Prelim Flashcards
FERTILIZATION
process by which sperm and ovum – the male and female
gametes, or sex cells – combine to create
a single cell called a zygote.
zygote
combine to create
a single cell called
Dizygotic Twins
Fraternal twins
• the result of two separate eggs being
fertilized by two different sperm to form
two unique individuals.
• Tend to run in families and are the result of
multiple eggs being released at one time.
Monozygotic Twins
Identical Twins
• Result from the cleaving of one fertilized
egg and are generally, identical.
• They can still differ outwardly.
Mitosis
• Process by which the non-sex cells divide
in half over and over again.
• The DNA replicates itself, so that each
newly formed cells has the same DNA
structures as all the others
Mutation
Permanent alterations in genes or
chromosomes that may produce harmful
characteristics.
SEX CHROMOSOMES
23rd pair of
chromosome; one from the father and one
from the mother.
– Are either X or Y chromosomes
– X – Female
– Y - Male
ALLELES
Genes that can produce
alternative expressions of a characteristic.
– Two or more alternative forms of a gene that
occupy the same position on paired
chromosomes and affect the same trait.
HOMOZYGOUS
possessing two
identical alleles for a trait
HETEROZYGOUS
possessing differing alleles for a trait.
Dominant Inheritance
Pattern of inheritance in which, when a child receives different alleles, only the dominant one is expressed
Recessive Inheritance
Pattern of inheritance in which a child receives identical recessive alleles, resulting in expression of a
nondominant trait.
Polygenic Inheritance
Pattern of inheritance in which multiple genes at different sites on chromosomes affect a complex trait.
ALPHA1 ANTITRYPSIN
DEFICIENCY
• Enzyme deficiency that can lead to
cirrhosis of the liver in early infancy and
emphysema and degenerative lung
disease in middle age.
Alpha thalassemia
Severe anemia that reduces ability of the
blood to carry oxygen; nearly all affected
infants are stillborn or die soon after birth
Beta thalassemia (Cooley’s
Anemia)
• Severe anemia resulting in weakness,
fatigue, and frequent illness; usually fatal
in adolescence or young adulthood.
Cystic Fibrosis
• Overproduction of mucus, which collects in
the lung and digestive tract; children do
not grow normally and usually do not live
beyond age 30; the most common inherited lethal defect among white people.
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
• Fatal disease usually found in males,
marked by muscle weakness; minor
retardation is common; respiratory failure
and death usually occur in young
adulthood.
Hemophilia
• Excessive bleeding, usually affecting
males; in its most severe form, can lead to
crippling arthritis in adulthood
Anencephaly
• Absence of brain tissues; infants are
stillborn or die soon after birth
Spina Bifida
• Incompletely closed spinal canal, resulting
in muscle weakness or paralysis and loss
of bladder and bowel control; often
accompanied by hydrocephalus, an
accumulation of spinal fluid in the brain,
which can lead to mental retardation.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
• Rare genetic condition that causes an
amino acid called phenylalanine to build
up in the body.
• Metabolic disorder resulting in mental
retardation
Polycystic Kidney Disease
• Infantile form: enlarged kidneys, leading to
respiratory problems and congestive heart
failure
• Adult form: kidney pain, kidney stones,
and hypertension resulting in chronic
kidney failure.
Sickle-cell Anemia
• Deformed, fragile red blood cells that can
clog the blood vessels, depriving the body
of oxygen; symptoms include severe pain,
stunted growth, frequent infections, leg
ulcers, gallstones, susceptibility to
pneumonia, and stroke
Tay-Sachs Disease
• Degenerative disease of the brain and
nerve cells, resulting in death before age 5.
DOWN SYNDROME
• Most common chromosomal abnormality
• Accounts for about 40% of all cases of
moderate-to-severe mental retardation
• Also called as TRISOMY 21 because it is
characterized in more than 90% of cases by
an extra 21st chromosome.
• 1 in 700 babies
• The brains of children appear nearly normal at birth but shrink in volume by young adulthood, particularly in
the hippocampal area and prefrontal cortex,
resulting in cognitive dysfunction.
Labor
apt term for the process of giving birth.
• What brings on labor is a series of uterine, cervical, and other changes called parturition. Parturition is the act or process of giving birth, and it typically begins about 2 weeks before delivery, when sharply rising estrogen levels stimulate the uterus to contract and the cervix to become more flexible
vaginal delivery
The usual method of childbirth
cesarean delivery
-can be used to surgically remove the baby from the uterus through an incision in the mother’s abdomen.
• The operation is commonly performed when labor
progresses too slow, when the fetus seems to be in trouble,
or when the mother is blessing vaginally.
-carry risks of serious complications
for the mother, such as bleeding, infection, damage to
pelvic organs, and postoperative pain, and heighten risks of problems in future pregnancies.
Natural/Prepared childbirth
method of childbirth that seeks to prevent pain by eliminating the mother’s fear through education about the physiology of reproduction and training in breathing and relaxation during delivery.
Neonatal period:
first four weeks of life, a time of transition from intrauterine dependency to independent existence.
- The place on the head where the bones of a neonate have not
yet grown together – the fontanels, or soft spots – are covered by a tough membrane.
- Almost all new babies are covered with vernix caseosa (“cheesy varnish”), an oil protection against infection that dries within the first few days.
Kangaroo care
method of skin-to-skin contact in which a newborn is laid face down between the mother’s breasts for an hour or so at a time after birth
Cephalocaudal principle
principle that development proceeds in a head-to-tail direction, that
is, that upper parts of the body develop before lower parts of the trunk.
Proximodistal principle
principle that development proceeds from within to without, that is, that parts of
the body near the center develop before the extremities.
EARLY SENSORY CAPACITIES OF INFANTS
•Touch and Pain
•Smell and Taste
•Hearing
•Sight
Denver developmental screening test
screening test given to children 1 month to 6 years old to determine whether they are
developing normally.
Gross motor skills
Physical skills that involve the large muscles.
Fine motor skills
Physical skills that involve the small muscles
and eye-hand coordination
Visual guidance
use of the eyes to guide movements of the
hands or other parts of the body.
Depth perception
Ability to perceive objects and surfaces three-dimensionally
Haptic perception
Ability to acquire information about properties of objects, such as size, weight and texture, by handling them.
Ecological theory of perception
Theory, which describes developing motor and perceptual abilities as interdependent parts of a functional system that guides behavior in varying contexts.
prelinguistic speech
sounds that progress from crying to cooing and babbling, then to accidental imitation, and then deliberate imitation.
First word and first sentence
Babies typically say their first word around the end of the 1st year, and toddlers begin speaking in sentence about 8 months to a year later.
Holophrase
A word like this, In which an entire sentence is expressed with one word
First words of a baby
The average baby says a first word sometime between 10 and 14 months.
First sentences of a baby
children do this between 18 to 24 months.
Telegraphic speech
a speech consisting of only few essential words.
Child – Directed Speech (CDS)
when you talk to an infant or toddler, you speech slowly in sing-song, high-pitched voice with exaggerated ups and downs, simplify your speech, exaggerate vowel sounds, and use short words and sentences and much repitition, you are engaging in CDS,
FIRST SIGNS OF EMOTION
-CRYING
- Most powerful way infants
can communicate
-SMILING & LAUGHING -
These involuntary smiles occur spontaneously soon after birth, apparently as a result of subcortical nervous system activity.
-Social Smiling
- Signals the infant’s active, positive participation in the relationship
-Anticipatory Smiling - Infants smile at an
object and then gaze at an adult while continuing to smile
When do emotions appear?
FIRST 6 MONTHS
•
Contentment -> Joy ,
Interest -> Surprise , Distress -> Sadness, disgust ->
Anger, Fear
From 15 to 24
months
•Embarassment ,Envy , Empathy
From 2 ½ to 3 Years
•Embarassment
, Pride , Shame , Guilt
Elements in developing trust
- Sensitive
- Responsive
- Consistent Caregiving
PATTERNS OF ATTACHMENT (4)
SECURE ATTACHMENT
- infant cries or protests when the primary caregiver leaves and actively seeks out the caregiver in his/her return
AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT
AMBIVALENT (RESISTANT) ATTACHMENT
- infant becomes anxious before the primary caregiver leaves,
is extremely upset during his/her absence, and both seeks and resist contact on his/her
return
DISORGANIZEDDISORIENTED ATATCHMENT -
an infant, after separation from the primary caregiver, shows contradictory, repititious, or misdirected behaviors on his/her return
SITUATIONAL
COMPLIANCE
Obedience of a parent’s orders
only in the presence of signs of
ongoing parental control
COMMITED COMPLIANCE
Wholehearted obedience of a parent’s orders
WITHOUT reminders or lapses
RECEPTIVE COMPLIANCE
Eager willingness to cooperate harmoniously with a parent in daily interactions, including
routines, chores, hygiene, and play
PHYSICAL ABUSE
Injury to the body through punching, beating, kicking, or burning
SEXUAL ABUSE
Any sexual activity involving a child and an older person
NEGLECT
Failure to meet a child’s basic needs, such as
food, clothing, medical care, protection, and
supervision
EMOTIONAL MALTREATMENT
Including rejection, terrorization, isolation,
exploitation, degradation, ridicule, or failure to provide emotional support, love, and
affection
SHAKEN BABY SYNDROME
form of maltreatment in which shaking an infant or toddler can cause brain damage, paralysis, or death
Bodily Growth and Change
• As abdominal muscle develop, the
toddler potbelly tightens
• The trunk, arms and legs grow longer
• The head is still relatively large but the
other part of the body continue to catch
up as the body proportions steadily
become more adult-like.
• Muscular and skeletal growth progresses,
making children stronger
• Cartilage turns to bone at a faster rate
than before. Bones become harder giving
the child a firmer shape and protecting
the internal organ.
Bodily Growth and Change
• As abdominal muscle develop, the
toddler potbelly tightens
• The trunk, arms and legs grow longer
• The head is still relatively large but the
other part of the body continue to catch
up as the body proportions steadily
become more adult-like.
• Muscular and skeletal growth progresses,
making children stronger
• Cartilage turns to bone at a faster rate
than before. Bones become harder giving
the child a firmer shape and protecting
the internal organ.
Bodily Growth and Change
• As abdominal muscle develop, the
toddler potbelly tightens
• The trunk, arms and legs grow longer
• The head is still relatively large but the
other part of the body continue to catch
up as the body proportions steadily
become more adult-like.
• Muscular and skeletal growth progresses,
making children stronger
• Cartilage turns to bone at a faster rate
than before. Bones become harder giving
the child a firmer shape and protecting
the internal organ.
SLEEP PATTERNS AND PROBLEMS
• Sleep patterns change throughout the
growing up years and early childhood has it’s
own distinct rhythm.
• Sleep disturbances may be caused by
accidental activation of the brain’s motor
control system or by an incomplete arousal
from a deep sleep or may be triggered by
disordered breathing or restless leg
movement.
• These disturbances tend to run in the
families and are often associated with
separation anxiety.
ENURESIS
Repeated involuntary urination at
night by children
• Children need to be reassured that enuresis is common and not serious. The child is not to blame and should not be punished
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
The brain is approximately 90% of adult
weight
• From ages 3 to 6, the most rapid brain
growth happens in the frontal area that
regulates planning and goal setting.
• At age 4, myelination of pathways for
hearing is completed
• At age 6, the brain has attained 95% of it’s
peak volume
Sleep (or night) terror
appears to awaken abruptly early in the night
from a deep sleep in a state of agitation.
• The child may scream and sit up in bed,
breathing rapidly and staring or thrashing
about. Yet he/she is not really awake, quiets
down quickly, and the next morning
remembers nothing about the episode.
• They occur mostly between ages 3 and 13;
affects boys more often than girls.
NIGHTMARES
Often brought on by staying up too
late, eating a heavy meal close to
bedtime, or overexcitement, perhaps
seeing a terrifying movie, or hearing
a frightening bedtime story
• Occasional bad dream is no cause for
alarm, but frequent or persistent
nightmares may signal excessive
stress.
HANDEDNESS
Refers to the preference for using one hand over the other is evident by about age three
TREATING OBESITY
A key to preventing obesity may be to make sure children are served appropriate portion.
• Getting adequate amount of sleep
• Watching less than 2 hours of
television a day
• Engage children in physical activities rather than hours in front of the television
SYMBOLIC FUNCTION
being able to think about something in the absence of sensory or motor cues
• Ability to use symbols such as
words, images, and gestures to
represent objects and events
•Between ages 2 and 4
DEFERRED IMITATION
children imitate an action at some point after having observed it
PRETEND PLAY
A child must pull a representation out of
memory in order to repear it
MONTESSORI METHOD
•Children’s natural intelligence involves
rational, spiritual, and empirical aspects
•
Children working independently at their own
pace
SELF
CONCEPT
•
total picture of our abilities and traits
•
“cognitive construction” that
determines how we feel about
ourselves and guides our actions
•
COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIONsystem of descriptive and evaluative representations about the self.
SELF ESTEEM
self evaluative part of the self-concept, the judgment
children make about their overall worth. Self-esteem,
in part, is based on children’s growing cognitive ability to describe and define themselves
GENDER
IDENTITY
awareness of one’s femaleness or
maleness and all it implies in one’s society
of origin, is an important aspect of the developing self-concept
GENDER IDENTITY
Awareness of one’s femaleness or
maleness and all it implies in one’s society
of origin, is an important aspect of the developing self-concept
GENDER
DIFFERENCES
psychological or behavioral differences between males and females.
GENDER ROLES
• behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills, and
personality traits that a culture considers
appropriate for males and females.
• All societies have gender roles
GENDER STEREOTYPES
•preconceived generalizations about
male or female behavior: “All females are passive
and dependent; all males are aggressive and
independent.”
• Gender stereotypes
pervade many cultures
FUNCTIONAL PLAY
(simplest level) –
play involving
repetitive large muscular movements
CONSTRUCTIVE
PLAY
(second level/object play) –play involving use of objects or materials to make something
DRAMATIC PLAY
(3rd level/pretend play/fantasy play/imaginative play)
play involving imaginary people or situations
DRAMATIC PLAY
(3rd level/pretend play/fantasy play/imaginative play)
play involving imaginary people or situations
GENDER SEGREGATION
•
tendency to select playmates of
one’s own gender.
•
Boys’ tendency to be more
active and physically aggressive as compared to
girls’ more nurturing play styles are likely contributors to gender segregation. Boys play spontaneously on sidewalks, streets, or empty lots; girls tend
to choose more structured, adult-supervised activities
DISCIPLINE
refers to methods of molding character and of teaching selfcontrol and acceptable behavior
FORMS OF DISCIPLINE
Inductive
techniques
- designed to induce
desirable behavior by appealing to a child’s
sense of reason and fairness
Power assertion -
designed to discourage
undesirable behavior through physical or
verbal enforcement of parental control
Withdrawal of love -
involves ignoring,
isolating, or
showing dislike a child
PARENTING STYLES
Authoritarian parenting
- emphasizes control
and obedience
Permissive parenting
- emphasizes selfexpression and selfregulation
Authoritative parenting -
blending respect for a
child’s individuality
with an effort to instill social values
PARENTING STYLES
Authoritarian parenting
- emphasizes control
and obedience
Permissive parenting
- emphasizes selfexpression and selfregulation
Authoritative parenting -
blending respect for a
child’s individuality
with an effort to instill social values
