Praxis 1 Flashcards
Achievement Tests
measure the extent to which a student acquired knowledge in a content area.
Aptitude Tests
measure a student’s potential to perform a specific skill in the future.
Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy
Bloom developed a classification system for educational objectives that came to be known as Bloom’s Taxonomy. Objectives were divided into 3 domains: cognitive (mental) affective (emotional) and psychomotor (physical). Within the cognitive theory, Bloom ranked objectives from lower to higher level thinking. Remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluation, and creating.
Extrinsic Motivation vs. Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic— when we are motivated to do something because it will help us get something we want or avoid something we don’t want.
Intrinsic— when we are motivated to do something solely because we love doing that thing.
Behavioral theories tend to emphasize extrinsic motivation, while humanistic, cognitive, and sociocultural theories emphasize intrinsic motivation.
John Watson’s Theory of Behaviorism
Watson advised against playing or showing affection towards children. He took back his statement after his own child committing suicide.
Watson believed that through punishment and reinforcement he could shape anyone into anything, regardless of genetic predisposition
Watson is famous for the Little Albert Experiment, where he used loud noises to get a boy to fear a rat
Watson believed all learning was measurable and observable through actions not thoughts. He believed frequent, repetitive practice produced learning.
Cognitive Dissonance
cognitive dissonance and disequilibrium are very similar states. Cognitive dissonance=….
The discomfort that arises when we try to hold two contradictory ideas, believes, or attitudes at the same time.
According to Piaget we are always seeking balance through a process called equilibrium. We weigh what we know against what we’ve learned and either assimilate new knowledge into our old schemas or accommodate (i.e update) our old schemas to incorporate the new info
If new info causes too much disequilibrium or cognitive dissonance, we may just flat out reject it.
Self Determination Theory
Individuals have 3 basic needs:
The Need for Competence— success
The Need for Autonomy— the ability to determine our own path, make choices and exert control
The Need for Relatedness- a sense of connection to and belonging
Cognitive Evaluation Theory argues if an event is controlling, students will lose their intrinsic motivation, but if it is informational, it will increase students’ sense of autonomy and with it their motivation to listen.
Reciprocal Determinism
a theory set for by Albert Bandura which states that a person’s behavior BOTH influences and is influenced bu their environment. In other words, students do not simply react to their environment, but act on and interact with it.
Behavior is not controlled or “determined” by the individual student and their environment. (their beliefs, abilities and personalities.)
Lawrence Kohlberg’s 6 Stages of Moral Development
Pre-conventional:
Obedience— obey to avoid punishment
Rewards/Exchange— what’s right is what I want/need
Conventional:
3. Being Nice/Relationships— What’s right is what makes others happy
4. Law & Order— what’s right is what authority figures tell me
Post Conventional:
5. Social Contract— ???
6. Universal Ethical Principals— some human rights are right regardless
Self-Regulation
Albert Bandura was a pig proponent of self-regulation which is…
The ability to plan, monitor, and guide your own thinking and problem solving in order to achieve goals.
3 things impact self regulation or the skill to will to succeed: 1. Knowledge 2. Motivation 3. Self-discipline or volition
Cognitive Behavior Modification= I do, we do, you do
2 Social processes that support self regulation: 1. Co-regulation (emulating model) 2. Shared regulation (classmates reminding each other what to do)
Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erikson emphasized the emergence of the self, the search for identity, the individual’s relationship to others, and the role of culture.
He believed individuals confront a developmental crisis at each stage and either resolve it healthily (by finding a balance between 2 extremes) or unhealthily. This has lasting consequences on their self-concept and self-esteem
Americans Disabilities Act (ADA) & Individuals with Disabilities Education Acs (IDEA)
The ADA, passed in 1990, extended the protections of section 504 + incorporate all public places (restaurants, buses, etc)
IDEA requires positive behavior supports for SPED students and assistive technology (like sound cancelling headphones, focus tools, etc.) It guarantees free public ed for all children regardless of ability.
13 disabilities covered: learning, ADHD, autism, emotional disturbance, speech impairment, visual impairment, deafness, brain injury, intellectual, multiple (??)— It makes provisions for Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) and affords funding.
Edwards Thorndike’s Theory of Connectionism
The Law of Readiness— if a student is forced to learn when they aren’t ready or prevented from learning when they are ((are annoyance results??)
The Law of Exercise— Stimulus- response connection are strengthened with practice
Thorndike’s study of cats influenced and informed B.F Skinner’s theory of operas conditioning
Thorndike proposed the Law of Effect: that whenever a behavior is followed by a desirable consequence (a reward) it is likely to be adopted and repeated at increasing frequency. He was the forefather of “reinforcement”, and believed it more powerful than punishment.
Thorndike proposed that “transfer” is always specific, never general— it requires the same circumstances to be replicated.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Your basic needs HAVE to be met before your higher level needs can be.
Basic Needs: Food, shelter, etc (Basic)
Safety Needs: Security (Basic)
Belonging & Love Needs (Psychological)
Esteem Needs (Psychological) — cognitive & aesthetic needs have been added
Self-Actualization (Self Fulfillment)
Section 504
Part of a civil rights law, (Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1975) that prevents discrimination against people with disabilities in programs that receive federal funds ex: public schools
Schools for get any extra funds, but must come up with 504 plans to accommodate the needs of students with medical needs and students with ADHD who aren’t covered by iDEA but are deemed in need of accommodations by a 504 team. (food allergies can apply)
Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages of Development
Sensory-Motor Period, 0-2 yrs: develop object permanence, and schemas to accomplish goals and can reverse actions
Preoperational Periods, 2-7 yrs: develop the semiotic function (the ability to symbiotically represent things) and are egocentric (they believe everyone is the same as them)
Concrete Operational Period, 7-11 years: can classify things, understand conservation, and mentally represent things (2 glasses w different shapes still hold the same amount of liquid)
Formal Operational Period, 11-adulthood: develop hypothetical co deductive reasoning, can think about what might be and think across several categories to make inferences, can think metacognitively. They are often egocentric (self-focused, and hyper conscious of an “imaginary audience”
Self Concept & Self Esteem
self concept= WHO you are in your own eyes
Self esteem= HOW VALUABLE you are in your own eyes. Something can only affect your self esteem if it is something you care about and see as a desirable quality.
Self-Efficacy
Albert Bandura saw self efficacy as essential
Our beliefs about our personal competence or effectiveness in a given area or subject
Self efficacy is future-oriented— it is our assessment of whether or not we’ll be able to accomplish something and greatly influences the effort we put into things as well as our attitudes towards things.
4 sources of self efficacy: 1. Mastery experiences (past experiences you’ve had) 2. Physiological arousal (excitement or anxiety) 3. Vicarious experiences (experiences you’ve witnessed) 4. Social persuasion (encouragement and guidance feedback)
Transfer
Stages of transfer: Acquisition, Retention, Transfer
Using learning strategies or knowledge gained in one situation and applying it to another situation. Transfer can occur across subjects, contexts, time periods, places, etc
In order to engage in thoughtful transfer a student has to identify the main idea or underlying concept, not just the specific procedure you need to get an answer. Collaboration and transfer happens when there is—- real world application, over learning to the point of automaticity, active learning, self regulation, purpose statements
Metacognition
thinking about your own thinking. This skill develops at 5-7 yrs old
There are 3 components to metacognition: 1. Planning your learning 2. Monitoring your learning 3. Evaluation your learning
Metacognition is essential for self-regulation. It is the strategic application of declarative, procedural, and self regulatory knowledge to accomplish goals ex: reflection, goal setting
Operant Conditioning
BF Skinner developed this in the 1950s
Actions or operants result in consequences that change future actions or operants
Desired actions/behaviors can be encouraged through reinforcement (strengthens desired behavior) and/or punishment (weakens undesired behaviors)
Positive reinforcement= adding a pleasant stimulus when you to the desired behavior
Negative reinforcement= taking away an unpleasant stimulus when you do the desired behavior
Positive punishment= adding an unpleasant stimulus when you do an undesired behavior
Negative punishment= taking away a pleasant stimulus when you do an undesired behavior
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov discovers this in his 1970s experiments with dogs
Neutral stimulus- a stimulus that initially doesn’t trigger any response (bell)
Unconditioned stimulus— a stimulus that naturally triggers a response (food)
Conditioned stimulus— been paired with an unconditioned stimulus so it triggers the same response
Conditioned response— the response a conditioned stimulus triggers (salivating at the sound of a bell)
Classical conditioning — focuses on pairing involuntary (natural) responses like fear and hunger w/ neutral stimulus
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
because the developmental process lags behind the learning process, what a student can accomplish on their own isn’t always the best measure of their abilities according to Vygotsky
The ZPD is a different measure. It is the distance between a students “actual” developmental level as determined through independent problem solving and their “potential” developmental level as determined by guided/scaffolded problem solving
Schemas & Schemes
Shemas: abstract knowledge structures that organize vast amounts of information AKA schema— a mental framework that guides our perception and helps us Make sense of our world/experiences
Schemes: in Piaget’s theories, schemes are organizes systems of actions or thought that allow us to think about the objects and events in our world. We adapt existing schemes to accommodated new info, assimilate new info into our existing scheme, or reject the info.
