Praxis Flashcards
Informal measures for social and emotional problems
use multiple data sources (e.g., number of office referrals, suspensions, and classroom-based disciplinary procedures)
these outcomes represent indirect measures of social skills as these outcomes are presumed to reflect corresponding levels of prosocial behavior
Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA)
identifies purpose or function of behavior
used to develop a plan to modify factors that maintain the problem behaviors using positive interventions
Key aspects: A-B-C
Steps to complete an FBA
- operationally define problem
- perform assessment (review records; observations; interview student, teacher, parents etc.)
- evaluate assessment results (examine beh. patterns and determine function of target beh.)
- develop hypothesis
- formulate an intervention plan
- start/implement intervention
- evaluate intervention effectiveness
Common standardized measures to evaluate social and emotional development or problematic areas
BEST PRACTICE is to have multiple raters and results should be largely congruent; typically includes parent form and teacher form
Social/behavioral/emotional measures
BASC-2, Conner’s Rating Scale-Revised, Beck Depression Inventory-II
Devereux Scales of Mental Disorders, Revised Behavior Problem, Revised Behavior Problem Checklist (RBPC)
Curriculum-based assessment (CBA)
term used to describe a broad assessment program or process, which may include CBMs or structured observations
Curriculum-based measures (CBM)
refers to the specific forms of criterion-referenced assessments in which curriculum goals and objectives serve as the “criteria” for assessment items
Top characteristics of effective CBMs
- must be based on systematic procedures for the frequent collection and analysis of performance data
- examine student data across time to determine intervention effectiveness
- is a system to identify at risk students
- provides normative and statistically sound information
Authentic (ecological) assessments
helps determine the goodness of fit between student and the learning environment
includes observational data during instruction and other environments
ICEL(instruction, curriculum, environment, learner)/RIOT (review, interview, observation, test)
RIOT
Review (records: report cards, work samples)
Interview (parents, teachers)
Observation (direct in environment)
Test (CBM, can’t do/won’t do)
Assessing intellectual disability (ID)
requires both cognitive and adaptive measures
criterion of SS = 70 or below (2 SD below the mean)
origins of disability prior to age 18
must demonstrate deficits in present adaptive functioning in at least 2 areas (communication, self-care, social skills, use of community resources, self-direction, functional academic skills, employment, leisure, physcial health issues)
ABAS and Vineland
Assessment of non-English speaking, special population ELL, or ESL
consider developmental history and all languages spoken/heard, language dominance, language preference,
language proficiency in both languages must be assessed and dominant language determined
Guidelines for distinguishing language differences from language disorders
- **the disorder must be present in the child’s native language (L1) and English (L2)
- testing must be conducted in native or strongest language
- use both formal (normed on appropriate group when possible) and informal measures
- assess in variety of speaking contexts
- language usage and error patterns determined
- compare to other bilingual speakers
Factors that may contribute to the interruption of language development
SES, poor instruction, lack of experience or exposure to language, school attendance
Standardized tests for second language learners (SLL)
using an interpreter is NOT BEST PRACTICE and is psychometrically weak if the test is not normed on the cultural group being assessed
Best practice
use multiple sources of information to identify children with disabilities or problems, cognitive tests cannot be used alone, formal and informal measures should be used
Primary referral reason for RtI
reading; primary interventions include phonological processing training
Narrative
provides broad and narrow information from running records
interval recording
uses time-sampling techniques
event recording
documents target behavior as it occurs
confounding variables/
sources of error associated with behavioral assessments
observer or rater bias
halo effect
fatigue
personal bias
preventing error with behavioral assessments
IOA
multiple data points
projective measures
used as a supplemental part of a battery
low reliability
data collection
use frequency, duration, or intensity
must have significant negative impact on the student’s classroom performance and/or social development in order to qualify for spec ed
2 main functions of behavior
- gain something positive
- escape something negative
(also included in chapter: attention, power-control, affiliation, and revenge)
writing an intervention plan
use positive strategies and include replacement behavior
normal curve/bell curve
normative info about traits; 68% of population fall within center (bell) of normal curve
fluid intelligence
ability to solve problems through reasoning
not primarily based on previously learned facts, techniques or language
nonverbal reasoning, immediate problem solving, or simultaneous processing
Cattell Horn
fluid thinking
ability to summarize and comprehend information to solve a task
crystallized intelligence
ability to solve problems by applying learned facts and language
verbal sections of IQ tests
Cattell Horn
emotional intelligence
ability to be aware of one’s emotional state, regulate one’s emotions, and accurately read emotions of others
authentic (ecological) assessments
take place in actual environment
include observations, interviews, and performing task
interpreting major cognitive tests
BEST PRACTICE start at the broadest level and then narrow interpretation to the subtest level
scores: most valid is full-scale, then major domain or cluster, last is item analysis
Data-based decision making
- Involves the collection of formal and informal information
- information gathered on a struggling student is linked to RtI
- If struggle continues after RtI, full eval is conducted
Data-based decision making steps
- Background data collection and problem identification level:
- Screening level:
- Progress monitoring and RtI level: used to determine effectiveness of interventions, once student is identified
- Formal Assessment level (Spec Ed. eval): social, cognitive, and emotional data collected, most often from formal standardized measures
Data-based decision making (used for)
- identify problem and plan interventions
- increase or decrease levels of intervention
- help determine whether interventions are implemented with fidelity
- determine effectiveness (related to positive student outcomes)
- plan individualized instruction and strategic long-term education planning
Background data collection, techniques, and problem identification
- collection and analysis of vital background information (informal data)
- includes students files and records, staff interviews and comments about student, medical records and reports, review of previous interventions, and developmental history
structured interview
- standardized and formal; same questions given to each student
- advantages- high validity and reliability; structured diagnostic interviews indicate the presence or absence of a problem, not level of functioning
- limitations-interviewer unable to modify questions to needs of interviewee, interview must follow a strict format and administration
unstructured interview
- Least useful
- less you put structure on the child, the more the child will share
- advantage- can be adapted to needs of interviewee
- limitations- responses can be difficult to interpret, responses cannot be compared to norms as seen within the more structured interview measures
semi-structured interview
- most useful
- combines the best features of both structured and unstructured interviews, allows for flexibility and follow-up questions
Types of interviews
- Semi-structured (most useful)
- Structured
- Unstructured (least useful)
Observational techniques
used to observe and record behavior in the natural setting
- whole-interval recording
- frequency or event recording
- duration recording
- latency recording
- time sampling interval recording
- partial-interval recording
- momentary time sampling
whole-interval recording
- behavior is only recorded when it occurs during the entire time interval
- good for continuous behaviors or behaviors occurring during a short duration
frequency or event recording
record the number of behaviors that occurred during a specific period
duration recording
refers to the length of time the specific behavior lasts
latency recording
time between onset of stimulus or signal that initiates a specific behavior
time sampling recording
- select a time period for observation, divide period into a number of equal intervals, and record whether or not behavior occurs.
- Is effective when the beginning and end of a behavior are difficult to determine or when only a brief period of time is available for observation
partial-interval recording
- behavior is scored if it occurs during any part of the time interval
- multiple occurrences of behavior in a single time interval are counted as one score or mark
- is effective when behavior occurs at relatively low rates or for inconsistent durations
momentary time sampling
- behavior is scored as present or absent only during the moment that a time interval ends
- this is the least biased estimate of behavior as it actually occurs
Universal screening
- can be done within a given class, grade, school, or district on academic, behavioral, social, or emotional indicators
- broad purpose: used to help determine whether modifications are needed in the core curriculum, instructions, or general education environment
- narrow purpose: used to guide decisions about additional or intensive instruction for those specific students who may require instructional support beyond what is already provided at a broad level
Benefits and liabilities of screeners
- cost effective, time efficient, and easy to administer
* is a chance of classifying some students incorrectly, better to err on the side of false positives
least dangerous assumption
when using screening tools, better to err on the side of false positives so as to provide additional support to a student who may not need it rather than to deny additional support in need as a result of a false negative
universal screening measures
- curriculum-based measures- typically reliable, but must only be used if they align with local norms, benchmarks, and standards.
- fluency-based indicators of skill- common universal screeners such as initial-sound fluency, letter-naming fluency, phoneme segmentation, nonsense word fluency, and oral-reading fluency
- cognitive assessment test (CogAT)- group administered and qualifies as a screener
- formal group-administered tests given yearly (e.g. Iowa Test of Basic Skills)
- System to Enhance Educational Performance (STEEP)- conduct cbms several times a year to identify students in need of additional support
Response to Intervention (RtI)
- student is identified with academic or behavioral concern by parent or teacher
- school psychologist uses data collection and screening to confirm
- baseline data of problem area is collected, once problem definition is confirmed
- research-based interventions are employed and systematic tests are provided to measure progress
- if growth does not occur in reasonable amount of time, then a spec ed eval should be considered
progress-monitoring data
- Subskill mastery measurement (SMM)- progress information is collected to determine with the specific intervention is effective
* should be collected frequently, even daily - General outcome measurement (GOM)- data are collected to determine whether the student is making progress towards long-range goals
* used less frequently, such as once a week
Best practices in deciding how to assess and present data
- progress-monitoring data should be based on the systematic and repeated measurement of behavior over a specific amount of time
- frequency data, percentage correct, or number of opportunities to respond are typically recorded and displayed
- horizontal axis on a graph typically represents time interval (e.g. days or weeks)
best practices in analyzing variability of progress-monitoring data
- variability and sources of error- each data point has important considerations and sources of variability
1. first consideration- effectiveness of intervention, defined by its ability to change behavior
2. second consideration- confounding variable, including uncontrolled subject and environmental variables
3. third consideration- measurement error, can occur if observer was not looking when target behavior occurred or if a CBM probe was not administered properly
consideration of mitigating factors
if extraneous variables are not considered, then student performance may be attributed to the intervention when the changes might be due to the effects of uncontrolled personal or environmental variables
RtI analysis of level
level refers to the average performance within a trend
ex: a condition occurs when a student’s performance changes suddenly following a change in conditions. A student’s level of performance is often compared to the average level of performance of peers or to a benchmark level
RtI analysis of trend
describes the pattern of change in a student’s behavior across time
- use when performance systematically increases or decreases across time
- multiple measurements are required to estimate trend. Slope can be calculated with software and plotted on a graph
- visual analysis can be used to estimate the general pattern of change across time. Caution: it is important to determine whether the overall pattern in the data is consistent and linear across time or whether another pattern (e.g., nonlinear, curvilinear) better explains the data
Describing and analyzing baseline RtI data
*progress monitoring data are first collected during baseline
General RtI evaluation points
1. should be no new highs (spikes) or lows for three consecutive data points
- 80% of the data points should fall within 15% of the mean, or in the case of decreasing or increasing data points, within 15% of the trend line
- minimum number of baseline data points is approximately 3-5 points
- practical considerations often affect the amount of data that can be collected
Best practices for making decisions based on RtI data
- three characteristics used to describe behavior (level, trend, and variability) may change because of the introduction of an intervention
- obtain a sufficient number of data points in each condition to get an accurate picture
- determine if the change in behavior closely coincides with the change in conditions. An immediate change in the level, trend, or variability of the behavior is likely the result of the intervention
RtI decision rules
you must first have a goal that is based on local norms benchmarks, or classroom comparison norms
Changing RtI intervention
- If two or three data points fall below the aim line, the intervention needs to be changed
- no correct responses for 3-4 sessions, change the intervention
- consider extraneous factors (probe difficulty, noncompliance, distractions…)when data is too variable
- include modifications (better prompts, additional modeling, better corrective feedback) when correct responding falls below 85%
- If growth is slow, focus efforts on increasing student’s rate of correct responding through repeated practice and systematic contingencies to address motivation
Formal evaluation level (special education evaluation)
use both qualitative and quantitative data to determine special ed eligibility
Why should a school psychologist not use the DAS-I
the Differential Abilities Scale norms are older than 10 years
Special education evaluation
will include formal and informal data from the following domains:
cognitive, achievement, communication, motor skills, adaptive skills, social/emotional/behavioral functioning, and sensory processing
Tier 3 interventions
academic: at-risk students, ind. or small groups
behavioral: at-risk, ind. counseling, FBA, BIP, contract monitoring, intense durable procedures
Tier 2 interventions
academic: some-risk students, students who don’t respond to core curriculum
behavioral: some-risk students, small group counseling, bullying prevention program, FBA, BIP, classroom management techniques, prof. dev., data, monday meetings
Tier 1 interventions
academic: all students; low-risk,
behavioral: all settings/students, low-risk, committee, preventative strategies, school-wide rules and expectations, positive reinforcement system, data, classroom management, prof. dev.
Tier 1 (Broadcast Area) primary interventions
involves application of universal interventions
school discipline policy aligned with positive behavior support (PBS)
Positive Behavior Support (PBS)
- establish & define clear consistent school-wide expectations (3-5 exp)
- teach expectations to all students
- acknowledge students for demonstrating desired beh
- develop clear and consistent consequences to respond to violations (include teaching and psycho ed component)
- use objective data to evaluate school-wide efforts
Tier 2 (strategic interventions)
more targeted in scope than universal level, less so than the intensive level
ex: bullying prevention programs
Elements of effective bullying prevention program
Tier 2
key: increase adult monitoring on the playground, lunch areas, hallways, and other open unstructured areas
zero tolerance policies are discouraged
develop a system-wide structure where culture does not support harrassment
Tier 3 Intensive (Targeted) Level
involves direct contact with the student who is having emotional or behavioral difficulties
ex: individual counseling with CBT and role playing, FBA
Counseling
one of the most common forms of student intervention
parental consent if ongoing
student informed of confidentiality and exceptions (harm to self or others, safety concerns, student request)
explicit goals should be stated and progress observable
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
based on thoughts influence feelings and ultimately control behavior
practitioners typically intervene with a student’s faulty beliefs (cognition)
Cognitive Therapy
related to reality therapy; created by Glasser
emphasis on cognition and beliefs; gets student to think about the connection between behaviors and consequences
solution-focused counseling
uses CBT principles, but typically very brief and focused on stated outcomes
Behaviorism
Skinner; direct behavioral interventions
forms basis of FBA
humanistic approach
Maslow and Rogers; behavior change cannot occur without a strong positive rapport built upon unconditional positive regard and empathy
people want to be understood before they can move to change their lives
Bibliography
cognitive intervention; uses student’s own problem solving skills and attempts to have the student relate to a character in a story to learn a lesson or skill
Group counseling
can employ many techniques of individual counseling
time efficient, often found within Tier 2, promotes social learning and skill generalization
Service Learning
teaches social-emotional competency and empathy
effective learning because students are engaged, real and relevant lessons are better remembered, promotes prosocial
ABA and intervention
may include: incidental teaching, structured teaching, pivotal response training, functional communication training, and PECS
DTT, Task analysis, prompts
Time out
effective if not used as punishment
Best practice
include FBA and modify environment as much as possible, decrease triggers, and focus on goodness of fit
response cost
earn tokens and lose them for inappropriate behavior
self-management strategies
effective with older students
cognitive model vs. behaviorist
theories on human thinking vs. learning by reinforcement and punishment
Class-wide peer tutoring (CWPT)
proactive intervention to help all students, similar to Vygotsky’s theory on collaborative learning
General Crisis considerations
most effective approach is prevention; promoting school safety is a vital component
practice drills and review processes annually
crisis teams: administration and other leaders
general crisis considerations cont’d
adult supervision and visibility
formal review of all school safety policies & procedures
plan a communication system
target bullying
anonymous reporting systems
human reactions to crisis
0-5 years: thumb sucking, bed-wetting, separation anxiety, regression
elementary age: aggressiveness, irritability, withdrawal, poor concentration, clingy
adolescents: sleeping and eating disturbances, extreme emotions, somatic complaints, poor attention or focus
PTSD
high anxiety and reaction to stress is extreme, obsessive thoughts about event, sleep problems, hyper-arousal, and externalizing behavior
normal response to extreme stress
Best practice: crisis response immediately following event
indemnify high risk and provide support, inventions may include individual counseling, small-group counseling, or family therapy
support adults, provide staff member’s with information on symptoms
therapeutic activities that facilitate healing
Suicide
3rd leading cause of death among age 10-19
suicide risk factors
individual: mental illness, depression, conduct disorders, substance abuse, low coping skills
environmental: family stress or dysfunction, interpersonal conflict, access to weapons
suicide prevention/intervention- Best Practice for high-risk
get help and collaborate with colleague
cal parents/guardians and notify administration
supervise student- under no circumstances allowed to be alone (even in bathroom) or leave school
no-suicide contracts have little effectiveness and are typically not recommended
call police and get consultation
document and provide copies
Suicide assessment
has thoughts about suicide, previous attempts, has a plan, what is support system
parents must be notified
provide referrals
suicide postvention
- reduce chances of anyone else committing suicide by avoiding glamorization of deceased
- assist staff and students with grief
be aware of cultural considerations
avoid contagion (no assemblies, sensationalism, glorification or vilification, do not use photos or announce on intercom, plaques or yearbook dedications, memorial/funeral service at school)
Loss, Death, and Grief
- processing
- coping
encourage children to talk about death or loss
person-centered humanistic counseling
strives for congruence between the real and ideal self
aim to actualize a person’s full potential and increase trust in oneself
people naturally seek growth toward personal and universal goals if they feel unconditional positive regard and relationships
existential counseling
people find their unique meaning and purpose in the world; increases self-awareness and stresses the importance of “choice” in tough situations
Adlerian therapy
people are motivated by social interests and by striving toward goals; life goals drive behavior
Freud
unconscious motives and conflicts drive behavior; early life experiences are important in development
Id- pleasure principle, Ego- rational, appropriate gratification of needs, Superego- morals, conscience
systems therapy (ecological therapy)
individuals are part of a larger living system; treatment of the entire family and other various systems is important in therapeutic change
NASP endorsed approach
CBT
BEST PRACTICE combined with FBA
places emphasis on a person’s belief systems as they cause of many problems. Internal dialogue plays a key role in behavior. Faulty assumptions and misconceptions must be addressed through talk therapy and then modified through role play
Rational-emotive counseling
founded by Ellis; emphasizes confrontational techniques regarding irrational beliefs. Not used with children in school.
Gestalt therapy
focuses on wholeness and integration of thoughts, feelings, and actions; moves a person from an external locus of control to internal
external locus of control
believe forces outside of self control success
internal locus of control
believe personally responsible for outcomes
reality therapy
centers on choices people make and how those choices are working for them; take charge of own life by examining choices
social skills training
four processes: instruction, rehearsing, providing feedback or reinforcement, and reducing negative behaviors; modeling and technique are important
response cost
removal of an earned reward that usually reduces or modifies negative behaviors
ex: kid throwing food in cafeteria misses recess to clean mess
overcorrection
used in restorative justice
ex: kid misses recess to clean thrown food in cafeteria and must help clean entire area
restorative justice
effective in anti-bullying interventions
self-dialogue (self-talk)
cognitive approach to behavior change; vial to understand what student is saying to self before, during, and after undesirable act
FBA
A-B-C
current practice focuses on removing environmental triggers
general counseling format
- define the problem
- brainstorm ideas to address problems
- implement plan or modification
- evaluate intervention’s effectiveness
key elements for effective behavioral interventions
feedback
giving choices (for alternate behavior and rewards)
positive reinforcement
crisis management
preparation and practice; transparency of facts is important
debriefing is useful to those who may need more support
primary intervention
prevention
Tier 1
secondary intervention
intervention, some groups
Tier 2
tertiary intervention
individualized intervention
Tier 3
crisis-school shootings
no specific profile of a school shooter, although some general traits may exist
Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Stage Theory
learning is active and children construct knowledge as they explore environment and world; progressive through adaptation and assimiliation
- Sensorimotor (0-2 years)- motor and action; realize objects exist separately from them and can manipulate them
- Preoperational (2-7 years)- symbolic function emerges; ability to make something stand for something else emerges
- Concrete operational (7-11 years)- begin to think about more than just one dimension of a problem or situation; gain understanding of conservation; able to think deeply and logically
- Formal operational (11+ years)- complex abstract thought, hypothetical and deductive reasoning develops, able to perform mental operations on ideas or imagined situations
Erik Erikson’s Stages of Development
based on the notion that humans will confront a specific challenge at a given age range, success of challenge at a dev. stage directly impacts positive or negative outcome
- Trust vs. mistrust (0-18 months)
- Autonomy vs. shame & doubt (18 mo- 3 years)
- initiative vs. guilt (3-5 years)
- Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years)- success of failure in school has lasting effects on self-efficacy and sense of adequacy; children learn a sense of industry if they are recognized for various activities (e.g., painting, reading)
- Identity vs. role confusion (13-18 years)- dev. a sense of identity, sense of self, and strong ego during this time. Peers, role models, and social pressures are factors associated with this stage.
- Intimacy vs. isolation
- generativity vs. stagnation
- integrity vs. despair
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
based on children’s ability to observe and learn vicariously; imitating; select behaviors to imitate based on how information is processed
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
humanist approach; if lower level needs are supported, then higher levels in this hierarchy may be realized
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
based on level of a child’s cognitive capabilities, which influences moral reasoning and behavior
- Preconventional- desire to avoid punishment and gain rewards
- Conventional- approval of others to maintain social relations
- Postconventional- judgments on right or wrong are logical and controlled by internalized ethical code
IEP consideration
must have educational or severe social impact, not just a diagnosis of a clinical disorder
schools: lesser level of impeding functioning is required to qualify for IEP, uses term level instead of disorder
ADHD
most prevalent in schools; usually co-occurs with Learning Disabilities
dopamine and neuroepinephrine deficiency causing prefrontal lobe brain dysfunction is implicated
3 types: inattentive, hyperactive, combined
Anxiety
more likely in females; may have genetic links
generalized or specific (phobias)
PTSD
subset of anxiety disorder
common and persistent extreme reaction to very stressful or traumatic events; recurrent nightmares, hypersensitivity to environmental triggers, avoidance behaviors, and constant recounting of the stressful situation.
Depression
high prevalence rates
treatment using a combined approach of therapy and meds is most effective
Bipolar Disorder
fluctuations from depression to mania
responsive to meds and counseling
Conduct Disorder (CD) and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)
schools generally regard CD as a behavioral disorder that is mostly the result of interactions between environment and individual, inadequate parents, peer rejection, academic failure, poverty, or low cognitive abilities
Autism
impacts more males than females
shaping, hands-on teaching with pictures, imitation, ABA, DTT, social skills
Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
caused by extra chromosome; most with DS have MR
interventions: hands-on learning, tight classroom structure, visual communication systems, social skills training
Tourette Syndrome
tic disorder with a possible genetic component that can be evidenced by extremely stressful events or a virus in the brain
Mental Retardation (MR)
diagnosed by standardized IQ scores that are given in SDs of 15; children with MR have very low cognitive abilities and life skills
must perform significantly low on measures like Vineland and ABAS to receive this diagnosis
SS = 55-69 mild, SS = 40-54 is moderate, SS = below 40 severe
Significant Identifiable Emotional Disability (SIED)
*changing to SED
used as an umbrella term that captures anxiety, depression, and psychoses
child must be impacted in various settings and one must be school; emotional disturbances cannot be due to situational factors and interventions must have been attempted
Speech and Language Disabilities
difficulty with expressive and/or receptive language
oral motor dysfunctions result in speech difficulties
language disorders broadly situated to the left hemisphere
common speech-lang. assessments are CELF and Peabody
Dyslexia
dysfunction of lexical system; diagnostic term for reading disorders- IEP may state reading difficulties instead of dyslexia
most reading problems linked to phonological processing dysfunction; however, a few have visual processing issues
proper assessment includes phonological processing (e.g., phonemic awareness, segmentation, and sound deletion)
Dyscalculia
diagnostic term for mathematical disorders
assessments include: Key Math Test, spatial and working memory subtests from cog abilities tests
Specific Learning Disability (SLD)
term schools use to capture learning problems such as dyslexia, dyscalculia, or spelling disorders
English as a Second Language (ESL)
NASP recommends ESL students provided education in both languages; full immersion within native language not recommended
Readiness
denotes student’s biological and physiological maturational level to enter school (usually kindergarten)
Learned Helplessness
behavior that results from the belief that one cannot control events in one’s environment; believe in external locus of control, not internal
prone to depression, fatalistic perspectives, low self-esteem, and low achievement
Theory of the mind
person begins to understand that other people have their own private thoughts, perspectives, and feelings
this theory is associated with autism
Premack principle
low probability behavior shaped by high probability (ex: clean first, then watch tv)
sometimes termed contingency learning
immediacy
consequences should occur immediately after the behavior to be effective
negative reinforcement
stimulus removed to increase future frequency, occurs immediately after behavior
positive reinforcement
stimulus added to increase future frequency, occurs immediately after behavior
fixed ratio reinforcement
specific number of behaviors must occur before reinforcement is given
variable ratio
number of behaviors needed in order to receive reinforcer varies
resistant to change
shaping
creates behavior by reinforcing approximations
frequency, duration, intensity
measurable key parts of a behavior plan
extinction
remove reinforcement terminates behavior
intelligence
generally, how one applies knowledge to problem solving
NASP endorses connecting cognitive test results to interventions
Spearman’s Theory of Intelligence: Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence
gen. intelligence factor known as “g”; specific factors correlated with specific abilities
Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities
opposite of Spearman, 11 primary mental abilities
Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory of Cognitive Abilities
CHC widel adopted and used in many tests- WISC-IV, DAS-II, WJ-III
fluid intelligence, fluid reasoning,
Gf; refers to deductive and inductive reasoning with novel processes
crystallized ability, crystallized verbal ability
Gc; refers to application of acquired knowledge and learned skills to answering questions and solving problems that present broadly familiar materials and processes
visual processing
Gv; ranges from simple visual perceptual tasks to highler level visual and cognitive processes
auditory processing
Ga; recognizing similarities and differences between sounds and recognizing degraded spoken words, such as words with sounds omitted or separated
processing speed
Gs; refers to measures of clerical speed and accuracy
short-term memory
Gsm; immediate memory
long-term retrieval
Glr; involves memory storage and retrieval over long periods
PASS Model
- planning
- attention
- simultaneous processing
- successive processing
phonology
system of sounds that a language uses; consists of multiple component skills; blending phonemes; analyze and synthesize phoneme combinations
phonemic awareness
component of the broader construct phonological processing; rote phonics
morpheme
smallest unit of meaning, such as prefix, suffix, or root word (ex: pre in the word preheat)
semantics
study of word meanings and combinations, such as in phrases, clauses, and sentences
syntax
prescribes how words may combine into phrases, clauses, and sentences
pragmatics
set of rules that specify appropriate language for particular social contexts
Noam Chomsky
believed children born with an innate mental structure that guides language; universal features (e.g., subject, verb, object); critical period for language and LAD
left hemisphere of cerebral cortex
plays primary role in language
Broca’s Area
front portion of left hemisphere, supports grammatical processing and expressive language production
Wenicke’s Area
medial temporal lobe, supports word-meaning comprehension and receptive language
Cognitive Abilities Tests
used to predict future learning and are usually norm-referenced
Formative Evaluations
specific assessments used to determine a student’s strengths and weaknesses
Summative Evaluations
provide a review and summary of accomplishments to date; usually provided at end of grading period
Achievement Tests
describes skill person has learned in school; concerned with mastery of a skill (e.g., reading, math, writing)
can be formal and norm-referenced
Domain-referenced and Criterion-referenced
purpose is solely on reaching a standard performance on a specific skill set; not norm-referenced or standardized
Norm-referenced
performance evaluated in relation to the performance of a more general reference group; quality of performance defined by comparison with behaviors of others; scores describe in terms how far a student is from the mean and fall on a normal curve of scores
percentile ranks
indicates the percentage of people surpassed by an individuals on a standardized test
ex: student in 33rd percentile has scored better than 33% of those who took that test
NOT an equal-interval measurement, major problem with this metric; unequal interval statistics tend to exaggerate score differences the farther from the mean the scores get
Grade norm and equivalents
poor metrics
students matched to grade groups whose performance they equal (e.g., student with GE of 3.5 is performing as an average child in the fifth month of 3rd grade)
Standard Score
psychometrically sound- most encouraged to use; used to describe position of a score as the mean of other scores within normal curve of human traits; use SDs in formula; prefered because equal interval scores
Range
difference between the highest and lowest score within a series
Median
middle score in a set of scores wherein 50% of scores fall on either side of the middle score
mode
most frequently occurring score in a series
mean
average score of a set; regarded as one of the best measures of central tendency
variance
measure of how far a set of numbers is spread out
standard deviation
measure of the spread of a set of values form the mean value; square root of the variance; measure of dispersion
T-scores
have a mean of 50 and SD of 10 (ex: T = 65 is above average and 1.5 SD above mean)
Stanines
standard nine-point scale, has a mean of 5 and each stanine unit represents one half of an SD
Reliability
consistent and stable across time; ability to produce similar results over time
Reliability coefficient
statistic illustrates the consistency or stability of a score; should be around r = .80 or higher (the higher the better)
standard error of measurement (SEM)
estimate of error used when interpreting test scores; plays pivotal role in calculating reliability
Test-retest
testing a person with same test twice, minimal two weeks in between; two scores are correlated together and high similarity means high reliability
Alternate and parallel forms
two test built to same specs, but composed of different samples from the defined behavior domain
Split half
create two tests from full test, both tests administered even on same day, and the scores on both tests are correlated
Internal consistency reliability
estimate of the rliabitliy of the total test is developed from an analysis of the e statistics of the individual test items. each test item is compared to the total set of items.
This statistic is expressed in terms of Cronbach’s alpha
interrater reliability
the reliability of people administering the test is increased by increasing the number of raters or judges
validity
the degree to which the test actually measures what it claims to measures; validity coefficients of .80 or above
criterion-related validity
correlations between two measures (tests) that are designed to measure human traits
face and content validity
how rational and reasonable the test and test items look (ex: a math test with all questions about cats would be invalid)
convergent validity
determined when a test is correlated with another that has a similar purpose and measure the same trait (ex: ADHD test correlates or “converges” with another well-known ADHD test has good validity)
common standardized tests use convergent validity
divergent validity
correlating two tests that measure two different traits (ex: ADHD test should have low correlation with depression test)
construct-related validity
whether a trait or construct is being measured
predictive validity
a valid test should have high predictive value (ex: a student with SS = 75 is predicted to struggle in school and perform below grade level)
discriminant validity
a valid test should be able to discriminate between students who have the trait being measured and those who do not have the trait (ex: student scoring high on anxiety measure could be identified with an AD from those who do not have an AD)
confounding factors for validity and reliability
motivation lack of effort when taking test language difficulty, problems understanding directions fatigue, lack of sleep test anxiety racial bias SES family dynamics mental health issues
Standardized tests and interpreters
NASP does not encourage the use of standardized test with interpreters if the test is not appropriately normed; if not normed on the special population related to students being tested then reliability and validity will be profoundly impacted
false positives
student performs well on test, but is failing in authentic environment
false negatives
student performs poorly on a test, but is making acceptable progress with little or no problem in authentic environment
standard score
100 is average (not 50)
a score in the 50th percentile is equal to SS = 100
criterion measurement
not based on bell curve, but based on specific content or criteria to be mastered; criterion measurement is typically used in self-paced studies and in RtI processes
SEM
BEST PRACTICE to give the range of scores that test score falls within due to the SEM (used to develop confidence brackets)
effect size
illustrates overall effect of an intervention based on comparing the mean performance of two groups (large .50, moderate .30, small .10)
Type 1/Type 2 error
Type 1- state test results are true, but they are not (false positive)- rejecting null
Type 2- stating something is false, but it is true (false negative)- accepting null
experimental power
the higher the N, the more power, which improves reliability and validity; typically, N starts to approximate bell curve characteristics at 50 participants
Basic Principles of Effective Instructions
- activate prior knowledge
- make connections between new learning and current knowledge
- do not overload- working memory is typically limited to 4-7 bits of information
- provide optimum level of instruction- Zone of Proximal Development- not too hard, not too easy
- model,explicit expectations, & multiple exemplars of completed work
- practice, corrective feedback, cognitive rest between new concepts
- immediate feedback in positive manner
- multimodal approach, learning by doing
- acquisition- proficiency- generalization- adaptation
instructional strategies
explicit and systematic approach; tell what learning- why necessary- model new skill- students practice with feedback
I do, we do, you do
differentiated instruction
educators respond to the individualized needs and abilities of all learners within the regular education classroom
small-group instruction
allows teacher to monitor student mastery, provide instant feedback, and accommodate individual needs
cooperative learning
Vygosky; students work collaboratively
develops a greater understanding and respect for individual learning differences
Vygosky also developed zone of proximal development (ZPD)
flexible grouping & homogenous grouping
by skill level is effective, changing students within groups is good practice
student engagement time
predictor of achievement; defined by amount of time student actively engaged in learning
relating concept to life and having input encourages engagement; foster free discussion
metacognition
thinking and reflecting about learning, what is known and not known; essential study skill; requires high degree of self-awareness
SQ3R- survey, question, read, recite, review (metacognitive technique that builds comprehension)
factors in academic success or failure
school climate (safe & positive), student motivation (intrinsic = more success), educational practices and policies (RtI & data-based decisions), family involvement
retention issues
research does NOT support retention; achievement declines 2-3 years post-retention; more likely to have interpersonal conflicts, dislike school, behavior problems, and lower self-esteem
tracking
NASP does NOT endorse
- whole group instruction
- curriculum is delivered at same pace for whole class
- class placement based solely on skill level
zero tolerance
- predetermined and typically harsh consequences for a wide degree of violations (e.g., drugs, weapons, violence, smoking); generally ineffective and not endorsed
- issues include: racially disproportionate, increase in suspensions and expulsion, increase in repeat suspensions, elevated dropout rates,
teaching approach
multimodal approach is BEST PRACTICE
learning by doing and student engagement are critical aspects
parental involvement
BEST PRACTICE to involve parents; NASP endorses parental notification
capacity approach model
support and use a child’s strengths as much as possible
multisensory approach
BEST PRACTICE to use auditory, visual, and tactile methods when teaching
accommodation vs. modification
accomodation: changes in the environment (ex: taking a test in a quiet room)
modification: changing the task (ex: taking half the test instead of whole)
CBA vs CBM
CBA: used in program evaluation
CBM: used for classroom and instructional intervention planning
Cognitive-Behavioral theory
learning is supported by mental representations (schema) and through associations (i.e., pairing of a skill or idea with a reinforcer)
direct vs. indirect approaches
NASP endorse indirect approaches with emphasis on building skills, although direct more time efficient
consultant personal characteristics
- openness, approachability, and warmth
- sincerity and genuineness
- trustworthiness and confidentiality
- empathy
- self-disclosers
student (client) traits and factors influencing consultation
- age and development stage
- coping styles (externalizing- acting out, beh. probs, fighing, disrupting class & internalizing- depression, shut down, nonresponsive)
- personality traits (level of openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, extroversion)
consultee-centered model of consultation
- focus on improving and enhancing competence and skills of the consultee
- indirectly helps the client by building consultee skills
- consultant considered problem-solving or skill-building expert
- consultee has knowledge of problem, but needs skills to properly address it
- role of consultant- identify effective treatments & teach, focus on consultee instead of client, increase knowledge base for future, may deal with consultee’s distorted view of client
*indirect help for client/BEST PRACTICE to teach staff how to help themselves and numerous other students
client-centered model of consultation
- not as favored as consultee-centered approach
- focuses on the student
- consultant directly helps client
- consultant teaches the student skills
- effective on a single cases basis, but not for groups
- time intensive for consultant
*direct help for client
behavioral model of consultation (applies to consultee- & client-centered)
- solution focused and collects data to effect behavior change (empirically-based model)
- goal is to reduce frequency of undesirable beh by altering relationship between student and environment that prevents consultee working effectively with client
- prepares consultant to deal iwth future issues
Behavioral model of consultation steps
- identify problem (critical stage to target efforts and interventions)
- implement plan
- monitor effectiveness
- evaluate and make needed changes to plan
conjoint behavioral consultation
supports meetings with all parties (e.g., parent, student, and staff)
special considerations of consultation
- multicultural and cross-cultural: is a culturally sensitive, indirect service model, adjusts consultation services to meet cultural needs
- interagency collaboration and school-community: link client with community resources or school-based services within the school (child-centered, family-centered, school-centered, community-centered)
- consultation with interpreters: encouraged and necessary to build rapport
child-centered collaboration
direct service to student such as mentoring or tutoring
family-centered collaboration
service to parents or families such as parenting workshops, family counseling, and family assistance
school-centered collaboration
donation of money or equipment, staff development, or classroom assistance
community-centered collaboration
outreach programs, artwork and science exhibits, and after-school programs
Barriers to collaboration and consultation
consultee or client resist participation, client is unable to make a time commitment, funding problems for community collaboration, lack of leadership, communication difficulties, unclear goals or unfocused goals, adversarial relationship with community experts (e.g., medical docs)
program-centered administrative consultation model
benefits entire program or school (ex: school psych performs an in-service for school)
problem-solving consultation format
- define prob; be specific
- analyze prob and collect data if necessary
- plan intervention, monitor and modify as needed
- evaluate outcomes, compare pre and post data, make changes
ecological (systems) model
examines how beh is being maintained within various settings and systems; uses workshops, feedback, and coordination among groups
process consultation model
uses workshops, feedback, and coordination among groups
NASP position on service
school psychologist should always seek prof. consultation when unsure about administering a new cognitive test
NASP position on area of expertise
psychologists must not practice outside of their area of expertise
informed consent
practitioners must secure informed consent from parents when providing services to children
respect the dignity and rights of all persons
respect for the autonomy of persons and their rights to self-determination, respect for privacy, and a commitment to just and fairs treatment of all persons
professional competence and responsibility
practice within the boundaries of their competence and use scientific knowledge from psychology and education to benefit people; accept responsibility for the choices they make
honesty and integrity in relationship
be truthful and adhere to professional standards; be honest about qualifications, competencies, and roles; work in cooperation with other disciplines to help students and families; avoid multiples relationships that diminish their professional effectiveness
responsibility to schools, families, communities, the profession, and society
promote positive school, family, and community environments; respect law and encourage strict ethical conduct; advance one’s professional excellence by mentoring less experienced practitioners and contribute to the school psych knowledge base
test use and misuse
must comprehend the technical aspects of psychometrics, testing, and measurement of human traits; use multiple sources of information when evaluating students; maintain record and test confidentiality and security
confidentiality
obtain written consent before sharing information, destroy documents before discarding, do not discuss confidential info, make sure people know the limits of confidentiality (e.g., safety and harm issues)
supervision standards
provide at least two hours of supervision per week, holding proper license and credentials, maintaining 1 supervisor for 10 interns
private practice standards
do not charge for services provided by school district that employs you, do not accept money for referrals, do not engage in private practice work during school hours, provide honest and complete information about your self and your services when advertising your practice
reporting abuse and safety
duty to protect child is highest responsibility; duty to protect outweighs confidentiality; safety issues are critical and you have a duty to warn others of harm
child benefit is always the focus
consult with teachers and staff, but do not counsel adults; focus efforts on the child. provide resources to adults in need, but provide intervention to children
Grievances
- complaints made by an identified person (not anonymous)
- try to resolve with ind. first before filing complaint (people who file a complaint do not have to be NASP members)
- ethics committee will decide whether to hear case
- ethics committee will exam the evidence & determine if complaint has merit and whether its in violation of NASP ethics
- notification in writing will be granted to an individual who has been filed against
- an ethics committee will attempt to resolve conflicts through discussion and participation of all parties in dispute
- possible actions by ethics committee: dismiss complaint, seek more info, corrective measures, member placed on probation, require member to give compensation or provide an apology, require additional training and skill dev, expulsion from NASP
aversive procedures
are discouraged and should be considered last resort (e.g., SIB beh may need temporary restraining; informed parental consent always necessary
corporal punishment
NASP strongly opposes; psychs should educate others about harm of corporal punishment
courts (position)
courts have ruled schools should apply discipline in a fair, nondiscriminatory manner, school rules should be clearly stated, and the consequences for breaking rules understood by all students
suspension and expulsion
short-term: 10 days or less
SPED students must have a special review meetings if they are suspended 10 days
IDEA contains special protection for students with disabilities; students with disabilities who violate a school rule may be removed from school for no more than 10 cumulative days
for suspension less than 10 days, schools are not required to provide educational services
change of placement because of disciplinary removals
change of placement occurs if:
removal is more than 10 consecutive days
beh is substantially similar in all instances that lead to the removal; additional factors such as the length of each removal, the total number of times student has been removed, or the proximity of the removals to each other
must also provide FBA to determine cause of the behavior
manifestation determination
- manifestation meeting conducted by IEP team to determine whether or not the student’s behavior warrents a 10-day suspension or if the expulsion was a result of a disability; this meeting must be held within 10 days of the change of placement decision
- if beh was manifestation of disability, the team must provide an FBA and implement a BP; child may return to the original school placement or be placed in another school if it part of the new FBA plan and agreed upon by the team
- if determined not due to disability, disciplinary procedures may be applied in same manner as child without disability, except child still receives same protection under IDEA such as FAPE
special suspension and expulsion considerations
schools may place child with disability in interim placement for 45 days, regardless of manifestation determination, if the student carries a weapon, inflicted serious bodily harm, or for drugs
parents can appeal manifestation determination
suspected disability, but not yet on IEP can have same protection under IDEA
Least restrictive environment (LRE)
children with disabilities should be educated with children who are not disabled, and special classes, separate schooling, or other removal of children with disabilities from the regular educational environment should occur only when the nature of severity of the disability is such that education in regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily
malpractice
lawsuits typically occur if there is harm to a student as result of professional interaction
supervision
even though interns are supervised, both supervisor and intern can be sued
negligence
of all legal suits, negligence is most common offense and mostly occurs when there is student suicide or injury that could have been reasonably prevents by the practitioner
Education for all handicapped children act (EAHCA), 1975
first spec ed law in US
referred to P.L. 94-142
name changed to IDEA
Individuals with disabilities act (IDEA), 2004
- applies to: autism, deaf-blindness, deafness, hearing impairment, MR, multiple disabilities, orthopedic or other health impairments, ED, SLD, speech or language impairments, TBI, visual impairment including blindness
- mandates FAPE & LRE for all with disabilities
- states must not require use of discrepancy model and must permit use of RtI. IDEA may permit the use of other research-based procedures for identifying LD; NASP endorses use of RtI, but schools can still use other models such as discrepancy to determine eligibility
No Child Left Behind (NCLB), 2001
targets high-risk schools; mandates statewide formal assessments grades 3-8; public school choice available for students at schools that are low performing for 2 years; schools required to employ “highly” qualified staff.
began with Elementary and Secondary Education Act (PL 89-10, 1965) by Lyndon Johnson
Family educational rights and privacy act (FERPA), 1974
schools must adhere to strict student record keeping procedures; FERPA record keeping laws are designed to protect confidentiality and allow parents access to educational records
Rehabilitation act: section 504, 1973
part of ADA, is civil rights law, not sped law; provides a broader definition of handicap than disability under IDEA; prohibits discrimination against otherwise qualifying individuals on the basis of a handicapping condition in any program receiving federal funds
Zero reject principle
established Child Find, which requires states to located and identify children with disabilities and provide them with full educational opportunity, regardless of the severity of the disability
SPED safeguards- complaints
must be filed within 2 years
SPED safeguards- resolution meetings
within 15 days of receiving the complaint, schools must convene a meeting
SPED safeguards- due process hearings
parents have the right to request a third-party hearing officer for special education disputes
SPED safeguards- consent
written parental consent, must be obtained before an evaluation. schools may proceed without consent for triennial reviews if documented reasonable efforts have been made to contact parent(s)
SPED safeguards- notice
prior written notice must be given to parents for the initiation or change of a student’s identification, evaluation, placement, change of service, or educational programming. There is a difference between notice and consent
SPED safeguards- procedural safeguards notice
a parents’ rights booklet must be provided to parents once per year and at the initial evaluation if a parent requests it and if a complaint has been file. This may be posted on the school’s website
IEP meetings
must be held within 60 days after a parent signs consent for initial evaluation and once a year after that. Re-evals are held every 3 years
special education team
consists of parents, at least one reg ed teacher, at least one of the child’s spec ed teachers, a rep of the school who is qualified to provide or supervise the provision of services, someone who can interpret the evaluation results.
excusal from IEP meeting
a parent needs to submit a written note to the school that gives permission for a member of the IEP team to be excused from the meeting. However, someone must be present who can explain results
1970-1979
first SPED laws
1950-1959
school psych sub-field forms
1980-1989
NASP evolution; first NASP exam
2001
NCLB passed
2004
reauthorization of IDEA
2010
NASP adopts new professional standards
Lighner Witmer
father of school psych; combined edu and psych services to help students with learning and behavioral probs
Arnold Gessell
first school psychologist in 1915, believed the development of children was parallel and orderly process, believed to have been first to create tests that measured development in children
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
believed behavior was shaped and maintained by consequences that followed beh; his theories steeped in empirical methods
Albert Bandura
cognition helped to drive beh; imitation learning and modeling
Francis Galton
theory of human traits fall on a normal curve that forms the shape of a bell
Alfred Binet
one of the first scientists to measure the construct of intelligence and its relation to the normal curve
Spearman
contributed to factor and two-factor analysis, which provide validation for the theory of intelligence tests that are based on “g”
“g” correlates with other factors to varying degrees to create human thinking ability
Lewis Terman
studied gifted children; believed bright children should have resources allocated to their needs; helped to revise Stanford-Binet cog test for use with American children
In America, revised S-B was fist to be employed in 1916
theory of intelligence
intelligence is based on a complex interplay of genetics (heredity) and environmental factors. Intelligence is closely associated with an ability to adapt to one’s environment and apply information.
Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory
is the most recent theoretical basis for cognitive tests, such as the WISC-IV and DAS-II, and is statistically derived
individuals with disabilities education improvement act (IDEIA), 2004
students must be assessed with nondiscriminatory assessments and decisions must be made by a multidisciplinary team that includes parents, RtI can be used; provides funds for children from birth to age 3
Brown vs. Board of Education
facilities not allowed to segregate according to race
Larry P. v. Riles
ruled that the percent of minority students placed in spec ed classes couldn’t exceed the percentage in the gen pop; based on fact there was an over-representation of minorities classified as MR
Rowley v. Board of Education of the Hendrick Hudson School District
public schools do not have to provide the best education, but rather an adequate eduction.
Lau v. Nichols
schools must provide accommodations to ESL students
Tatro v. Irving Independent School District
schools must provide medical services that do not require a medical doctor be performed on students who require such services, even if the child needs full-time attention from a nurse; original case about a catheter
Americans with disabilities act (ADA, PL 101-336, 1990)
provides comprehensive civil rights protections to individuals with disabilities in the areas of employment, public accommodations, State and local government services, and telecommunications.
Penn. Assoc. of Retarded Children (PARC) v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania
right to education for children with disabilities in LRE became known as IDEA; first right to education suit in country
Oberti v. Clementon
case that begins the change from the IDEA’s “mainstreaming” approach to the concept of “inclusion.”
Newport-Mesa Unified School District v. State of California Department of Education
California school districts can distribute copies of test protocols to parents of special education students without violating federal copyright law, in accordance with California Education Code section 56504. Such distribution of copyrighted test protocols is a fair use under copyright law because it is noncommercial and broadens parents’ understanding of their child’s educational needs.
Research finds that _____________is the most effective for developing phonemic awareness
a combination of oral and print language
Tests used for assessing children’s social skills
SSRS (Social Skills Rating System), SIB-R (Scales of Independent Behavior-Revision), Vineland, and Walker-McConnell
A typical elementary student is most often in which of Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development?
Industry vs. Inferiority (age 6-11)
Adolescents and teenagers are most often in which of Erikson’s stages?
Identity vs. Role Confusion (age 12-18)
Preschoolers are most often in which of Erikson’s stages?
Initiative vs. Guilt (age 3-5)
Protection of Pupils’ Rights
Parental consent is required before students participate in surveys funded by the Department of Education Parents also have the right to review questions before their students participate in such surveys. This applies only to surveys that elicit personal information and are federally funded.
Collaborations work towards what?
a common goal
the four-step counseling format commonly used in schools is:
- define the problem
- brainstorm ideas to help address the problem
- implement the plan or modification
- evaluate intervention effectiveness
in secondary educational settings, how many screening measures have been designed for use?
3
BASC and BESS (beh and emotional screening system), SRSS (student risk screening scale), SDQ (strength and difficulties questionnaire)
learning style in which the learner prefers to work with abstractions and ideas, and to use methods of questioning and reasoning is?
understanding learning
difference between advocate, adviser, collaborator, facilitator, and mediator
an advocate provides support and speaks on behalf of others- an adviser provides recommendations and shares expertise- a collaborator participates as a team member- a facilitator leads the consultation process- a mediator provides a framework to resolve conflicts
what is the systematic process that clarifies or analyzes an issue until an appropriate strategy is chosen?
problem-solving
connectivism
learning is based on connecting information sources; it occurs through recognizing and interpreting patterns, influenced by a diversity of networks; negatives include not everyone has the proper technology
a student is swearing 3 times in 10 minutes. What type of recording is being used?
frequency
what is a characteristic of the interview process?
establishing rapport will create the trust needed to share personal information
what is true about observational measures?
can be focused on processes of behavior, products of behavior, direct observation, naturalistic observation, or all of these
At the beginning of the school year, for a new student with no previous assessments or school records which of these would be least indicated for problem identification?
Portfolio assessments are performance-based and contain products of the student’s learning. At the beginning of the school year a new student with no previous assessments or school records will not have a portfolio. A portfolio assessment reflects a student’s progress over the school year in a given area.
What is true regarding the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)
The information it collects is reported by a child’s parents
For which teachers would the History/Transition Information Profile be most useful?
Teachers with a class of all new students who have past school records
In the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), which of the following subtests evaluates short-term memory
Digit Span
What is not a type of executive function that students must use to succeed in school?
Being able to follow specific, step-by-step directions
what is a type of executive function that students must use to succeed in school?
retrieving previously learned information; organizing a report, essay, or project parts; assigning appropriate priority to each item; managing work time in a realistic fashion
NCSP credential maintenance
minimum of 25 hours of professional development a year
school student record keeping policy
consistent with FERPA; test protocols are part of student record, school system ensures that test security is protected and copyright restrictions are observed; clinical notes are personal property of SP
Vineland
assesses: communication, daily living, socialization
birth-6 and age 7-90
Tarasoff case
psychotherapists have a duty to protect an individual they reasonably believe to be at risk of injury on the basis of a patient’s confidential statement
Buckley Amendment to FERPA
adds ability for parents to change information in child’s records
10th amendment
reserve powers (to the states)
14th amendment
rights guaranteed privileges and immunities of citizenship, due process and equal protection
American Educational Research Association (AERA)
concerned with improving the educational process by encouraging scholarly inquiry related to education and evaluation and by promoting the dissemination and practical application of research results.
American Psychological Association (APA)
is the largest scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the United States. APA is the world’s largest association of psychologists, with nearly 130,000 researchers, educators, clinicians, consultants and students as its members.
National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME)
is a professional organization for individuals involved in assessment, evaluation, testing, and other aspects of educational measurement.
Perkins Act
career and technical education act; provides funds to postsecondary institutionsfunds improve the academic performance of students, especially special population students, who are enrolled in career and technical education programs
APA, AERA, NCME
Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (the Testing Standards); were first produced jointly by AERA, APA, and NCME in 1966
