PRAXIS PLT - Students as Learners: Student Development & the Learning Process

Question 1

How do behaviorists view learning?

Answer 1

As a process of accessing and changing associations between stimuli and responses. It is used in classroom management and establishing positive contexts for learning.

Question 2

Who are the key contributors to behaviorist perspectives in learning?

Answer 2

1. John B. Watson
2. B.F. Skinner
3. Edward Thorndike
4. Ivan Pavlov

Question 3

What is social cognitive theory?

Answer 3

Social cognitive theorists focus on the ways people learn from one another. The key theorist is Albert Bandura.

Question 4

What is information processing theory?

Answer 4

Information processing theorists focus on what happens inside the learner’s mind, considering the processes of learning, memory and performance and using terms such as storage, retrieval, working memory and long-term memory. They advance the idea of building students’ declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge.

Question 5

What is constructivism?

Answer 5

Constructivist theorists suggest that people construct or create knowledge (as opposed to absorbing knowledge) based on their experiences, prior learning and interactions. Some focus on individual constructivism (how one person makes meaning) and others focus on social constructivism (how people gain knowledge by working together.)

Question 6

What is sociocultural theory?

Answer 6

Sociocultural theorists posit that the combination of social, cultural and historical contexts in which a learner exists has a great influence on the person’s knowledge construction and the ways that teachers should organize instruction. Key theorist: Lev Vygotsky and his theory on the zone of proximal development.

Question 7

Albert Bandura

Answer 7

Theory: Social (or observational) learning theory

Children learn by observing others. In a classroom setting, this may occur through modeling or learning vicariously through others’ experiences.

Distributed cognition - A person is able to learn more with another or in a group than he or she might be able to do alone

Question 8

Benjamin Bloom

Answer 8

Theory: Bloom’s Taxonomy of learning domains

Three learning domains:

1. Cognitive
2. Performance or psychomotor
3. Affective

Theory impacts the way educators write lesson objectives, plan learning activities and assess student performance. The taxonomy originated in 1956 and the cognitive domain was revised in 2001.

Question 9

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning - Original cognitive domain (knowledge) 1956

Answer 9

First learning domain. The mind and skills or strategies that one uses, organized into 6 levels from lowest to highest:

1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation

Question 10

Bloom’s Taxonomy: original cognitive domain (knowledge) 1956 - 1. Knowledge

Answer 10

To recall information or data.

Key words: defines, lists, locates, recites, states

Question 11

Bloom’s Taxonomy: original cognitive domain (knowledge) 1956 - 2. Comprehension

Answer 11

To understand meaning of instruction and problems.

Key words: confirms, describes, discusses, explains, matches

Question 12

Bloom’s Taxonomy: original cognitive domain (knowledge) 1956 - 3. Application

Answer 12

To use a concept in a new situation.

Key words: applies, builds, constructs, produces, reports

Question 13

Bloom’s Taxonomy: original cognitive domain (knowledge) 1956 - 4. Analysis

Answer 13

To separate concepts into parts

Key words: analyzes, categorizes, compares, debates, investigates

Question 14

Bloom’s Taxonomy: original cognitive domain (knowledge) 1956 - 5. Synthesis

Answer 14

To build a pattern from diverse elements

Key words: composes, designs, hypothesizes, implements, revises

Question 15

Bloom’s Taxonomy: original cognitive domain (knowledge) 1956 - 6. Evaluation

Answer 15

To make judgments

Key words: assesses, concludes, critiques, justifies, solves

Question 16

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning - Revised cognitive domain (knowledge) 2001

Answer 16

First learning domain. The mind and skills or strategies one uses, but uses action words rather than nouns found in the original taxonomy. 6 levels from lowest to highest:

1. Remember
2. Understand
3. Apply
4. Analyze
5. Evaluate
6. Create

Question 17

Bloom’s Taxonomy: revised cognitive domain (knowledge) 2001 - 1. Remember

Answer 17

To recall facts and basic concepts

Key words: define, memorize, list

Question 18

Bloom’s Taxonomy: revised cognitive domain (knowledge) 2001 - 2. Understand

Answer 18

To explain ideas or concepts

Key words: explain, identify, select

Question 19

Bloom’s Taxonomy: revised cognitive domain (knowledge) 2001 - 3. Apply

Answer 19

To use information in new situations

Key words: implement, operate, solve

Question 20

Bloom’s Taxonomy: revised cognitive domain (knowledge) 2001 - 4. Analyze

Answer 20

To draw connections among ideas

Key words: distinguish, organize, examine

Question 21

Bloom’s Taxonomy: revised cognitive domain (knowledge) 2001 - 5. Evaluate

Answer 21

To justify a stand or decision

Key words: argue, judge, critique

Question 22

Bloom’s Taxonomy: revised cognitive domain (knowledge) 2001 - 6. Create

Answer 22

To produce new or original work

Key words: develop, construct, design

Question 23

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning - Performance or psychomotor domain (skills)

Answer 23

Second learning domain. Involves manual or physical skills one uses, divided into 7 subdivisions:

1. Perception
2. Set
3. Guided responses
4. Mechanism
5. Complex overt responses
6. Adaptation
7. Origination

Question 24

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning - Performance or psychomotor domain (skills) - 1. Perception

Answer 24

To use senses to guide motor activity

Key words: chooses, describes, identifies, selects

Question 25

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - Performance or psychomotor domain (skills) - 2. Set

Answer 25

To be ready to act Key words: begins, moves, proceeds, shows, states

Question 26

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - Performance or psychomotor domain (skills) - 3. Guided responses

Answer 26

To use trial and error, imitation to learn (early stage) Key words: copies, traces, follows, reproduces, replicates

Question 27

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - Performance or psychomotor domain (skills) - 4. Mechanism

Answer 27

To respond in a habitual way with movements performed with some confidence and proficiency (intermediate stage) Key words: assembles, calibrates, displays, manipulates

Question 28

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - Performance or psychomotor domain (skills) - 5. Complex overt responses

Answer 28

To perform complex movement patterns skillfully (skillful stage) Key words (same as mechanism, but adverbs or adjectives are added to indicate proficiency): assembles quickly, calibrates accurately, displays proficiently, manipulates quickly and accurately

Question 29

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - Performance or psychomotor domain (skills) - 6. Adaptation

Answer 29

To use well-developed skills and be able to modify to fit special requirements Key words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, revises

Question 30

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - Performance or psychomotor domain (skills) - 7. Origination

Answer 30

To create new movement patterns to fit a specific problem or situation Key words: arranges, builds, composes, constructs, initiates, originates

Question 31

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - Affective domain (attitude)

Answer 31

Third learning domain. Five subdivisions: 1. Receiving phenomena 2. Responding to phenomena 3. Valuing 4. Organizing 5. Internalizing values

Question 32

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - Affective domain (attitude) - 1. Receiving phenomena

Answer 32

To be aware, to have selected attention Key words: asks, follows, gives, locates, uses

Question 33

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - Affective domain (attitude) - 2. Responding to phenomena

Answer 33

To actively participate Key words: answers, discusses, helps, tells

Question 34

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - Affective domain (attitude) - 3. Valuing

Answer 34

To determine worth Key words: demonstrates, differentiates, explains, invites, joins

Question 35

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - Affective domain (attitude) - 4. Organizing

Answer 35

To organize values into priorities Key words: arranges, alters, modifies, relates, synthesizes

Question 36

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - Affective domain (attitude) - 5. Internalizing values

Answer 36

To control behavior using own value system Key words: acts, discriminates, listens, modifies, verifies

Question 37

Jerome Bruner

Answer 37

Theories: Discovery learning and scaffolding Learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based on knowledge or past experiences. Discovery learning teaching techniques feature methods to allow a student to discover information by himself or herself or in a group. Scaffolding: Instructional supports provided to a student by an adult or a more capable peer in a learning situation The more capable a student becomes, the less instructional scaffolding the adult or peer needs to provide An example: A teacher reads a portion of the text aloud and then asks the student to repeat the same sentences

Question 38

What are the five main learning theories?

Answer 38

1. Behaviorism 2. Social Cognitive Theory 3. Information Processing Theory 4. Constructivism 5. Sociocultural Theory

Question 39

John Dewey

Answer 39

Theory: Learning through experience Considered the father of progressive education practice which promotes individuality, free activity and learning through experiences: 1. Project-based learning 2. Cooperative learning 3. Arts-integration activities School is primarily a social institution and a process of living, not an institution to prepare for future living. Schools should teach children to be problem solvers by helping them learn to think as opposed to helping them learn only the content of a lesson. Students should be active decision makers in their education. Teachers have rights and need more academic autonomy.

Question 40

Erik Erikson

Answer 40

Theory: 8 stages of human development Stage 1 - Infancy, 0-1, Trust v Mistrust, Key event: feeding Stage 2 - Toddler, 1-2, Autonomy v doubt/shame, Key event: toilet training Stage 3 - Early childhood, 2-6, Initiative v guilt, Key event: independence Stage 4 - Elementary and middle school, 6-12, Competence/industry v inferiority, Key event: school Stage 5 - Adolescence, 12-18, Identity v role confusion, Key event: sense of identity Stage 6 - Young adulthood, 18-40, Intimacy v isolation, Key event: intimate relationships Stage 7 - Middle adulthood, 40-65, Generativity v stagnation, Key event: supporting the next generation Stage 8 - Late adulthood, 65-death, Integrity v despair, Key event: reflection and acceptance

Question 41

Carol Gilligan

Answer 41

Theory: Stages of the ethic of care Questions the male-centered personality psychology of Freud and Erikson as well as Kohlberg's male-centered stages of moral development. Stage theory of the moral development of women: Pre-conventional - Goal: individual survival Conventional - Goal: self-sacrifice is goodness Post-conventional - Goal: principle of non-violence

Question 42

Lawrence Kohlberg

Answer 42

Theory: Theory of moral development Pre-conventional - Infancy through early elementary - an authority figure's threat or application of punishment inspires obedience Stage I - Obedience and punishment: Found during infancy. Infants do not discern any difference between doing the right thing and avoiding punishment. Stage II - Individualism, instrumentalism and exchange: Preschool children try to please others, find ways to get the greatest benefits for themselves and shift their interest towards rewards rather than punishment. Conventional - Ages 9 - 20 Stage III - "Good boy/good girl": Seeking to do what will gain the approval of peers or others Stage IV - Law and order: Abiding by the law and responding to obligations Post-conventional - 20 plus (rarely achieved by the majority of adults) Stage V - Social contract: An understanding of social mutuality and genuine interest in the welfare of others Stage VI - Principled conscience: Respect for universal principles and the requirements of individual conscience

Question 43

Abraham Maslow

Answer 43

Theory: Hierarchy of needs Certain lower needs must be satisfied before higher needs can be met 1. Physiological - air, water, food, sleep and sex 2. Safety - Establish stability and consistency in a chaotic world (secure home and family.) Safety needs sometimes motivate people to be religious (safety after we die) 3. Love and belongingness - Need to belong to groups such as churches, schools, clubs, gangs and families and the need to be needed 4. Esteem - Self-esteem resulting from competency or the mastery of a task and the attention and recognition received as a result of competency/mastery 5. Self-actualization - Maximize potential by seeking knowledge, peace, oneness with a higher power and self-fulfillment.

Question 44

Maria Montessori

Answer 44

Theory: Follow the child An Italian physician who established her school, Casa Bambina, in 1908. Modified versions of her approach are found in some U.S. schools today. She divided childhood into four 6-year intervals: Birth-6, 6-12, 12-18 (adolescence intervals: 12-15, 16-18), 18-24 3 stages of the learning process: Stage 1 - Introduce a concept by lecture, lesson, experience, book read-aloud and so-on Stage 2 - Process the information and develop an understanding of the concept through work, experimentation and creativity. Stage 3 - "Knowing" - possessing an understanding of something that is demonstrated by the ability to pass a test with confidence, teach the concept to another or express understanding with ease.

Question 45

Jean Piaget

Answer 45

Theory: Stages of cognitive development (Piaget is a cognitivist theorist) Four stages: 1. Sensorimotor, birth-2, Explore the world through sense and motor skills 2. Preoperational, 2-7, Believe that others view the world as they do. Can use symbols to represent objects. 3. Concrete operational, 7-11, Reason logically in familiar situations. Can conserve and reverse operations 4. Formal operational, 11 and up, Reason in hypothetical situations and use abstract thought.

Question 46

B. F. Skinner

Answer 46

Theory: Operant conditioning Skinner is considered to be the grandfather of behaviorism since he conducted much of the experimental research that is the basis for behavioral learning theory. Operant conditioning theory is based on the idea that learning is a function of change in observable behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of a person's response to events (stimuli.) Operant conditioning - when a stimulus-response is reinforced (rewarded), the individual becomes conditioned to respond.

Question 47

Lev Vygotsky

Answer 47

Theory: Zone of proximal development Vygotsky is credited with the social development theory of learning. He suggested that social interaction influences cognitive development. Students learn best in a social context in which a more able adult or peer teaches the student something he or she could not learn on his or her own. Teachers must determine what a student can do independently and then provide the student with opportunities to learn with the support of an adult or a more capable peer.

Question 48

Define accomodation

Answer 48

1. What happens when new experiences or information causes a learner to modify his or her existing understanding of previously learned information. (Piaget) Example: A child initially thinks that a tall glass filled with water contains more water than a shorter, wider glass filled with water and the child learns to change and create a new understanding that both glasses have the same amount of water. 2. A change in how a student learns material (Special education) Example: If a student has reading difficulties, the teacher could allow the student to listen to the book on audio.

Question 49

Define assimilation

Answer 49

When a learner assimilates new information, he or she connects the new experience to existing schema (Piaget). Example: A student who understands multiplication realizes that division is a related process and is able to use multiplication knowledge to solve division problems.

Question 50

Define classical conditioning

Answer 50

A process of behavior modification by which a person comes to respond in the desired manner to what was once a neutral stimulus. A neutral stimulus has been presented repeatedly along with an unconditioned stimulus that eventually elicits the desired response. Example: A teacher creates a positive, supportive classroom environment that eventually conditions a student with anxiety or fear of public speaking to find the experience of speaking in front of the class enjoyable.

Question 51

Define conservation

Answer 51

Knowing that a number or amount stays the same even when rearranged or presented in a different shape. Example: A child understands that there has been no changed when 6 ounces of milk is poured into a short, round glass in which the glass appears half full and when the same 6 ounces of milk is poured in a tall, cylindrical glass that appears only a quarter of the way full.

Question 52

Define constructivism

Answer 52

A philosophy of learning based on the premise that people construct their own understanding of the world they live in through reflection on experiences.

Question 53

Define convergent thinking

Answer 53

A process of gathering several pieces of information together to solve a problem.

Question 54

Define creativity

Answer 54

New and original behavior that creates a culturally appropriate product.

Question 55

Declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge

Answer 55

Knowledge is constructed, not absorbed. In order to develop knowledge, one must develop: 1. Declarative knowledge - knowledge of what is 2. Procedural knowledge - knowledge of how to 3. Conditional knowledge - knowledge of when again Teachers can use these types of knowledge to develop lesson plans that explicitly help students know what they are learning (declarative knowledge)