
64
What are Schwann cells?
A type of glial cell that forms insulating myelin sheaths around the axons of neurons in the peripheral nervous system; same function as ogliodendrocytes.
65
How are ogliodendrocytes and Schwann cells similar?
They both provide electrical insulation for nerve impulses
66
What are satellite cells?
They feed and help maintain a neuron; "neuron helper."
67
What does myelin around the cell do? (Schwann especially)
Helps speed up processes.
68
How many types of motor neurons are there?
3
69
What types of motor neurons are there?
Sensory neurons, then interneurons, then motor neurons.
70
What are dendrites?
receives signals from other neurons, conducts impulses TOWARD the body of a neuron. flow of material
71
What motor neurons make up the CNS?
Interneurons
72
What is saltatory propagation?
An action potential "jumps" from node to node of a myelinated axon, so it looks like it's skipping (fast!).
73
What are the nodes of Ranvier?
Gaps in myelin sheath along the axon, so ions move freely.
74
What is the synaptic cleft?
Gap between adjacent neurons
75
What is action potential?
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
76
What is the trick to getting another neural impulse started?
A neurotransmitter.
77
What is the first step of the scientific method?
Observation/Finding a problem
78
What is the second step of the scientific method?
Background research
79
What is the third step of the scientific method?
Form a hypothesis
80
What is the fourth step of the scientific method?
Prediction
81
What is the fifth step of the scientific method?
Experiment (Test predictions)
82
What is the sixth step of the scientific method?
Draw conclusions
83
What is the seventh step of the scientific method?
Communicate results
84
What is habituation? (type of learning)
A person stops responding to the same stimulus after being exposed over and over again
85
What is an example of habituation?
Becoming used to the feeling of wearing a pair of pants.
86
What is imprinting? (type of learning)
Happens quickly after birth during a sensitive window of a bird's life, the bird imprints on the first thing they see move away from them (usually the mother).
87
What is associate learning? (type of learning)
When a stimulus is associated with a result or response.
88
What is classical conditioning?
A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
89
What is an example of classical conditioning?
Pavlov's dogs salivating at the sound of a bell, because it was continuously fed following the ringing of a bell.
90
What is operant conditioning?
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
91
What is an example of operant conditioning?
Skinner's box; small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled.
92
What is social learning?
Learning by observing the behavior of others, usually in your social group.
93
What is cognitive learning?
acquiring new behaviors and information through observation and information, rather than by direct experience
94
How do we remember all of things in class?
Repitition that leads to long term potentiation.
95
What is hypothesis-driven science?
involves constructing a specific, testable explanation for a phenomenon based on a set of observations.
96
What is a saltatory nerve impulse?
The way a electrical impulse skips from node to node down the full length of an axon - increased speed.
97
What is the outcome (on a test) of a chemical synapse
A sequence
98
What is long term depression?
an actively dependent reduction in the efficacy of neuronal synapses lasting hours or longer following a long patterned stimulus.
99
What does long term potentiation use?
active learning repetition
100
What are electrical synapses?
It is found in certain parts of the brain (smooth muscle) and heart. It is a gap junction consisting of a field of connexion pores where ions flow directly between cells.
101
What is a chemical synapse?
Action potential causes the release of neurotransmitters to a target cell
102
EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential)
Synaptic potential that makes a postsynaptic neuron more likely to generate an action potential
103
What is the goal threshold to get action potential to start?
-50
104
From what area of concentration does action potential diffuse?
From area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
105
What is IPSP (inhibitory postsynaptic potential)?
Pushing as much sodium as possible out of the axon which causes the inside to become more -.
106
Type 1 diabetes vs Type 2 diabetes
type 1- body does not produce enough insulin, requires insulin injections
type 2- cells become less responsive to insulin
107
Exocrine vs Endocrine cells
Exocrine glands secrete sweat, enzymes etc nto an inside Organ or through a duct or whereas Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream without ducts.
108
What is a dendrite?
a short branched extension of a nerve cell, along which impulses received from other cells at synapses are transmitted to the cell body.
109
What is the axon?
passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands
110
What does somatic mean?
the body
111
What are interneurons responsible for?
Integration, or making a decision
112
alpha vs beta cells
alpha: glucagon
beta: insulin
113
glucagon vs insulin
glucagon- increases blood sugar
insulin- decreases blood sugar
113
glucagon vs insulin
glucagon- increases blood sugar
insulin- decreases blood sugar
113
glucagon vs insulin
glucagon- increases blood sugar
insulin- decreases blood sugar
113
glucagon vs insulin
glucagon- increases blood sugar
insulin- decreases blood sugar
113
glucagon vs insulin
glucagon- increases blood sugar
insulin- decreases blood sugar
113
glucagon vs insulin
glucagon- increases blood sugar
insulin- decreases blood sugar
114
What is the process when ions move freely in and out?
action potential.
115
What is observation?
Collect information in a systematic fashion.
