Practice Questions Flashcards
Practice questions - Gender
Evaluate the idea that spoken interactions between men and women are characterised by miscommunication.
Evaluate the idea that women traditionally have used submissive language in their discourse with men.
Evaluate the idea that the English language is inherently sexist.
Evaluate the idea that men’s language is more purposeful and focused than women’s.
Evaluate the idea that male and female language in fact has little difference.
Evaluate the idea that men use language to demonstrate power.
Evaluate the idea that women’s language is emotional whereas men’s language is purposeful.
Evaluate the idea that men and women speak differently.
- Evaluate the idea that spoken interactions between men and women are characterised by miscommunication.
For:
• Difference Theory (Tannen, 1990): Suggests men and women have distinct communicative styles—e.g., men use report talk (transactional) while women use rapport talk (interactional), leading to misunderstandings.
• Interruptions & Overlaps (Zimmerman & West, 1975): Found that men interrupt women more, suggesting dominance, which may cause women to perceive conversations as confrontational.
• Lakoff’s Deficit Model (1975): Women’s use of hedges (“sort of,” “maybe”) and tag questions (“isn’t it?”) may be misinterpreted as uncertainty rather than politeness.
Against:
• Cameron (2007): Argues that assumptions of gendered miscommunication are overgeneralized; context and power dynamics are more significant than gender.
• O’Barr & Atkins (1980) – Dominance Model: Found that power, not gender, determines speech patterns—courtroom interactions showed both men and women using “submissive” language based on social status, not sex.
• Janet Hyde’s Gender Similarities Hypothesis (2005): Suggests differences in communication are minimal and exaggerated by stereotypes.
- Evaluate the idea that women traditionally have used lesser than language in their discourse with men.
For:
• Lakoff (1975) – Deficit Model: Women’s use of hedges, tag questions, and indirect requests is a result of social conditioning into a submissive role.
• Zimmerman & West (1975): Male-dominated interruptions suggest women adopt mitigated language to avoid confrontation.
• Tannen’s Difference Model (1990): Women prioritize cooperation and face-saving strategies, reinforcing perceptions of submission.
Against:
• O’Barr & Atkins (1980): Power, not gender, dictates “submissive” language—courtroom studies showed that lower-status men also used Lakoff’s “women’s language.”
• Cameron (2008): The idea that women speak submissively is a social construct rather than a linguistic fact.
• Holmes (1995) – Politeness Theory: Women’s language is not necessarily submissive but strategically cooperative, fostering group cohesion.
- Evaluate the idea that the English language is inherently sexist.
For:
• Marking & Gendered Terms: English retains marked female terms (e.g., “actress” vs. “actor,” “waitress” vs. “waiter”), implying the male form is the default.
• Lexical Asymmetry: Female-associated words (e.g., “mistress,” “spinster”) often have negative connotations, unlike male equivalents (“master,” “bachelor”).
• Generic “he” & Pronouns: Historically, “he” was used as a default pronoun, reinforcing androcentrism (Stanley, 1977).
Against:
• Evolution of Language: Modern English increasingly adopts gender-neutral forms (e.g., “firefighter” replacing “fireman”).
• Political Correctness & Linguistic Reform: Institutions and media challenge sexist language norms (e.g., singular “they” now widely accepted).
• Cameron (1995): Argues that language reflects social power structures rather than causing sexism itself.
- Evaluate the idea that men’s language is more purposeful and focused than women’s.
For:
• Tannen (1990) – Report Talk vs. Rapport Talk: Men prioritize informational, goal-driven speech, whereas women prioritize relational talk.
• Directness & Imperatives: Studies suggest men use more direct speech acts (“Pass me that”) while women use politeness strategies (“Could you pass me that?”).
• Labov’s Prestige Theory: Men are less likely to adopt hypercorrect speech, focusing more on efficiency than social prestige.
Against:
• Holmes (1992): Women’s hedges and tag questions are not signs of uncertainty but strategies for maintaining conversation.
• Context-Dependent Speech: Workplace settings show both men and women using “focused” language when required.
• Cameron (2008): The idea that men are “naturally” more direct is stereotypical rather than evidenced by linguistic studies.
- Evaluate the idea that male and female language in fact has little difference.
For:
• Janet Hyde (2005) – Gender Similarities Hypothesis: Found negligible differences between male and female language in most areas.
• O’Barr & Atkins (1980) – Power vs. Gender: Found “powerless language” occurred regardless of sex.
• Cameron (2008): The focus on gender differences is a cultural myth rather than linguistic reality.
Against:
• Tannen (1990): Gendered conversational styles do exist, even if differences are exaggerated.
• Trudgill (1974): Found men use more non-standard forms, suggesting a sociolinguistic distinction in gendered speech.
• Zimmerman & West (1975): Interruptions indicate that men and women do not participate in conversation equally.
- Evaluate the idea that men use language to demonstrate power.
For:
• Dominance Theory (Zimmerman & West, 1975): Found men interrupt more in mixed-gender conversations, suggesting dominance.
• Spender (1980) – Man-Made Language: Argues language reinforces male power.
• Labov (1966): Men’s lower use of prestige forms reflects an identity tied to covert prestige and dominance.
Against:
• O’Barr & Atkins (1980): Found power is the key factor, not gender.
• Cameron (2008): Men and women adopt different styles based on context, not inherent power structures.
• Tannen (1990): Men’s language may appear dominant due to different conversational norms, not deliberate power plays.
- Evaluate the idea that women’s language is emotional whereas men’s language is purposeful.
For:
• Tannen (1990) – Rapport Talk vs. Report Talk: Women use more affective (emotionally expressive) language.
• Holmes (1992): Women use more adjectives (e.g., “lovely,” “adorable”) and emotive intensifiers (“so happy”).
• Lakoff (1975): Women’s exclamatory speech (“Oh my God!”) is seen as emotional.
Against:
• Cameron (2008): Men also use emotion in speech, but it is expressed differently.
• Workplace Studies: Women use “focused” and “goal-oriented” language in professional contexts.
• Diversity in Male & Female Speech: Men use emotion in sports, personal relationships, and political speeches
- Evaluate the idea that men and women speak differently.
For:
• Tannen (1990): Suggests gendered speech communities exist.
• Trudgill (1974) & Cheshire (1982): Men use more non-standard English than women.
• Lakoff (1975): Women use more politeness markers, hedges, and tag questions.
Against:
• Hyde (2005) – Gender Similarities Hypothesis: Found no significant differences.
• O’Barr & Atkins (1980): Differences are based on status and context, not gender.
• Cameron (2008): Gendered language differences are largely mythological and not linguistically inherent.
