Pragmatics

Question 1

Pragmatics

Answer 1

= The relationship between the language and its user with a certain intention
It includes the linguistic and non-linguistic context in the interpretation of meaning.

Linguistic context = Discourse = Connected series of utterances produced in a conversation
Non-linguistic context = The situation in which discourse takes place (setting)

Question 2

Discourse

Answer 2

= Connected series of utterances produced in a conversation

Interpretation of discourse relies on different categories in information structure.
▪ New versus given information (Mary versus she)
Given Information: already in hearer’s mind; previously introduced in discourse
New Infomation: is just being introduced into
the discourse
▪ Topic versus comment
Topic of a sentence: the centre of attention/what the sentence is about
Comment: the element of the sentence that says something about the topic

Question 3

Deixis

Answer 3

= Marks the orientation or position of entities and events with respect to certain points of
reference
▪ Spatial deixis: Orientation in space (here, there)
▪ Temporal deixis: Orientation in time (yesterday, before, tense)
▪ Personal deixis: Orientation of utterances with respect to ourselves, our interlocutors
or third parties (me, you, they)

Question 4

The Cooperative Principle

Answer 4

“Make your contribution appropriate to the conversation.”

= Unspoken pact: People co-operate with each other so that communication becomes
efficient. People don’t misinterpret utterances. We rely on certain interpretative
conventions.

Question 5

Conversational Maxims

Answer 5

Content:

1) Quality - Be truthful.
2) Quantity - Be appropriately informative.
3) Relevance - Be relevant at the time of the utterance.

Form:
4) Manner - Be orderly and clear.

Maxims are descriptive –> They may be not observed

Question 6

Flouting of conversational maxims

Answer 6

= A blatant/ very obvious non-observance of a maxim which is intended to prompt the hearer to look for a meaning different from the literal one (→ conversational implicatures)

A: Did you do your homework?
B: I washed the dishes.
–> No, but (because) I washed the dishes instead.
–> Intention: Excuse

Question 7

Conversational implicature

Answer 7

By flouting a maxim, the ‘speaker’ generates a conversational implicature in a particular
context; an additional meaning is implied.

The ‘listener’ interprets the meaning with the help of the context; the additional meaning is
inferred.

Question 8

Speech Acts

Answer 8

= Actions that are carried out through language; basic units of communication/ utterance

–> Certain conditions have to be met in order to successfully
negotiate these communicative intentions.

Question 9

Levels of Speech Acts

Answer 9

1) Locutionary act/ Locution:
▪ The grammatical structure and a linguistic (literal) meaning
▪ The physical act of producing an utterance = utterance act
▪ example: “It’s cold in here!”

2) Illocutionary act/Illocution:
▪ Using a sentence to perform a function
▪ Speaker’s intention of an utterance
▪ example: “Can you (I, somebody)
close the window?”

3) Perlocutionary act/ Perlocution:
▪ Results or effects that are produced by means of saying something
▪ The reaction to an illocution = uptake
▪ example: “Yes, you can close it.” OR Hearer gets up and closes the window.

Question 10

Direct Speech Act

Answer 10

Direct Speech Act:
= Speech act where a direct relationship exists between the structural form (locution) and the communicative function (illocution) of an utterance

E.g.: The use of an interrogative form to ask a question
Where is the key?

Question 11

Indirect Speech Act

Answer 11

Indirect Speech Act:
= Speech act where an indirect relationship exists between the structural form (locution) and the communicative function (illocution) of an utterance

E.g.: The use of an interrogative form to make a request
Can you shut the window?

• -> Apparent non-observance of the cooperative principle and the maxims
• -> BUT: When the hearer is confronted with an obvious nonobservance of a maxim, he/she will look for an ‘implicature/implied meaning’.

Question 12

Politeness

Answer 12

= Showing consideration, tact, deference, or courtesy to others; people’s attitude towards face

–> Mutual interest to maintain each other’s face

Question 13

Face

Answer 13

= Reputation, good name; every individual’s feeling of self-worth or self-image; utterances can damage face (speaker + listener)

▪ Positive face: Desire to be liked, approved of, appreciated
–> in a conversation: You support your partner’s presumed self-image as much as possible.
▪ Negative face: Desire not to be impeded upon, to be respected, freedom of choice of
action
–> in a conversation: You interfere with your partner’s actions and values as little as possible.

Question 14

Face Saving Acts

Answer 14

1) Positive Politeness
2) Negative Politeness
3) Off-Record

Question 15

Positive Politeness

Answer 15

Showing solidarity with another

E.g.:
“I just love the sweater you are wearing.”
“I’m sure you’ll do just fine.”

Question 16

Negative Politeness

Answer 16

Awareness of another’s right not to be imposed on

E.g.:
“Excuse me, could you tell me where Main Street is?”
“I know it’s a terrible imposition, but if you had any time, Sat. p.m. we could perhaps meet in Lancaster for a coffee?”

Question 17

Off-Record

Answer 17

The speech act is not directly addressed to any hearer

E.g.:
“It’s cold in here.”
“I forgot my pen.”