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zoo > prelims > Flashcards

prelims Flashcards

1
Q
  • Study of cells
A

Cytology

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2
Q
  • Study of tissues
A

• Histology

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3
Q
  • Study of structures & parts
A

• Anatomy

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4
Q

-Study of functions of organisms & their parts

A

• Physiology

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5
Q
  • study of the different forms of organisms
A

• Morphology

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6
Q
  • Study of heredity
A

• Genetics

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7
Q
  • Study of the interaction of organisms with their
    environment
A

• Ecology

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8
Q
  • Study of the diversity of organisms (classification
    based on their evolutionary relationships– Taxonomy)
A

• Systematics

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9
Q

– study of insects

A

• Entomology

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10
Q
  • study of amphibians and reptiles
A

• Herpetology

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11
Q
  • study of fishes
A

• Icthyology

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12
Q
  • study of mammals
A

• Mammalogy

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13
Q
  • study of birds
A

• Ornithology

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14
Q
  • study of protozoa
A

• Protozoology

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15
Q

Two approaches are used to understand natural causes for
natural phenomena

A

• Discovery science —uses verifiable observations and
measurements to describe science
• Hypothesis-based science —uses the data from discovery
science to explain science
– This requires proposing and testing of hypotheses

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16
Q

—uses verifiable observations and
measurements to describe science

A

• Discovery science

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17
Q

—uses the data from discovery
science to explain science
– This requires proposing and testing of –

A

• Hypothesis-based science

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18
Q

is a proposed explanation for a set of
observations

A

A hypothesis

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19
Q

is supported by a large and usually growing body
of evidence

A

• A theory

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20
Q

is the genetic (hereditary) material of all cells
– A gene is a discrete unit of –
– The chemical structure of – accounts for its function
– The diversity of life results from differences in – structure
from individual to individual

A

DNA

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21
Q

is a discrete unit of DNA

A

A gene

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22
Q
  • the complex organization of living things (Cells
    as the basic unit of life)
A

• Order

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23
Q

—an ability to maintain an internal
environment consistent with life

A

• Regulation

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24
Q

—consistent growth and
development controlled by DNA

A

• Growth and development

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25
Q

—acquiring energy and
transforming it to a form useful for the organism

A

• Energy processing/Metabolism

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26
Q

—an ability to respond to
environmental stimuli

A

• Responsiveness/ Irritability

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27
Q

—the ability to perpetuate the species

A

• Reproduction

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28
Q

—acquisition of traits that best suit the
organism to its environment (evolutionary adaptation)

A

• Adaptability

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29
Q

animals (depend on other
organisms for food)

A

Heterotrophs

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30
Q

plants (can make their own food)

A

Autotrophs

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31
Q

animals (Can move on their own)

A

Motile

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32
Q

(cannot move on their own)

A

Stationary

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33
Q

 Carbon (C) element as the
backbone (except CO2)
 C usually accompanied with
Hydrogen (H)
 Associated with living
organisms
 Ex. Sugars, DNA, fats,
proteins

A

ORGANIC

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34
Q

 Do not contain C (except
CO2)
 Not associated with living
organisms
 Ex. water, gases, salts, metals,

A

INORGANIC

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35
Q

 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Nucleic Acids

A

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
(Biomolecules/Macromolecules)

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36
Q

are found throughout the cell both as parts of cell structures and as enzymes. The
flagellum is a structure involved in swimming motility.

A

Proteins (brown)

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37
Q

DNA (green) is found in the nucleoid of prokaryotic cells and in the nucleus of eukaryotic
cells. RNA (orange) is found in the cytoplasm (mRNA, tRNA) and in ribosomes (rRNA).

A

(b) Nucleic acids.

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38
Q

are located in the cell wall and occasionally in internal storage granules.

A

(c) Polysaccharides (yellow)

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39
Q

are found in the cytoplasmic membrane, the cell wall, and in storage granules.

A

(d) Lipids (blue)

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40
Q

=C,H,O

A

Carbohydrates

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41
Q
  1. Monosaccharides –1 sugar (building block of CHO)
  2. Disaccharides –2 sugars
  3. Polysaccharides –many sugars
A

Types of Carbohydrates:

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42
Q

–1 sugar (building block of CHO)

A
  1. Monosaccharides
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43
Q

–blood sugar

A

eg. glucose

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44
Q

–fruit sugar

A

fructose

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45
Q

–a sugar found in milk

A

galactose

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46
Q

–2 sugars

A
  1. Disaccharides
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47
Q
  • table sugar ( 1 glucose + 1 fructose)
A

eg. Sucrose

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48
Q

–malt sugar ( 2 glucose)

A

maltose

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49
Q

–milk sugar ( 1 glucose + 1 galactose)

A

lactose

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50
Q

–many sugars

A
  1. Polysaccharides
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51
Q

–storage form of sugars in plants

A

eg. Starch

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52
Q
  • storage form of sugars in animals; in liver & muscles
A

Glycogen

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53
Q
  • in cell wall of plants
A

Cellulose

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54
Q

–in exoskeletons of insects & crustaceans; in cell wall of fungi

A

Chitin

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55
Q

eg. glucose –blood sugar
fructose –fruit sugar
galactose –a sugar found in milk

A
  1. Monosaccharides –1 sugar (building block of CHO)
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56
Q

eg. Sucrose- table sugar ( 1 glucose + 1 fructose)
maltose –malt sugar ( 2 glucose)
lactose –milk sugar ( 1 glucose + 1 galactose)

A
  1. Disaccharides –2 sugars
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57
Q

eg. Starch –storage form of sugars in plants
Glycogen - storage form of sugars in animals; in liver & muscles
Cellulose- in cell wall of plants
Chitin –in exoskeletons of insects & crustaceans; in cell wall of fungi

A
  1. Polysaccharides –many sugars
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58
Q

 Source of energy (E)
 Stores E
 Structural functions

A

Functions of Carbohydrates

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59
Q

= (C, H, less O)

A

Lipids

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60
Q

= heterogenous: no common bldg. block but all are common in terms of physical characteristics:
 eg. Not soluble in water but soluble in non-polar solvents (eg. alcohols, chloroform, ether)

A

lipids Building block

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61
Q
  1. True Fats (Triglycerides) = 3 Fatty acids + 1 glycerol
  2. Phospholipids - 2 fatty acids+ 1 phosphate + 1 glycerol
  3. Sterols - common in containing ring structures
A

Types of lipids:

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62
Q

= 3 Fatty acids + 1 glycerol

A

True Fats (Triglycerides)

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63
Q
  • w/o double bond; solid at room temp
    eg. Animal fats, beeswax, ear wax
A

a) Saturated fats

64
Q
  • w/ double bond; remain liquid at room temp
    eg. Plant/vegetable oils (olive oil, peanut oil, soya oil, corn oil, etc.)
A

b) Unsaturated fats

65
Q
  • 2 fatty acids+ 1 phosphate + 1 glycerol
  • found in cell membrane of all cells (arranged in bilayer)
A
  1. Phospholipids
66
Q
  • common in containing ring structures
    eg. Cholesterol, Vitamins ( water- insoluble vitamins
    such as Vit. E, Vit. K, Vit A), Progesterone (female
    hormone), Testosterone (male hormone)
A
  1. Sterols
67
Q

 Source of energy (E)
 Stores E
 Structural functions
 Building blocks of
hormones, vitamins
 Insulates the body

A

Functions of Lipids

68
Q

= C, H, O, N, some S

A

Proteins

69
Q

: amino acids (a.a)
essential a.a.-not synthesized by the body
non-essential a.a.- synthesized by the body

A

 Proteins Building block

70
Q

–sequence of amino acids (a chain of
polypeptide)
eg. Ala-Lys-Val- Leu-His- Met- Cys

A
  1. Primary structure
71
Q

–interaction between or within
polypeptides
A) α- Helix –eg. keratin
B) β- pleated sheet –eg. fibroin

A
  1. Secondary structure
72
Q

–bending, twisting, coiling of
polypeptides
eg. some antibodies, enzymes

A
  1. Tertiary structure
73
Q

–applies to multimeric
proteins
eg. Hemoglobin in blood
eg. Rubisco (a photosynthetic enzyme in plants
with both tertiary and quaternary
structure)

A
  1. Quaternary structure
74
Q

 Source of energy (E)
 Stores E
 Structural functions
 Act as biological catalysts
(enzymes)
 Protection from diseases
(antibodies)
 Other varied functions depending
on the kind of proteins

A

Functions of Proteins

75
Q

= C, H, O, N, P

A

Nucleic Acids

76
Q

Nucleic Acids Building block:

A

Nucleotides

77
Q

Components of Nucleotide:

A
  1. Phosphate (PO4-)
  2. 5-C sugar
  3. Nitrogenous Bases
78
Q

The two-carbon nitrogen ring bases (adenine and guanine) are

A

purines,

79
Q

the one-carbon nitrogen ring bases (thymine and cytosine) are

A

pyrimidines.

80
Q

 Double stranded helix
 A, T, C, G as N-bases
 genetic material (organism’s
blueprint)

A

DNA

81
Q

 Single stranded
 A, U, C, G as N-bases
 needed for making proteins

A

RNA

82
Q
  • a high energy
    carrier
A
  1. Adenosine TriPhosphate (ATP)
83
Q

– transfer energy
eg. Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD), Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide
(FAD)

A
  1. Co-enzymes
84
Q

 Informational macromolecules-
DNA –genetic material
(organism’s blueprint)
RNA –needed for making
proteins
 Carry energy (ATP)
 Transfer energy (Co-enzymes)

A

Functions of Nucleic Acids

85
Q
  1. Water
  2. Gases
  3. Inorganic Salts
  4. Acids, Bases, Buffers
A

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

86
Q

 70-90% by wt.
 Universal solvent
 Needed for metabolic
processes
 Replaces body f luids
 Regulates body temperature

A
  1. Water
87
Q
  1. High boiling point
  2. High heat capacity
  3. High heat of vaporization
  4. High surface tension
A
  1. Water Characteristics:
88
Q

 Oxygen (O2) –for maintenance of life (respiration)
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) –for manufacturing of food (photosynthesis)
 Nitrogen gas (N2) - ???

A
  1. Gases
89
Q

–for maintenance of life (respiration)

A

 Oxygen (O2)

90
Q

–for manufacturing of food (photosynthesis)

A

 Carbon dioxide (CO2)

91
Q

–needed by the
body in small amounts (Trace Minerals/ Micronutrients)
Examples:
NaCl (table salt)
Calcium carbonate
Ferrous sulphate
MnSO4
ZnSO4

A
  1. Inorganic Salts
92
Q

–high H+
pH: 1-6
sour taste
litmus: blue to red
eg. Hydrochloric acid (inorganic) –in stomach
citric acid in citrus fruits, acetic acid in vinegar –organic acids

A

 Acids

93
Q

–high OH-
pH: 8-14
bitter taste
litmus: blue to blue
eg. Soap, baking soda, NaOH

A

 Bases

94
Q

–a substance or combination of substances that resist change in pH when an acid or a base is added
Eg. Carbonate (H2CO3) –Bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) == found in blood and tissue f luids

A

 Buffers

95
Q

All organisms are composed of cells
 Cell is the smallest functional unit of life
 Cells arise from pre-existing cells
 The characteristics of an organism
depend on each individual cells
 Continuity of characteristics is
maintained through the genetic
material
 Energy flow occurs within cells

A

Modern Cell Theory

96
Q

“false” nucleus
Naked DNA
No organelles

A

PROKARYOTE

97
Q

“true” nucleus
Membrane-bound nucleus
Membrane-bound organelless

A

eukaryote

98
Q

 Ave 1-2 um in dia.
 No nucleus
 Without membrane bound organelles
 Circular, Naked DNA (nucleiod)
 unicellular
 Divides by fission
 Cytoskeletons absent
 Not capable of endocytosis & exocytosis
 70S ribosomes
 Eg. bacteria, cyanobacteria (BGA), mycoplasmas

A

Prokaryotic

99
Q

 >10-100 um
 With nucleus
 With membrane bound organelles
 DNA packed in chromosomes
 Unicellular/multicellular
 Divides by mitosis & meiosis
 w/ cytoskeleton
 Capable of endocytosis &
exocytosis
 80S ribosomes
 Eg. plants, animals, fungi, algae,
protozoans

A

Eukaryotic

100
Q

• Also called cell/cytoplasmic
membrane
• Fluid (as described by the Fluid
Mosaic Model)
Functions:
1) Regulate the transport of
molecules in & out of the
cell
2) Site of enzyme specific
activity

A

PLASMA MEMBRANE

101
Q

 For tissue organization
 For cell adhesion & cell to cell recognition

A

CELL COAT

102
Q

 Thick fluid
 80% water — containing
amino acids, lipids,
carbohydrates, ions, and
enzymes
 Site of many chemical
reactions
 Suspends organelles & other
substances

A

CYTOPLASM

103
Q

 “control center” bec. it
coordinates all the cell’s activities,
which include growth,
intermediary metabolism, protein
synthesis, and reproduction (cell
division).
 it stores the cell’s hereditary
material, or DNA

A

NUCLEUS

104
Q

– where ribosomes are
produced

A

 Nucleolus

105
Q

– threadlike
structures inside the nucleus that
carries the genetic material
(where DNA is packed)

A

 Chromosomes

106
Q

 processes, and transports a
wide variety of biochemical
compounds for use inside
and outside of the cell

A

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

107
Q
  • contains ribosomes
  • site of protein synthesis
A

 Rough ER

108
Q
  • w/o ribosomes
  • for production of lipids &
    hormones
A

 Smooth ER

109
Q

 On the cytoplasm as free ribosomes
and in rough ER
 Synthesize proteins
 Produced in the nucleolus

A

RIBOSOMES

110
Q

 also called Golgi body or
Golgi complex
 found in both plant and
animal cells
 composed of membrane-
covered sacs called cisternae
 the packaging and
shipping/distribution
department for the cell’s
chemical products.

A

GOLGI APPARATUS

111
Q

 double-membraned
 site of ATP synthesis via
Cellular Respiration
 power generator of the
cell, converting oxygen
and nutrients into
adenosine triphosphate
(ATP)

A

MITOCHONDRION

112
Q

 gives shape to the cell;
protoplasmic streaming & bldg
blocks of cilia, centriole (direct the
cell during cell division), basal
bodies & flagella (locomotory
structure)

A

MICROTUBULES

113
Q

 for strength when exposed to
mechanical stress; muscle
contraction

A

MICROFILAMENTS

114
Q

 maintain cell shape; suspend &
organize organelles; interconnect
cytoskeletal elements & organize
enzymes attached to them

A

INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS

115
Q
  • “garbage system”of the cell
  • Contain hydrolytic enzymes for
    digestion of biomolecules;
    protect cell from foreign
    materials; digest subcellular
    parts as immediate fuel during
    cell starvation (“suicidal bag”)
A

Lysosomes

116
Q

Peroxisomes - contain enzymes
for oxidation of substances
Glyoxisomes –contain enzymes
for conversion of fats to
carbohydrates

A

 Microbodies

117
Q
  • contain enzymes
    for oxidation of substances
A

Peroxisomes

118
Q

–contain enzymes
for conversion of fats to
carbohydrates

A

Glyoxisomes

119
Q

 A newly discovered organelle ( 1990’s)
 Cytoplasmic ribonucleoproteins shaped like octagonal
barrels (as the shape of nuclear pore)
 Thousands in a cell
 Cellular “trucks” – dock at nuclear pores, pick up
molecules synthesized in the nucleus & deliver to
various places in the cell (eg. mRNA to ribosomes for
protein synthesis)

A

VAULTS

120
Q

Membranes are composed of

A

phospholipids and proteins

121
Q

 Membranes are commonly
described as a —
 This means that the surface
appears mosaic because of
the proteins embedded in the
phospholipids and fluid
because the proteins can drift
about in the phospholipids

A

fluid mosaic

122
Q

Many membrane proteins function as either of the following:

A

 Enzymes
 signal transduction
 Transport

123
Q

Because membranes allow some substances to cross or be transported more easily than others, they exhibit —-
 Nonpolar molecules (carbon dioxide and oxygen) cross easily
 Polar molecules (glucose and other sugars) do not cross easily

A

selective permeability

124
Q
  • movement of substances from higher to lower concentration
    without the expenditure of energy
    Example: diffusion of gases in & out of a) blood cell b) plant cell
A

Simple diffusion

125
Q

 movement of substances across the membrane from higher to lower concentration without the expenditure of energy
 random movement of molecules
 driven by the Law of Entropy (tendency to move from orderliness to a less ordered state)

A

Passive Transport

126
Q

— is a process in which particles spread out evenly in
an available space
 Particles move from an area of more concentrated
particles to an area where they are less concentrated
 This means that particles diffuse down their concentration
gradient
 Eventually, the particles reach equilibrium where the
concentration of particles is the same throughout

A

Diffusion

127
Q

 Particles move from an area of more concentrated
particles to an area where they are less concentrated
 This means that particles diffuse down their —-

A

concentration
gradient

128
Q
  • movement of substances from higher to lower concentration
    without the expenditure of energy & with the aid of transport
    proteins (TP)
    Example: glucose transport
A

Facilitated diffusion

129
Q

— movement of water molecules from higher to lower
concentration without the expenditure of energy
 Tonicity is a term that describes the ability of a solution to
cause a cell to gain or lose water
– Tonicity is dependent on the concentration of a
nonpenetrating solute on both sides of the membrane
1. hypertonic - high solute concentration, low water
concentration
2. hypotonic - low solute concentration, high water
concentration
3. isotonic - solute concentration= water concentration

A

Osmosis

130
Q

–is a term that describes the ability of a solution to
cause a cell to gain or lose water
–– is dependent on the concentration of a
nonpenetrating solute on both sides of the membrane
1. hypertonic - high solute concentration, low water
concentration
2. hypotonic - low solute concentration, high water
concentration
3. isotonic - solute concentration= water concentration

A

 Tonicity

131
Q
  • high solute concentration, low water
    concentration
A
  1. hypertonic
132
Q
  • low solute concentration, high water
    concentration
A
  1. hypotonic
133
Q
  • solute concentration= water concentration
A
  1. isotonic
134
Q

 movement of substances across the membrane
against a concentration gradient (from lower to
higher concentration) using energy and with the
aid of transport proteins
Example:
Ca+ – pumped by active transporter across
muscle cell membrane
Na+, H+ = enters the cell by diffusion but
pumped out from the cell by active transport

A

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

135
Q

 Movement of large substances across the membrane by forming vesicles that fuse with the membrane

A

BULK TRANSPORT

136
Q

–is used to import substances useful to the livelihood of the cell
Types:
1. Phagocytosis – “cell-eating” (engulfment)
eg. WBC’s engulf bacteria, amoebas engulf microorganisms
2. Pinocytosis – “cell-drinking”
eg. Kidney cells take up water to maintain fluid balance
3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis – requires the aid of a receptor protein to take up substances
eg. intestinal cells take up large molecules from the inside of gut

A

Endocytosis

137
Q

– “cell-eating” (engulfment)
eg. WBC’s engulf bacteria, amoebas engulf microorganisms

A
  1. Phagocytosis
138
Q

– “cell-drinking”
eg. Kidney cells take up water to maintain fluid balance

A
  1. Pinocytosis
139
Q

– requires the aid of a receptor protein to take up substances
eg. intestinal cells take up large molecules from the inside of gut

A
  1. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
140
Q
  • is used to export bulky molecules, such as proteins or polysaccharides
    eg. Sciatic nerve releases acetylcholine (a neurotransmitter) to initiate muscle contraction
A

Exocytosis

141
Q
  • the sequence of events in a eukaryotic cell between
    one cell division & the next.
A

THE CELL CYCLE

142
Q

(“Resting Stage”)
Gap 1 (G1) phase= growth phase 1
Synthesis (S)-phase = most critical stage
Gap 2 (G2) phase= growth phase 2

A

I.Interphase

143
Q

(M-phase)/Nuclear Division
- immediately followed by
cytoplasmic division

A

II.Mitosis

144
Q

– production of a cell into 2 cells of equal amount of DNA
as the parent cell
- involves mostly somatic cells (body cells)
- produces 2 identical diploid (2n) cells

A

Mitosis

145
Q
  • reductional cell division
  • involves gametes or sex cells in animals (gametic meiosis) or
    spores in plants & fungi (sporic meiosis)
  • produces 4 unidentical haploid (n) cells
A
  1. Meiosis
146
Q

(Karyokinesis)= Mitosis
- follows the Interphase (G1, S-phase, G2)

A

I. Nuclear Division

147
Q

( Cytokinesis)
- Immediately follows nuclear division
- it is followed by cell growth

A

II. Cytoplasmic Division

148
Q

 Nuclear membrane intact
 DNA synthesis ( chromosomes are duplicating)
 Growth (Gap) phase
 Chromatin – highly
dispersed state of DNA

A

Interphase

149
Q

– highly
dispersed state of DNA

A

 Chromatin

150
Q
  • Nuclear membrane disintegrating
  • Thickening, coiling &
    condensation of duplicated
    chromosomes
  • Formation of centriole (in animals)
    & spindle fibers (plants & animals)
A

Prophase

151
Q
  • produces spindle fibers forming astral rays
A

Centriole

152
Q

direct the chromosomes during cell division

A

Spindle fibers-

153
Q
  • Nuclear membrane
    disintegrated
  • Chromosomes align at the
    center of the cell
  • Spindle poles at opposite
    ends
A

Metaphase

154
Q
  • Nuclear membrane still
    disintegrated
  • Sister chromatids separate
    & move at opposite poles
  • Cytoplasmic division is
    underway
  • Formation of cleavage
    furrow in animal cell
    & primary cell wall in plant
    cell
A

Anaphase

155
Q
  • Nuclear membrane re-forms
  • Chromosomes de-condense
    characteristic of interphase
A

Telophase

156
Q
  • fusion of an egg cell & sperm cell
    to form a diploid zygote
    egg cell + sperm cell ==== zygote
    (1n) (1n) (2n)
A

Fertilization

157
Q

 Maintain constant number of
chromosomes from one generation to
another
 Produces variable genes that increases
chance of survival

A

advantages of meiosis

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