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BIO 1440 > PRE-LIM3 > Flashcards

PRE-LIM3 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Symbiosis?

A

interaction and possible cp evolution with microbes and organisms

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2
Q

What are the 3 modalities of interaction for symbiotic organisms?

A

Mutualism, Commensalism and Parasitism

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3
Q

Mutualism

A

has benefits for both species. Ex: flower and a bee

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4
Q

Commensalism

A

has benefits top one species and is neutral for the other. EX: barnacles on whales

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5
Q

Parasitism

A

has benefits for one species and costs for the other. EX: a Tick on a dog

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6
Q

2 main categories of symbiotic microorganisms

A

Endosymaints and Microbita

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7
Q

Endosymbionts

A

microbes that reside within the body or cell of an organism. They cannot really live in an outside environment

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8
Q

2 Examples of Endosymbionts

A

Endophytic rhizobia - in root nodules
Wolbachia - is a reproductive parasite of insects and nematodes

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9
Q

Endosymbiosis Theory

A

2 microbes engaging in symbiosis lead to eukaryotic cells

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10
Q

Symbiogenesis

A

Mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from certain bacteria engulfed by primitive prokaryotic cells

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11
Q

Microbiota

A

the ecological community of microorganisms associated with a host. EX: Skin Microbiota

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12
Q

Gut Microbiota

A

is not endosymbiotic because the gut lumen is outside the body and the community is tightly associated

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13
Q

What type of relationship do plants and soil have?

A

Mutualistic Relationship

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14
Q

Most interactions with bacteria and fungi in plants and soil occur where?

A

Rhizosphere

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15
Q

Rhizosphere

A

the surroundings of the root sytem

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16
Q

2 Types of bacteria are found in the rhizosphere

A

Rizobacteria- occupies the rhizosphere and stay on the surface of the root
Rhizobacteria- are endophytic and live between the cells of the host plant tissues and form root nodules

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17
Q

Complex Community

A

composed of many fungi and bacteria and shapes host physiology

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18
Q

Rhizobacteria depend on what?

A

nutrients secreted by plant cells

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19
Q

How do rhizobacteria help enhance the growth of plants?

A

Produce chemicals that stimulate growth
Producing antibiotics that protect roots from disease
Absorbing toxic metals or increasing nutrient availability

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20
Q

Some bacterias are

A

pathogenic

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21
Q

Plants can absorb nitrogen as

A

NO3- or NH4+

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22
Q

Most nitrogen available from plants comes from

A

actions of soil bacteria that generate NO3- or NH4+

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23
Q

Nitrogen cycle

A

transforms nitrogen and nitrogen-containing compounds into NH4+ and NO3- that can be taken up at the root

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24
Q

Explain in detail the nitrogen cycle

A
  1. nitrogen-fixing bacteria generate H$+ from N2. Along with ammonifying bacteria that also generate NH4+
  2. nitrifying bacteria generates NO3- from H4+
  3. Denitrying bacteria that generates N2 from NO3-
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25
Q

Ammonifying bacteria

A

proteins from dead organic molecules that decomposes to amino acids that become the bacteria

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26
Q

Rhizobia

A

are endosymbionts of legumes

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27
Q

Nodules

A

along a legume’s roots, composed of plant cells “colonized’ NY nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium

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28
Q

Rhizobium

A

obtains sugar and an anaerobic environment for bacteria growth

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29
Q

What does the development of nitrogen-fixing root nodules depend on?

A

Chemical dialogue between root cells,flavonoids, and Rhizobia,nod factors,

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30
Q

Flavonoids

A

triggers nod factors production

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31
Q

Nod factors

A

alter root cell activity

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32
Q

Describe the cycle of root nodules

A
  1. Rhizobia attach to root hair
  2. an infection thread is formed through which bacteria enter root cells
  3. Bacteria change into bacteroids: packed root cells enlarge
  4. Enlarged root cells form a nodule
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33
Q

Your body has more of what cells

A

microbial cells

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34
Q

Microbes include what species

A

bacteria, archaea, eukarya (fungi & yeasts)

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35
Q

Next generation sequencing

A

directly sequencing DNA without culturing

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36
Q

Metagenomics

A

sequence-based analysis of the genome of entire microbial communities does not require culturing

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37
Q

Most of the microbiota is where

A

GI tract, 70 % in colon

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38
Q

2 types of microbiota in the GI tract

A

firmicutes and Bacteroidetes, very selective in the gut

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39
Q

Gut Microbiota is central to

A

intestinal homeostasis and physiology

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40
Q

Keys function of the gut microbiota

A

Immunity, metabolic rate, and chemical modulator

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41
Q

immunity

A
  • prevents colonization by pathogens
  • educates the immune system (gut skin, lung) without it won’t develop properly
  • stabilizes gut barrier function (decreased leakage) gut epithelium is scaled
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42
Q

Metabolic role

A
  • Caloric salvage
  • produces short chain fatty acids
  • produces vitamin K and folate
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43
Q

Chemical modulator

A
  • participates in drug metabolism (activation or catabolism)
  • deconjugates bile acids
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44
Q

Gut microbiota influences

A

digestion and behavior

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45
Q

Gut-Brain Axis

A

the gut is the 2nd most neuron-rich group, talks with the brain: Systemic Communications and Neural communication

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46
Q

Mircrobta is affected by our experienced

A

Hormonal axis- influences gut microbes
Innervation- directly influences physiology neurons

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47
Q

Microbes send chemical signals

A

Neurotransmitters and SCFAs- all located in the gut and affect memory emotions and behavior

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48
Q

perturbation

A

diseases, allegories metabolic, obesity, and infections

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49
Q

Where does gut microbiota come from?

A

During passage through the birth canal. It is influenced by the mother and can be altered by the environment.

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50
Q

Effect of Maternal Exposures

A

Antiepis, Antibiotics, Diet, Genetics/Epigenetics and C Section

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51
Q

Bacterial abundance

A

is reached around 1 years is maintained, while the composition continues to vary

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52
Q

What factors shape the Gut?

A

host genetics, stress, diet, pollution, psychological status, microbial exposures, pharmaceuticals

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53
Q

Dysbiosis

A

microbial imbalance in the body

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54
Q

Nutrition

A

a set process by which organisms obtain and use the nutrients required for maintaining life

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55
Q

2 strategies of nutrition

A

Autotrophs & heterotrophs

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56
Q

Autotrophs

A
  • Nutrition consists in acquiring non-organic compounds
  • DO NOT REQUIRE A SOURCE OF ORGANIC CARBON
    -Primary producers, build their organic molecules
  • Depends on other organisms for nutrients other than carbon
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57
Q

Heterotrophs

A
  • NUTRIENTS REQUIRE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AS PART OF THE DIET
  • requires autotrophs to feed on
  • ^^to obtain: organic molecules including sources of carbon, nitrogen, etc
    -^^ most heterotrophs require this source of carbon for energy
  • to obtain vitamins
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58
Q

Photoautotroph

A

doesn’t obtain carbon elsewhere and gets energy from light

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59
Q

Photoheterotroph

A

obtains carbon from elsewhere and gets energy from light
Ex: microbes

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60
Q

Chemoautotroph

A

Doesn’t obtain carbon from elsewhere and gets energy from inorganic oxidation
Ex: Archae/Bacteria

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61
Q

Chemoheterotroph

A

obtains carbon elsewhere and energy from inorganic oxidation
EX: Microbes, E coli

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62
Q

Ogranotroph

A

Obtains carbon elsewhere and doesn’t get energy from inorganic oxidation.
Its a HETEROTROPH
Ex: Bacteria, Fungi, Animals

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63
Q

Autotrophic diet

A

Does not mean autonomous
Requires essential chemical elements + energy

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64
Q

Heterotrophic diet

A
  • Often requires chemical energy
  • Organic building blocks for macromolecules
  • Essential nutrients
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65
Q

Plant Nutrition

A
  • Acquire their nutrients from soil and air
  • Roots absorb water minerals and some O2 from the soil
  • Leave absorb CO2
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66
Q

Root Hairs

A

take up dissolved oxygen, ions, and water from the film of soil water that surrounds them

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67
Q

Cation exchange

A

a positive ion is exchanged to the soil particle & releases the Ca2+ or Mg2+ needed because Ca2+ and Mg2+ are stuck to the soil because of the negatively charged soil
- KEY FOR PLANT NUTRITION

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68
Q

Describe Cation Exchange

A
  1. roots acidify the soil solution
  2. CO2 reacts with H20
  3. Minerals Cations are released
  4. Roots absorb released cations
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69
Q

How do organisms/organs MAXIMIZE the surface/ volume ratio?

A

Minimum of tissue with Maximum the surface of contact to the environment to get nutrients —- FRACTAL STRUCTURES

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70
Q

Does root hairs greatly increase a roots absorptive surface

A

YES

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71
Q

Mycorrhizae

A

symbiotic relationships with fungal thread increase plant’s absorption

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72
Q

Digestion includes

A

nutrient breakdown and absorption

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73
Q

Intracellular Digestion

A

Phagocytosis: good for small organisms

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74
Q

Extracellular digestion

A

is the breakdown of food particles outside of cells
Ex: gastrovascular cavity

75
Q

Gut Lumen

A

continuous with the outside of the animal’s body, 1 opening

76
Q

Gastrovascular Cavity

A

2-way digestive tract, functions in both digestion and distribution of nutrients. ANIMALS WITH SIMPLE BODY PLANS
-not the most efficient

77
Q

Flow through the digestive tract

A

2 openings, mouth and anus

78
Q

Stages of food processing

A
  1. ingestion
  2. digestion
  3. absorption
  4. elimination
    - Mechanical breakdown and breakdown of nutrients by enzymatic hydrolysis
79
Q

2 things need to build the digestive system

A

Alimentary canal and accessory glands

80
Q

Alimentary canal

A

Mouth,esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum

81
Q

Accessory canal

A

salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder

82
Q

3 basic types of digestive systems

A
  • Monogastric: simple chambered stomach
  • Ruminant (cranial fermentor): multi-compartmented stomach
  • Hindgut fermentor: simple stomach but complex intestine
83
Q

Phase 1: Oral cavity and the cephalic phase

A
  • mechanical breakdown of food in the oral cavity
  • salivary glands lubricate food and secretes salivary amylase initiating the breakdown of carbohydrates
  • Ends with deglutition (the process of swallowing)
    PRIMES the secretion of the stomach (cephalic phase o stomach secretion)
84
Q

Phase 2: in the Stomach

A
  • the stomach stores food and secretes gastric juice which converts food bolus into chyme
  • Filling of the stomach promotes secretion (gastric phase)
  • protein degradation
    TIGHT REGULATION
85
Q

Protein degradation

A
  • initiated by proteolytic enzyme pepsin: cleaves and degrades other proteins
  • protein denaturation by acidic low pH (pH= 2)
86
Q

Mucus Layer

A

stomach protection and produces bicarbonate secretion to diffuse in the layer and acts as a buffer

87
Q

Bicarbonate

A

[HCO3-] buffering of acid

88
Q

Production of gastric acid

A
  1. Pepsinogen and H+Cl are secreted into the lumen
  2. HCl converts proenzyme (zymogen) pepsinogen to active enzyme pepsin {acidification of the lumen}
  3. Pepsin activates more pepsinogen starting a positive feedback loop (chain reaction)
89
Q

Pepsinogen

A

generator of pepsin needs to be matured in the lumen to become active
IT ACTIVATES WHEN THE PEPTIDE IS REMOVED

90
Q

Phase 3: in the small intestine

A
  • Duodenal digestion, most digestion occurs here
  • chymes from the stomach mixes with the digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and the small intestine
91
Q

Pancreas secretes

A
  • Buffer HCO3
    -Trypsin
    -Chymotrypsin
    -Nucleases
    -Amylases
    -Lipases
92
Q

Duodenum secretes

A
  • Disaccharides Dipeptidases
  • Dipeptidases
  • Nucleosidases
    They act on the products of degradtion
93
Q

Liver/ Gallbladder

A

Bile emulsifies lipids

94
Q

Small intestine and pancreas both produce

A

Lipases

95
Q

Gallbladder

A

is just a storage organ

96
Q

Steatorrhea is the presence of increased fat in feces. Which organ is least likely to be the cause of this?

A

GALLBLADDER

97
Q

Enteropeptidase in brush border activates

A

trypsin

98
Q

Absorbed lipids enter

A

the lymphatic system

99
Q

Absorbed amino acids and sugars, EXCEPT LIPIDS enter

A

hepatic portal vein

100
Q

Main site of absorption of lipids, sugars, and amino acids

A

small intestine

101
Q

The mouth and stomach are heavily involved

A

breakdown of sugar and protein

102
Q

Water is reabsorbed in

A

the large intestine

103
Q

Transport across the epithelium

A

can be active or passive

104
Q

Enormous Villar/ microvillar surface

A

greatly increases nutrient absorption, huge optimization

105
Q

Absorption in the small intestine needs

A

a huge surface area

106
Q

Parietal cells

A

secrete H+ and Cl- (HCl; hydrochloric acid) into the lumen of the stomach. One way to remember: parietal cells pump the protons.

107
Q

Pancreatic lipase

A

is an enzyme that contributes to fat breakdown.

108
Q

Hydrochloric acid in the stomach

A

(1) denatures proteins and (2) converts pepsinogen to pepsin.

109
Q

Two transporters are needed to transport glucose into an epithelial cell in the small intestine.

A

Na+ and cotransport glucose

110
Q

The bile salts function in fat digestion by

A

dispersing big droplets of fats to small droplets

111
Q

Proper physiological responses cells need to

A

-Adjust their function to changes in their environment
- coordinate their behavior

112
Q

How does cell-cell communication influence physiology

A
  • by regulating cell activity
  • by regulating gene expression and or protein activities => changing cell activity/function
113
Q

Cells can exchange information through

A

-directly through cytoplasmic exchanges of diffusible chemicals
- directly receptor/ligand interaction on cell surfaces

114
Q

Examples of cell-cell communication

A

cell junctions and cell-cell recognition

115
Q

Long-range regulation and communication are based on

A

the secretion of chemical signals

116
Q

Neurotransmitters Signal

A

fast, short-range diffusion. It triggers changes in post synaptic cell and most communication & coordination is achieved by electrical signal

117
Q

Hormones signal

A
  • can achieve long-range diffusion.
  • It doesn’t rely on axonal transmission & electoral transmission.
    -They are released in the circulatory system. Its produced by non-neural endocrine cells and produced by neurosecretory cells.
  • Reaches target cells & induces regulatory change needed
118
Q

Hormones 3 ranges of action

A
  • Autocrine (short): hormones released by a cell can act on the exact same cell that released the hormone.
  • Pacarine (middle): acts on neighboring cells but on the same tissue
  • Endocrine (long): requires circulation
119
Q

Chemical signals

A

hormones, neurotransmitters, grow factors, cytokines

120
Q

Hormones are key signals in

A

Feedback loops that comprise more than one cell type

121
Q

Feedback systems

A

the product of a process is used to regulate the production of that product.
- negative and positive

122
Q

Negative feedback loops

A

act on the stimulus and bring it back to normal (homeostasis). It opposed the initial stimulus

123
Q

Hormones are defined by

A
  1. source- specialized secretory cells
  2. mode of transport- releases into the circulatory system
  3. physiological role- cellular regulators
  4. Relative effectiveness- hormones work at very low concentration
  5. concentration is regulated- via the rate of synthesis, secretion & degradation

NOT DEFINED BY CHEMICAL IDENTITY

124
Q

hydrophilic hormones

A

water soluble hormones are secreted by exocytosis, travel freely in the bloodstream, and binds to cell-surface receptors

125
Q

Lipophilic Hormones

A

lipid soluble hormones diffuse across cell membranes, travel in the bloodstream bound to transport proteins, and diffuse through the membrane of target cells. They bind to receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus of the target cells

126
Q

Lipid soluble hormone

A

sex steroids (testosterone, progesterone, oestrogen)
glucocorticoids
mineralocorticoids

127
Q

Binding of hormones changes

A

the activity of the nuclear receptor and modifies gene expression

128
Q

Transduce the signal

A

linking surface receptor binding to an effect in the cell

129
Q

Hydrophilic Hormones example

A

Catecholamines
thyroid-stimulating hormone
human growth hormone

130
Q

Hydrophilic hormones use transduction pathways

A
  • The receptor has an enzymatic function and triggers signaling cascades= transduction pathways
  • involves the synthesis of 2nd messengers or sequential protein modifications
131
Q

Transduction pathways examples

A
  • a receptor and a kinase cascade
  • GPCRs and cAmp
  • GPCRs and calcium signaling
132
Q

receptor and a kinase cascade

A

Phosphorylation of inactive kinases activates their kinase function. this active kinase then phosphorylates and activates a more downstream kinase

133
Q

GPCRs and cAMP

A

The binding of the ligand activates GTP binding to the G protein. Enzymes are activated and they trigger the synthesis of the second messengers. these trigger cellular responses often through activation of kinases

134
Q

2 main pathways downstream of GPCRs

A

adenylate cyclase and phospholipase c

135
Q

endocrine glands

A

endocrine cells that are often grouped into ductless organs.
ex: thyroid and parathyroid glands, tests and ovaries

136
Q

pineal gland

A

melatonin=> circadian rythms

137
Q

Hypothalamus and Pituitary gland

A

hypothalamic-anterior pituitary=> tropic hormones
posterior pituitary => adh oxytocin

138
Q

Thyroid glands

A

thyroid hormones => metabolism

139
Q

Adrenal glands

A

cortex: corticosteroids=> stress immunity metabolism
Medulla: epinephrine (adrenaline) => fight or flight response

140
Q

Pancreas

A

insulin, glucagon=> glucose levels

141
Q

Ovaries & testes

A

androgen, estrogens=> reprodcution

142
Q

Same Hormones depend on

A
  • depend on the receptor for the hormone ( different receptors trigger different responses)
  • depend on the transduction pathway which varies with cell type
143
Q

Example of the multiple effects of hormones

A

epinephrine increases blood flow to the muscle, and decreases blood flow to the digestive tract

144
Q

Case of a simple negative feedback loop

A

regulate the secretion of the pancreas and stomach
endocrine
s cells of duodenum- secret hormones- to pancreatic cells- bicarbonate releases - low pH in duodenum

145
Q

Case of simple positive feedback loop

A

milk release by mammary glands
neuroendocrine

146
Q

endocrine axes

A

tropic hormones are engaged in its regulation. They are hormones that have other endocrine glands as their targets

147
Q

Examples of endocrine axes

A

Hypothalamus/ Pituitary/ Thyroid system (HPT)
hypothalamus/pituitary/adrenal cortex axis (HPA)

148
Q

A master regulator

A

the hypothalamus-pituitary gland

149
Q

Hypothalamus

A

receives the information from the nervous system in initiates responses to the endocrine system

150
Q

Pituitary gland

A

is attached to the hypothalamus, composed of the posterior pituitary and anterior pituitary
- heterogeneous tissue

151
Q

Neurohypophysis

A

is it an outgrown of the hypothalamus. the reason why the hypothalamus & pituitary glands go together
- POSTERIOR PITUITARY

152
Q

Adenohypohysis

A

anterior pituitary

153
Q

2 Key functions of the Hypothalamus

A
  1. neurosecretory cells secrete two posterior pituitary hormones (ADH, oxytocin) => released in circulation. These hormones are stored in posterior
  2. Hypothalamic cells control the endocrine activity of the anterior pituitary gland (adenohypophysis)
154
Q

Neurohypohysis initiates

A
  • secretion of ADH or vasopressin in the posterior pituitary gland (stimulates reabsorption in the kidney)
  • Secretion of Oxytocin (contraction of the mammary gland, uterine muscles)
  • evolutionary related peptides hormones: ADH & Oxytocin
155
Q

adenohypophysis regulates

A

complex endocrine axes

156
Q

Hormone production in the anterior pituitary

A

is controlled by releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones secreted by the hypothalamus

157
Q

Hormones production in the posterior act to

A
  • modulate physiological targets (non-tropic effects)
  • to regulate the endocrine function of distant endocrine tissues (endocrine axis = tropic effects)
158
Q

Glandular anterior lobe

A

a major organ the endocrine system

159
Q

regulation of organismal metabolism

A
  • protein synthesis/cell diviso/ cell growth (anabolic effect)
  • energy expenditure/ reserve mobilization (catabolic effect)
  • levels of circulating metabolites (glucose in the blood or glycemia)
160
Q

what are the key endocrine axes regulating metabolism

A
  1. growth hormones (GH) and insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1)
  2. the hypothalamus/ pituitary/ thyroid (HPT) axis
  3. Insulin and Glucagon
161
Q

growth hormone

A

has tropic (release of another hormone) and non-tropic effects
- promotes growth and metabolic changes directly in target cells
- stimulates the release of additional growth factors (insulin-like GF or IGF-1
- combines stimulation of growth and resources mobilization

162
Q

Master regulator of organismal metabolism

A

thyroid

163
Q

Thyroid

A

endocrine gland in the neck (final gland of hpt axis
secretes amine hormones tri-iodo-thyronine (t3) and thyroxine (t4)
t3 increases basal metallic rate, protein, synthesis, growth, and elevated body temp
t3 stimulates fat mobilization

164
Q

Hypothyroidy

A

weight gain, lethargy, cold tolerance, requires iodine

165
Q

Grave’s disease

A

: autoimmune disease triggering hyperthyroid (too much t3 and t4
=> high temp, sweating weight loss, high blood pressure

166
Q

beta cells of Langerhans islets

A

produced insulin

167
Q

alpha cells of langherans islets

A

produced glucagon

168
Q

Insulin

A

is a storage hormone produced in the pancreas
- increase protein translation
- promotes glycogen synthesis and uptake of sugar cells

169
Q

glucagon

A

is a regulator of blood sugar produced in the pancreas and with opposing effects to insulin (hyperglycemic :high blood sugar)

170
Q

Adrenal glands

A

they sit on top of the kidneys
- 2 glands: cortex outer portion & medulla inner portion
THEY DO NOT SYNTHESIZE AND RELEASE THE SAME HORMONES

171
Q

Cortex

A

hormone: corticosteroids (glucocorticoids)
stimulus: stress
Regulated by: HPA axis

172
Q

Medulla

A

hormone: adrenaline 9epinephrine) noradrenaline
stimulus: stress
regulated by: the autonomic nervous system

173
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

is a division of the peripheral nervous system that influences internal organs function

174
Q

What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

A

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

175
Q

Sympathetic

A
  1. relaxes airways
  2. accelerates the heartbeat
  3. decreases gut mobility: less blood to digestive tract
176
Q

Sympathetic regulates

A

the adrenal medulla and promotes the systemic release of adrenaline

Fight or flight , postgangilonic neurons => NE

177
Q

Parasympathetic

A

rest and digest
neuro transmitter

178
Q

Pathway of stress

A

brain -> hypthalemus -> piutiary -> adrenal cortex -> stress adaptation

179
Q

cortisol

A

main glucocorticoid that responds to stress of HPA axis

180
Q

cortisol levels are regulated by

A

a negative feedback loop

181
Q

autonomic NS & HPA axis coordinates

A

stress response

182
Q

Adrenal medulla secretes

A

epinephrine & adrenaline

183
Q

adrenal cortex secretes

A

glucorticoids

184
Q

hypercortisolism

A

long term high levels of cortisol
Complications: diabetes, frequent infections, loss of muscle mass and strength, osteerporosis

BIO 1440 (2 decks)

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