praxis plt Flashcards
Describe Behaviorism
teacher-centered philosophy that emphasizes conditioning, or the process of reinforcement and punishment. Behaviorists believe that teachers can change misbehavior by changing the environment. Famous proponents include B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning and Pavlov’s classical conditioning.
What is Cognitivism?
learning theory that emphasizes the importance of mental processes in learning and is based on the premise that learners actively construct their own knowledge by processing information and making connections between new information and what they already know (Schema).
What is Constructivism?
constructivism is a learning theory that suggests students build knowledge through their own experiences and interactions with others, rather than passively receiving information. (Piaget, Vygotsky, and Bruner)
Name the similarities of Vysgotsky and Piaget
- Active learning: Both Piaget and Vygotsky believed that children are active learners who construct their own understanding.
- Constructivism: Both theories view knowledge as created, rather than existing objectively.
- Child-centered learning: Both theories support a child-centered approach to learning that matches tasks to the child’s ability level.
- Peer learning: Both theories believe that peer learning is beneficial.
- Cognitive limits: Both theories recognize that children have cognitive limits
Name the differences between Vygotsky and Piaget
- Learning process:
Piaget believed children learn independently through direct interaction with their environment. Vygotsky believed children learn through social interactions and collaboration with others - Stages of development:
Piaget believed children go through a series of universal stages of cognitive development that happen in a specific order.
What is Bandura’s social learning theory?
a psychological theory that explains how people learn new behaviors and skills through observation and interaction with others. The theory is based on the idea that learning is a cognitive process that occurs in the context of a person’s social environment.
What is Bruner’s theory of cognitive development?
people learn best when they move from concrete to abstract in a three-step process:
- Enactive representation: Hands-on experiences, ideally with real-world applications
- Iconic representation: Learning with images, such as pictures in the mind
- Symbolic representation: Transforming what’s been learned into language
believes you can learn ANY SKILL at ANY AGE!
What is piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
Constructivist theory that describes how children’s understanding through four stages:
1. Sensorimotor:
Birth to age 2, when children learn through their senses and motor responses
2. Preoperational
Ages 2 to 7, when children learn to use language and symbolic thought, and to pretend and imitate
3. Concrete operational
Ages 7 to 11, when children learn to use logical operations to solve problems
4. Formal operational
Age 12 and up, when children can use logical operations and abstractions
It is developmental learning in very specific stages, at specific ages
What is Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development?
a theory of learning that emphasizes the role of social interaction in the development of cognition.
- Social interaction: Learning is a social process that occurs through interactions with more knowledgable other
- Zone of proximal development (ZPD): The area of exploration where a student is cognitively prepared to learn, but needs help and social interaction to fully develop.
- Scaffolding: Support provided by a more experienced peer or adult to help a learner develop their understanding or complex skills.
- Language: Language plays a central role in mental development.
What is Kohberg’s stages of moral development?
theory organizes moral development into three levels: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional.
- Pre-Conventional: Focuses on personal gain and avoiding punishment, with the primary concern being the direct consequences of one’s actions. Authority figure plays big role.
Stage 1: Obedience and punishment orientation
Stage 2: Individualism and exchange - Conventional: Focuses on conforming to social norms and expectations, aiming to be seen as a “good person” by others.
Stage 3: Good interpersonal relationships
Stage 4: Maintaining social order - Post-Conventional: Focuses on abstract moral principles and individual conscience, going beyond societal laws to uphold personal ethics.
Stage 5: Social contract and individual rights
Stage 6: Universal ethical principles
What is Bloom’s Taxonomy?
a hierarchical system used to classify educational learning objectives based on their complexity:
Knowledge: Recalling facts, terms, and basic concepts
Lower levels: Remember, Understand, Apply
Higher level: Analyze, Evaluate, Create
What is metacognition?
thinking about your own thought process
What is Schema?
network of knowledge used to acquire new knowledge and affects how information is processed
What is transfer of learning?
applying knowledge and skills learned in one setting to a new setting
What is self-efficacy?
Student belief in their ability to achieve academic success
What is self-regulation?
mental abilities used to help students perform tasks such as time management, organizing, monitoring emotions
What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning involves learning by associating two stimuli to produce an INVOLUNTARY RESPONSE, while operant conditioning involves learning by associating a VOLUNTARY BEHAVIOR with its consequences
What is I.D.E.A? (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act)
a federal law that ensures children with disabilities receive a free and appropriate public education (FAPE) and LRE (least restrictive learning environment)
What is an LRE (least restrictive learning environment?)
Any placement outside the general education classroom must be justified by the child’s individual disability-related needs. Students must have meaningful access to same age peers without disabilities, when appropriate.
What is EEOA? (equal educational opportunities act?)
a federal law that prohibits discrimination in public schools based on race, color, sex, or national origin:
- It requires school districts to take action to remove barriers to equal participation for students.
- It prohibits the racial segregation of students.
- It requires public schools to provide for students who do not speak English.
VERY IMPORTANT PROTECTION FOR ELL’S!!!
What is ADA?
a federal civil rights law that protects people with disabilities from discrimination in many areas of public life. The ADA ensures that people with disabilities have the same opportunities as everyone else.
Stages of second language acquisition
Preproduction (Silent Period):
This initial stage is characterized by mainly listening and absorbing the language with minimal speaking, often relying on gestures and non-verbal cues to communicate.
Early Production:
Learners begin to produce basic words and short phrases, often with grammatical errors, and can understand simple questions and instructions.
Speech Emergence:
Vocabulary expands, allowing learners to form simple sentences and engage in short conversations, though errors in grammar and pronunciation are still common.
Intermediate Fluency:
Learners can communicate more fluently in everyday situations, using more complex sentence structures and vocabulary, and are able to express opinions and engage in deeper conversations.
Advanced Fluency:
At this stage, learners have near-native level proficiency, can understand complex language, and effectively communicate in academic and social settings with minimal errors.
What are some approaches for accomodating ELL’s?
- Use cognates
- use explicit vocabulary instruction
- use pictures
- use sentence frames
- use manipulatives
- seat them with classmates they can talk to
- provide extra response time
- provide alternate assignments that match ability level
- use prompting questions
What are cognates?
words in 2 languages that sound similar, spell similar, and share similar meaning
What is thorndike’s law of effect?
a psychological principle that states that behaviors that are followed by a reward or reinforcement are more likely to occur again, while behaviors that are followed by punishment are less likely to occur again. (behavioral conditioning)
What is Watson’s theory?
a behavioral theory that emphasizes the role of conditioning in explaining observable behavior. Rejects the notion of analyzing emotions, thoughts, or consciousness, instead focusing solely on what can be directly observed and measured.
- Behavior is conditioned
- Behavior is observable
- Behavior is treated with behavioral modification
- People are born without built-in knowledge
Criticisms include oversimplifying human behavior and ignoring cognitive processes (emotions, thoughts)
What is B.F. Skinner’s theory of learning?
Also called OPERANT CONDITIONING. based on the idea that behaviors are shaped by their consequences
What is self-determination?
ability to make choices and manage one’s life and work towards a goal. skills include:
- problem solving
- decision making
- communication
- goal setting
How can teachers reinforce self-determination?
- Give students choices
- Teach them to set goals
- Show consequences of choices
- Demonstrate choice making process
- Model making choices
What is attribution?
How students attribute their success or failure and impacts their motivation. attribution theory often analyzes attributions based on three dimensions:
Locus of control: Whether the cause is internal or external
Stability: Whether the cause is stable (like ability) or unstable (like luck)
Controllability: Whether the cause is something the student can control (like effort) or not (like the difficulty of the task)
What is intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation?
Intrinsic: drive to perform activity for inherent pleasure or satisfaction/enjoyment of task
Extrinsic: motivated by external rewards or punishments such as grade, praise, or money
Teachers should have a goal to have mostly intrinsically motivated students
How should a teacher support intrinsic student motivation?
- develop a growth mindset
- create personal connections with students
- keep students involved with the learning process
- providing specific, attainable feedback
- choose appropriately challenging assignments
What is cognitive dissonance?
a psychological phenomenon where a person experiences discomfort or mental tension when their beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors contradict each other. it can lead individuals to change their beliefs or actions by building on previous knowledge to alleviate this tension.
As a teacher, how should you develop classroom routines and procedures?
- Create clear expectations
- Collaborate on routines and procedures with students
- Provide expectations and routines beforehand
- Model behaviors expected by students
- Use positive reinforcement
- Create visuals
- Practice if needed
As a teacher, how can you maintain accurate records?
- Have a consistent system
- Use software to organize and record records
As a teacher, how can you effectively arrange the classroom?
- develop seating based on learning styles or different lesson plans
- get to know students (who gets along/who does not)
- take IEP/504 into consideration
- think about accessibility of learning materials
- students can see wall spaces with learning materials
As a teacher, what are some ways of promoting a positive learning environment?
- build a positive relationship with students
- create a growth mindset
- collaborate with and involve parents
- provide specific, attainable feedback
- involve students with decision making
- use positive reinforcement
As a teacher, what are some strategies for helping
students develop self-motivation?
- assigning valuable tasks
- providing frequent positive feedback
- including students in instructional
decisions - de-emphasizing grades
What is SBE (Standards-based education)?
a broad concept that is based on the idea that students should be held to written descriptions of what they are expected to know and be able to do at each stage of their education.
What is the benefit of SBE?
SBE includes:
- transparency
- uniformity
- college/career readiness
- quality instruction
- student proficiency
Where can you find resources for accessing district, state, and national standards and frameworks
- State website
- School district website
As a teacher, how can you effectively apply standards in your instruction to meet learning objectives?
- Clearly state standards
- Align your lesson to the standard
- measure student mastery of standard
- relate learned skills back to the standard at the end of the lesson
What is cognitive mapping?
creating a visual representation of someone’s mental model of a process, concept, or environment, essentially capturing how they understand and navigate information in their mind.
What is cognitive load theory?
is based on the idea that working memory has a limited capacity and can only process a small amount of information at a time. The theory suggests that learning is most effective when it’s designed to accommodate these limitations.
As a teacher, how can you create an appropriate cognitive load?
- remove unnecessary information
- focus on and create one goal at a time
- be concise when teaching
- do regular reviews
What is information processing?
an approach to the goal of understanding human thinking that treats cognition as essentially computational in nature, with the mind being the software and the brain being the hardware. understanding how individuals receive, process, and store information, allowing educators to design learning strategies that optimize attention
How can information processing be utilized in the learning process?
Teachers can use their understanding of cognitive processes to utilize information processing. These strategies include:
- Revisiting skills throughout the year
- using a step by step sequence approach
- learning how short term and long term memory is processed
What is reciprocal determinism?
a psychological theory, primarily attributed to Albert Bandura, that states a person’s behavior is influenced by and influences both their personal factors (thoughts, beliefs) and their environment, creating a continuous interaction between the three elements where each factor impacts the others
What is vicarious learning?
a way of learning that involves observing, listening to, or experiencing the actions of others, and then applying that knowledge to your own life
What is scope?
the breadth of topics or skills that will be addressed within a curriculum, including the depth of knowledge expected for each concept
What is sequence?
the logical order in which concepts are introduced and built upon each other, ensuring students grasp foundational knowledge before moving to more complex material.
Why is scope and sequence important?
- to ensure alignment to standards
- to promote structured learning
- to promote effective pacing
As a teacher, how can you select content to achieve lesson and unit objectives?
- Clearly define your objectives
- ensure your content is relevant to the objective
- ensure content is engaging
- ensure content is appropriate for learning level
- apply content to real world applications
- Use logical sequence
Who are some school resources for locating, adapting, or creating enrichment and
remediation activities?
- School counselor
- Special education teacher
- Intervention teacher
- School administration
Who are your instructional planning partners for differentiating learning?
- Library media specialist
- IEP team
- para educatiors
- Interventionists
- special education teachers
- gifted/talented teachers
Who are IEP team members and what do they do?
IEP team members can include: Gen. Ed teacher, parents, school board representative, special education teacher, services for special needs such as Occupational Therapist or Speech Language Pathologist
IEP team members work to: collect data to present at IEP meeting, strategize and plan to make goals for the student, interpret results, determine whether services are needed, resolve conflicts,
What are paraeducators and what do they do?
Paraeducators are teachers aids/instructional assistants. They provide extra instructional support, help meet special education needs, take records and keep data, and provide one on one tutoring
What is the process if you suspect a child needs an IEP or special education services?
First, you need to take data to justify your claim. Next, the teacher needs to write a written request outlining the details of why the child may need to be evaluated. The parent must provide consent for the child to be evaluated. Then the child will be evaluated by the school psychologist and eligibility is decided. Within 30 days an IEP must be written and decided by an IEP team to create goals. The IEP must be followed.
Describe inductive vs. deductive reasoning
inductive reasoning begins with an observation, supports it with patterns and then arrives at a hypothesis or theory, deductive reasoning begins with a theory, supports it with observation and eventually arrives at a confirmation.
Describe direct instruction
Teacher directed, stands in front of classroom and teaches, explicit techniques, checking for understanding, sequential, small learning increments
Describe indirect instruction
Student-centered, teacher facilitates and guides learning by giving students tools, collaborative, interactive, problem-solving and decision making
Describe independent instruction
In independent instruction, students are responsible for their own learning, including: Researching and asking questions, Setting goals, Monitoring their progress, and Assessing their own learning, using self-regulation strategies
Describe experiential instruction
engaging students in direct experiences and reflection to help them develop skills, knowledge, and values. Synthesize experiences to build schema. Experience real world problems
Describe interactive instruction
a teaching style that encourages students to be active participants in their learning, rather than passive listeners. Examples include group discussions and debates, field trips, hands on activities, digital tools
What are some instructional strategies associated
with direct instruction?
-explicit teaching
– drill and practice
– lecture
– demonstrations
– guides for reading, listening, viewing
What are some instructional strategies associated
with indirect instruction?
- problem solving activity
– inquiry based activity
– case studies
– concept mapping
– reading for meaning
– cloze (fill in the blank) procedures
What are some instructional strategies associated
with independent instruction?
- learning contracts
– research projects
– learning centers
– computer mediated instruction
– distance learning - project based learning
What are some instructional strategies associated
with experiential and virtual instruction?
- field trips
– experiments
– simulations
– role play
– games
– observations
What are some instructional strategies associated
with interactive instruction?
– brainstorming
– cooperative learning groups
– interviews
– discussions
– peer practice
– debates
How can you support students in setting goals?
- Create confidence
- Support self-regulation strategies
- Give high-quality constructive feedback
- have a supportive learning environment and create classroom culture
- encourage and give opportunity for reflection
How can you support students to manage their time?
- help them break down tasks
- give them opportunities to practice
- develop routines
- use lists or organizational tools to help prioritize tasks
- remove distractions
How can you support students to help them organize?
- create routines
- give checklists or other visual aids/organizational tools
- teach time management
- break down tasks
How can you support students in monitoring progress?
- Create a student portfolio
- Promote a growth mindset
- Take consistent data
- Give high quality feedback
- encourage and give opportunities for self reflection
- create open communication between student and teacher
What is heterogenous grouping (also known as ability grouping)?
a teaching method that places students with different abilities, skills, and backgrounds in the same learning group
What are the benefits of heterogenous grouping?
- Students learn from one another
- aids social skills
- motivates students at different skill levels
- variety of perspectives
What is homogenous grouping?
a teaching strategy that involves placing students with similar abilities, learning styles, or needs together in a group.
What are the benefits of homogenous grouping?
- you can target specific skills
- similar pacing
- can serve as a safe space where students gain confidence
When should you use homogenous and heterogenous grouping?
You do not want to use homogenous grouping over long periods of time (ex: 9 week period). You mostly want to use heterogenous instruction unless you are targeting specific struggles. Then, it is appropriate to use homogenous instruction temporarily to scaffold instruction.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of collaborative learning?
Strengths:
- Communication skills
- diverse perspectives
- team building
- problem solving through group discussion
Weaknesses:
- unequal participation
- time management issues
- partner reliance
- group conflict
how can you select an appropriate strategy for achieving an instructional objective?
- clearly defined learning objective
- student learning levels
- identify and assess student needs
- consider content complexity
- determine the desired learning outcome
What is the instructional purposes of
monitoring and adjusting instruction?
- continually assess student progress
- identify learning barriers
- effectively meet student needs
- inform targeted learning interventions
- promote student engagement
- evaluate teacher effectiveness
What are methods for monitoring instruction?
- formative and summative assessments
- Peer feedback
- continuous observation
- Student feedback
- ## data analysis and keeping data
What are methods for adjusting instruction?
- adjusting pacing
- adjusting based on learning style
- adjusting to create thinking connections
- adjusting tools used for learning
- adjust the content to become relevant to students
- adjust method of instruction
- adjust criteria or product of learning
What is the purpose of reflecting upon, analyzing, and evaluating the effectiveness of instructional strategies?
- to meet student needs
- to be an effective teacher
- to collect data and assess student learning
- to inform future instruction
- help students reach success
- for professional growth
What is a teachable moment and why are they significant?
An unplanned opportunity to learn or discuss something important. They provide information that is relevant, engaging, and interactive. They provide meaningful understanding of a topic.
What are components of effective
questioning?
- allowing think/wait time
- helping students articulate their ideas
- respecting students’ answers
- handling incorrect answers
- encouraging participation
- establishing a non-critical classroom
environment - promoting active listening
- varying the types of questions
What are strategies for supporting students in articulating their ideas?
- clarifying a question
- re-articulating an idea in a more concise way
- use scaffolding or guiding questions
- provide and teach content relevant vocabulary
- providing a prompt
- use partners
- wait time
