Practice Exam Flashcards
To learn all of the details of anatomy and physiology, and how to talk about them using the correct terminology
Explain the principle of complementarity of structure and function.
What a structure can do depends on its form.
What’s an example of the principle of complementarity?
Bones can support body organs and protect them because they contains hard mineral deposits
Why are the heart’s valves an example of the principle of complementarity?
Blood flows through the heart in one direction because the heart has built in valves that prevent back flow.
Name the different levels of structural organisation that make up the body.
- Chemical level
- Cellular level
- Tissue level
- Organ level
- Organ system level
- Organismal level
Define anatomy and physiology.
Anatomy studies the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another. Physiology concerns the function of the body, in other words, how the body parts work and carry out life sustaining activities.
List the 11 organ systems of the body.
Integumentary system, skeletal system, muscular system, nervous system, endocrine system, cardiovascular system, lymphatic system/immunity, respiratory system, digestive system, reproductive
List the 11 organ systems of the body.
Integumentary system, skeletal system, muscular system, nervous system, endocrine system, cardiovascular system, lymphatic system/immunity, respiratory system, digestive system, urinary system.
List the 11 organ systems of the body.
Integumentary system, skeletal system, muscular system, nervous system, endocrine system, cardiovascular system, lymphatic system/immunity, respiratory system, digestive system, urinary system, male and female reproductive systems.
What term describes the body’s ability to maintain its normal states?
Homeostasis.
Complete labelling activities on website.
Complete labelling activities on website.
What is it called when the anatomy of a body part is intimately tied to its structure and function?
The principle of complementarity.
Explain primary and secondary active transport and distinguish between the two.
In primary active transport, the energy is derived directly from the breakdown of ATP. In the secondary active transport, the energy is derived secondarily from energy that has been stored in the form of ionic concentration differences between the two sides of a membrane.
Compare and contrast endocytosis and exocytosis in terms of function and direction.
Endocytosis and exocytosis are both cellular means of transporting substances across a cell membrane via the use of a vesicle. However, the processes differ in the direction in which the substances move across the cell membrane. During endocytosis, substances are brought into the cell (“endo” = in). During exocytosis, substances exit the cell (“exo” = exit).
Recognise the effects of positive and negative ions moving across the membrane.
A
Define membrane potential and explain how the resting membrane potential is established and maintained.
A
Recognise and label main cell organelles.
A
Match the organelles to their functions.
A.
Compare mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis versus meiosis. Cells divide and reproduce in two ways, mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis results in two identical daughter cells, whereas meiosis results in four sex cells. Below we highlight the keys differences and similarities between the two types of cell division.
Involves one cell division?
Results in two daughter cells
Results in diploid? daughter cells? (chromosome? number remains the same as parent cell)
Daughter cells are genetically identical
Occurs in all organisms except viruses
Creates all body cells (somatic?) apart from the germ cells? (eggs and sperm)
Prophase is much shorter
No recombination/crossing over occurs in prophase.
In metaphase individual chromosomes (pairs of chromatids) line up along the equator.
During anaphase the sister chromatids are separated to opposite poles.
Involves two successive cell divisions Results in four daughter cells Results in haploid? daughter cells (chromosome number is halved from the parent cell) Daughter cells are genetically different Occurs only in animals, plants and fungi Creates germ cells (eggs and sperm) only
Prophase I takes much longer
Involves recombination/crossing over of chromosomes in prophase I
In metaphase I pairs of chromosomes line up along the equator.
During anaphase I the sister chromatids move together to the same pole.
During anaphase II the sister chromatids are separated to opposite poles.
Discuss the lifecycle of a cell including interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis.
- Interphase:
Interphase is the period from cell formation to cell division. During interphase a cell carries out all its routine activities, and “rests” only by dividing. This is the metabolic phase and growth phase. - Prophase. Prophase is the first phase of mitosis, the process that separates the duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells. During prophase, the complex of DNA and proteins contained in the nucleus, known as chromatin, condenses.
- Metaphase. The second stage of cell division, between prophase and anaphase, during which the chromosomes become attached to the spindle fibres.
- Anaphase. Third stage of mitosis, meiosis I, and meiosis II in which chromosomes move toward each pole of a cell.
- Telophase. The final phase of mitosis, meiosis I, and meiosis II: begins when migration of chromosomes to the poles of the cell has been completed and ends with the formation of two daughter nuclei.
- Cytokinesis. The division of cytoplasm that occurs after the cell nucleus has divided.
Recognise cell adaptations and variations in cell death.
Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, rids the body of cells that are programmed to have a limited life span. These include the cells lining the uterus in a menstruating woman, and the webs between the fingers and toes of a developing foetus.
Leukocytosis
Margination
Diapedesis
Chemotaxis
Necrosis
Identify the four tissue types and state their features, functions and where they are found in the body.
There are four main types of tissue: muscle, epithelial, connective and nervous.
Muscle tissue:
Epithelial tissue, also referred to as epithelium, refers to the sheets of cells that cover exterior surfaces of the body, lines internal cavities and passageways, and forms certain glands. Connective tissue, as its name implies, binds the cells and organs of the body together and functions in the protection, support, and integration of all parts of the body. Muscle tissue is excitable, responding to stimulation and contracting to provide movement, and occurs as three major types: skeletal (voluntary) muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle in the heart. Nervous tissue is also excitable, allowing the propagation of electrochemical signals in the form of nerve impulses that communicate between different regions of the body
Classify different types of epithelium.
Epithelium is a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity. Two forms occur in the body:
- Covering and lining epithelium. Forms the outer layer of the skin, dips into and lines the open cavities of the urogenital, digestive and respiratory systems; and covers the walls and organs of the closed ventral body cavity.
- Glandular epithelium. Fashions the glands of the body.
Discuss endocrine and exocrine glands, including where they are found in the body.
A.
Describe the process of tissue repair.
A.
List and describe seven important functions of bones.
A.
Name the four bone classifications and provide examples of each.
A.
Discuss general aspects of bone development (ossification).
A
Explain bone growth from cartilage and formation of spongy bone.
A.
Compare compact bone to spongy bone.
A.
Discuss how each type of bone structure relates to its function.
A.
Which tissue type is comprised largely of non-living extracellular matrix: important in protection and support?
Connective tissue
Which tissue is immediately responsible for body movement?
Muscle tissue
Which tissue enables us to be aware of the external environment and react to it?
Nervous tissue
What tissue lines body cavities and covers surfaces?
Epithelial tissue
What is an epithelium that has several layers, within an apical layer of flattened cells called?
Stratified squamous epithelium
What is the gland type that secretes products such as milk, saliva, bile or sweat through a duct?
Exocrine gland
What is the membrane that lines body cavities that open the exterior called?
Mucous membrane
What of these is scar tissue a variety of? (Endothelium, connective tissue, muscle tissue, nervous tissue, all of them)
B
Distinguish between the axial and appendicular skeleton.
B.
Identify arrangements of compact and spongy bone.
B.
Discuss osteocytes, osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
B.
Identify bony markings and discuss the terminology correctly.
B.
Identify major features of the skull.
B.
Identify and label skull bones and sutures.
B.
Explain what bones contribute to the eye socket.
B.
Name and local the major regions of the vertebral column.
B.
Name the functions of the spine.
The three main functions of the spine are to: Protect the spinal cord, nerve roots and several of the body’s internal organs. Provide structural support and balance to maintain an upright posture. Enable flexible motion.
Identify the importance of the vertebral curvatures.
The major function of the vertebral column is protection of the spinal cord; it also provides stiffening for the body and attachment for the pectoral and pelvic girdles and many muscles. In humans an additional function is to transmit body weight in walking and standing.
Identify abnormal/excessive curvatures.
B.
Describe vertebral structures as they relate to functions.
B.
Identify the structures and functions of the thoracic cage.
The thoracic cage is formed by the 12 pairs of ribs with their costal cartilages and the sternum. The ribs are attached posteriorly to the 12 thoracic vertebrae and most are anchored anteriorly either directly or indirectly to the sternum. The thoracic cage functions to protect the heart and lungs.
Distinguish between true, false and floating ribs.
B.
Identify bones forming the pectoral girdle and the pelvic girdle, and relate their structure and arrangement to the function of these girdles.
B.
Identify important bone markings on the pectoral girdle.
B
Identify and label bones of the upper and lower limbs.
B
Can material move either into or out of a cell by means of active transport?
B.
Complete all online anatomy quizzes
B.
Complete all interactive diagrams and questions online, watch all youtube videos.
B.
In their resting state, do all body cells exhibit a resting membrane potential ranging from 50 to +50 millivolts?
B.
Do osteoclasts develop from osteoblasts?
B.
Is spongy bone always covered by compact bone?
B.
Do most bones develop from hyaline cartilage?
B.
Is the growth zone of the long bones of adolescents the articular cartilage?
B.
Do blood vessel travel through the central canals of compact bone?
B.
Does the parathyroid hormone promote bone resorption and raise blood calcium concentration?
B.
Does the shallow socket of the shoulder joint restrict the movement of the humerus but does increase the stability of the joint?
B.
In the anatomical position, is the lateral forearm bone the radius?
B.
Do the lacrimal bones contain openings that allow the tear ducts to pass?
B.
Are there seven cervical, twelve thoracic and five lumbar vertebrae?
B.
How many cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae are there?
B.
Which of the following organs lies directly posterior to the sternum: the brain, heart, spinal cord or liver?
B.
Which of the following bones is not part of the appendicular skeleton: clavicle, scapula, sternum or ilium?
B.
Which of the following bones is capable of bearing the greatest physical stress: ischium, fibula, femur or patella?
B.
Which portion of the fibula articulates with the talus: calcaneus, head, medial malleolus or lateral malleolus?
B.
The “Hallux” refers to which part of the body: metacarpal, big toe, thumb or metatarsal?
B.
If someone has broken a leg, he or she has damaged the dorsal/appendicular/superficial/axial division of the body.
B.
Which of the following is not an example of the inflammation of the serous membrane: pericarditis, pleurisy, peritonitis or appendicitis?
B.
Phospholipids orient themselves in aqueous solutions such that __________.
B.
A red blood cell placed into a container of distilled water will _____ water via _____.
B.
When movement of Na+ ions down their concentration gradient drives the transport of other substances across the cell membrane, it is called ______.
B.
What does the sodium-potassium pump do?
B.
What is the fluid component between the plasma membrane and nuclear envelope called?
B.
What does apoptosis do?
B.
Define joint or articulation.
C.
Classify joints by structure and by function.
C.
Provide examples for each kind of joint.
C.
Label the parts and associated structures of the synovial joint.
C.
What is the difference between an endocrine and an exocrine gland?
C.
Give details of the two chemical classes of hormones.
C.
List the major endocrine organs of the human body.
C.
Explain the neuroendocrine system.
C
What is the importance of target cell receptors for effective hormone action?
C.
What hormones are released by the anterior pituitary gland? What are their target organs and what effect do they have on the body?
C.
Using GH hormone as an example, explain negative feedback.
C.
Discuss oxytocin.
C.
Explain the formation, effect and control of thyroid hormone.
D.
How does the endocrine system control blood calcium levels?
D.
Discuss the hormones synthesised and secreted by the adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex.
D.
What hormones are produced by the pancreas? Specift the locations and cell types responsible. What is their effect?
D.
Name three other organs that can produce hormones and give one example for each.
D.
Describe the system of ducts a sperm will travel through to get from the testis to outside the penis.
D.
Describe the importance of seminal vesicle secretion.
D.
What are the main differences between mitosis and meiosis?
D.
Explain the mechanism of release of hormones from the anterior pituitary.
D.
Explain Growth Hormone (GH) release, effects and process of negative feedback.
D.
Explain how Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH), Gonadotropins, and Prolactin are released and regulated.
D.
Label a diagram of thyroid gland follicles.
D.
Explain the release, function and regulation of thyroid hormones.
D.
State the release and function of Parathyroid hormone.
D.
Identify the components of the adrenal cortex and medulla and compare their structures and functions.
D.
State the hormones secreted from each layer and their effects.
D.
State the function of the pineal gland.
E.
Identify other multifunctional glands and organs like gonads, pancreas, placenta, kidneys and heart and discuss their role in the endocrine system.
E.
Identify hormones released from the gonads.
E.
Discuss heart and kidney hormones and their effects.
E.
Locate and identify the structures that make up the male reproductive system.
E.
Describe the role of each male reproductive structure in producing, storing, and transporting semen.
E.
Describe blood supply and innervation of the testes.
E.
Describe the process of spermatogenesis.
E.
Locate the regions of the male urethra.
E.
Describe the composition and functions of semen.
E
Describe the physiological changes that occur during ejection and ejaculation.
F
Identify the hormones involved in male reproductive functions.
F.
Describe the control of breathing.
F.
Distinguish between asthma and COPD.
F.
Discuss the features that support the function of the lungs.
F.
Highlight the key responses of the respiratory system to altered O2 and CO2 conditions.
F.
Describe and explain the ventilatory responses to increased CO2 concentrations in the inspired air.
F.
Describe and explain the ventilatory responses to decreased O2 concentrations the inspired air.
F.
Describe the effects of each of the main non chemical factors that influence respiration.
F.
Describe the effects of each of exercise on ventilation and O2 exchange in the tissues.
F.
Demonstrate the surface anatomy of the left and right lungs.
F.
Compare the pulmonary and systemic circulations, and list some major differences between them.
F.
List the major muscles involved in respiration, and state the role of each.
F.
Define partial pressure and calculate the partial pressure of each of the important gases in the atmosphere at sea level.
F.
Define hypoxia and describe differences in subtypes of hypoxia.
F.
List the reactions that increase the amount of CO2 in the blood, and draw the CO2 dissociation curve for arterial and venous blood.
F.
What are the 2 types of hormones and what are their main features?
F.
Which two endocrine organs contribute to the neuroendocrine system?
G.
Explain the three triggers for hormone release.
G.
What is the difference between synergism and permissiveness?
G.
Do more people get rheumatoid arthritis than osteoarthritis?
G.
Are synovial joints known as synarthroses?
G.
Do most ligaments, but not all, connect one bone to another?
G.
Does reaching behind you to take something out of your pocket involve hyperextension of the elbow?
G.
Does the anterior cruciate ligament normally prevent hyperextension of the knee?
G.
Is there meniscus in the elbow joint?
G.
Are knuckles diarthroses?
G.
Is synovial fluid secreted by the bursae?
G.
Can condylar joints move in more planes than a hip joint?
G.
Does reaching behind you to take something out of your pocket involve hyperextension of the shoulder?
G.
Does each motor neurone supply just one muscle fiber?
G.
To initiate muscle contraction, must calcium ions bind to the myosin heads.
G.
Are slow oxidative fibres more fatigue resistant than fast gycolytic fibres?
G.
Are thin filaments found in both the A bands and I bands of striated muscle?
G.
Do thin filaments change length when a muscle contracts?
G.
Does smooth muscle lack striations because it does not have thick and thin myofilaments?
G.
Must a muscle contract to the point of complete tetanus if it is to move a load?
G.
Identify the neural controls of respiration and describe their functions, specifically, the Medulla (VRG and DRG) and the Pontine.
G.
Recognise the central and peripheral chemoreceptors as sensors, state their locations and functions.
G.
Define hypercapnia.
G.
Articulate why Oxygen is less important; CO2 as most important and discuss the influence of pH on respiration.
G.
Discuss voluntary control of breathing.
G.
Explain the effects of exercise and high altitudes on respiration.
G.
Identify and discuss examples of lung diseases.
G.
Identify the locations and functions of all glands and organs in the endocrine system.
G.
Compare hormone classes.
H.
Discuss the neuroendocrine system.
H.
Explain mechanisms of hormone action and release, including negative feedback loops.
H.
Describe the structural and functional relationships between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.
H.
Discuss the structure of the anterior and posterior pituitary lobes.
H.
List and describe the chief effects of both the anterior and posterior pituitary hormones.
H.
Describe the four processes of respiration.
H.
What are the anatomical features of the nasal cavity and what is each of their functions?
H.
Name the three divisions of the pharynx. What features of the immune system are found in these regions?
H.
What are the distinguishing features of the respiratory zones?
H.
What structures are found in the lower respiratory system?
H.
