PPR Exam Flashcards
Ability Grouping
A type of grouping where students are placed together according to their skill level, in high, middle or low groups. The TExES exam does not like this practice as research indicates that it is not very effective and has some negative consequences.
Abstract
Characterized only in thought; non-concrete. Considered apart from concrete existence.Not applied or practical; theoretical.
Active Engagement
Student are actively participating in an activity in a meaningful, hands-on way. This type of activity is more likely to help students to understand and remember the concept or lesson.
Active Listening
Paying close attention to what is currently being said. Often the listener is silently making mental notes and focusing on not just the content, but also any emotional content, as well, and connecting what is being said to prior knowledge and experience.
Age Appropriate
Instructional lessons, activities, etc, that fit the development, language and ability level of the child. This is not necessarily the same thing as developmentally appropriate, since a child’s developmental level may not be the same as his/her age level.
Alternative Assessment
A type of evaluation other than a conventional test. It is sometimes used with students who cannot take a conventional test for some reason or for whom a conventional test is not an accurate assessment of their knowledge or ability.
Analysis
Taking knowledge apart to understand how it fits together. It is one of the higher order thinking skills.
Application
Applying or using what is known to solve an actual problem.
Admission, Review, and Dismissal (ARD) Committee
In Texas a team that determines a student’s eligibility for special education services, reviews the eligibility on a regular basis, and determines an appropriate individual education plan for the student.
Assessment
A way of monitoring progress; the act of testing, determining an evaluation of a particular skill or content area; includes many different approaches and formats, formal, informal and authentic evaluation procedures.
Assimilation (Piaget)
According to Piaget this is the process of fitting new ideas or concepts into existing ideas or concepts. It suggests that a child may change or alter what he perceives in the outside world in order to fit his internal world.
Authentic Assessment
Using evaluations procedures that measure exactly what learning has occurred. It literally means “real” and usually consists of a product that the student produces to demonstrate knowledge or mastery of a skill.
Autonomy
The process of becoming independent and regulating one’s own behavior.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Proposed by Benjamin Bloom this is a classification tool developed to categorize learning from low level thinking to very high level thinking.
Comprehension
Understanding and knowledge something, whether it is a concept, content information, behavior, etc. It is often used in relation to reading (reading comprehension) to indicate that a reader remembers and understands what was read. But, it is not limited exclusively to reading.
Constructivism
An instructional approach based on the theory on the idea that children build understanding by an active learning process. Students build their own learning and knowledge by exploration, discovery and questioning.
Content Validity
How well a test measures what is was designed to measure.
Convergent Thinking
Involves combining or joining different ideas together Based on elements these ideas have in common. In short, it means putting the different pieces of a topic back together in some organized, structured and understandable fashion. Convergent thinking, then, is an essential part of the outlining and organizing process.
Deductive Reasoning
The process of thinking from general terms to specific terms; framing thinks so as to eliminate ideas or possibilities one by one.
English as a Second Language (ESL)
A program for teaching the English language to children whose first language is not English, although in practice it is much more comprehensive than this and includes the teaching of academic content to students with limited English proficiency. It involves effective instructional strategies for teaching English to non-native speakers.
Ethical Behavior
Acting in the highest moral principles and values. For educators in Texas it means behavior and practices that conform to the Texas Educators’ Code of Ethics.
Evaluation
Critical thinking that involves making and supporting judgments. This is one of the higher order thinking skills in Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Extrinsic Motivation
Wanting to do something, behaving in a certain way or achieving something because of some type of external reward. The reward could be something tangible, i.e. money, food, etc. or it could be intangible, i.e. praise, better grade, etc.
Formal Assessment
Measuring knowledge or skill acquistion by means of a standardized test, very often using a commercially published test, although it doesn’t have to be commercially published to be formal, but it would need to be standardized.
Formative Assessment
Monitoring progress before and during learning in order to guide any necessary adjustments and the pace of learning. Formative assessment gives teh teacher inforamtion regarding how well students are understanding a particular concept or skill in order to determine the effectiveness of the instruction. It is done on an ongoing basis during instruction.
Graphic Organizers
A type of visual displaly, chart, graphic, etc. that helps students with planning, organizing, connecting, engaging and evaluating their larning. They are tools that assist teachers and students in the learning process. They take many forms, venn diagrams, semantic maps, timelines, KWL charts, story maps, outlines, etc.
Grouping
Placing students together in order to for a lesson or other learning or instructional activity. Groupins is sometimes done on the basis of a single student characteristic, such as ability or ethnicity and when done on that basis it is not very effective or desirable.
Hands-On Activities
Activities designed so that they require students to get actively engaged in the learning activity in a physical way.
Higher Order Questions
Questions that engage the child in more complex cogniive skills. It is usually used to refer to thinking process that are more sophisticated and on the upper level of Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Instructional Objectives
Specific and usually, but not always, written statements regardng the exact goals or desired student outcomes for a lesson or other learning activitiy. In other words, what the teacher hopes or expects to accomplish with the lesson.
Instructional Strategy
A plan, tool, technique or approach for teaching. the mehtodology and process the teacher uses to help students understand and learn the instructional objectives.
Accommodation
In the theories of Jean Piaget: the modification of internal representations in order to accommodate a changing knowledge of reality. It refers to an important aspect of learning for young children, as they alter and adjust existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences.
Accountability
Holding schools responsible for what students learn. It is an important concept behind the high stakes testing movement in schools.
Acculturation
The adoption of the behavior patterns of the surrounding culture.
Assimilation
Process of changing one’s own culture to the dominant cultural norms.
Advanced Organizers
A framework for understanding the material to be taught, which is introduced prior to the lesson. They help orient students to the lesson by helping them to connect the new knowledge to prio knowledge and to create an understanding of how the new knowledge fits it with existing knowledge.
Affective Domain
Attitudinal and emotional areas of learning, such as values and feelings.
Affective Objectives
Learning objectives that focus on values, feeling, beliefs and emotions.
Aptitude Test
A test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.
Assertive Discipline
Classroom management approach (Leo Canter)
based on establishing clear limits and
expectations, insisting on acceptable
student behavior and delivering appropriate
consequences when rules are broken.
At-Risk Students
A term used to refer to children who are not currently identified as handicapped or disabled but who are considered to have greater than usual chance of school success due to any number of factors such as environment, prior instruction, motivation, etc.
Behavior Disorder
Problem when behavior deviates so much from appropriate behaviors for the child’s age group that it significantly interferes with child leanring, growth and development.
Behavior Objective
A form for writing an instructional objective that emphasizes precision and careful delineation of expected student behaviors, the testing situation and the desired performance criterion.
Bottom-Up Processing
Starting with skills and moving to whole knowledge, starting with parts and working toward the whole. An example is learning sounds, then words, then sentences, etc.
Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education
A landmark decision of the United States Supreme court that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students and denying black children equal educational opportunities unconstitutional.
Bilingual Education
Second language instruction in which students are instructed in academic subject areas in their native language while simultaneously being taught to speak and write in the second language.
Brainstorming
An uncritical, non-evaluative process of generating associated ideas. The focus on brainstorming is the quantity of ideas and not necessarily their quality, as a starting point to examining and analyzing ideas.
Jerome Bruner
Discovery learning and constructivism. He wrote that the aim of education should be to create autonomous learners. He proposed three modes of representation: Enactive representation (action-based); Iconic representation (image-based); and Symbolic representation (language-based).
Chapter 1- Educational Improvement Act
The purpose of this federal law is to provide financial assistance to State and local educational agencies to meet the special educational needs of educationally deprived children. It is recognized, generally, as the funding source for rememdial math and reading programs in school.
Classical Conditioning
Conditioning that pairs a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that evokes a reflex (first identified by Pavlov). For instance, dogs learn to associate a bell with feeding time, so when they hear the bell they immediately start to salivate becasue they have been conditioned to do so.
Classroom Management
Techniques used to maintain a healthy learning environment, relatively free of behavior problems.
Cognitive Domain
As described by Benjamin Bloom, this part of the brain that includes content knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts and concepts that serve developing intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories, starting from the simplest behavior (recalling facts) to the most complex (Evaluation).
Compensatory Education
Programs designed to prevent or remediate learning problems among students from lower socioeconomic status communities. In other words, to compensate for factors that have prevented the students from learning and achieving succes in school.
Competency Based Teacher Education
The general process by which the state provides a credential to an individual. Certification is based on the individual demonstrating and documenting achievment and success on specific criterial or competencies.
Conservation
The concept or understandign (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects. According to Piaget, young children do not have this concept until the moved out of the concrete operational stage of development.
Cooperative Learning
Approach to instruction in which students work with a small group of peers to achieve a common goal and help one another learn.
Core Curriculum
Acommon course of study for all students often called for by essentialist reforms in the 1980’s.
Criterion Referenced Test
A test that describes the specific types of skills, tasks, or knowledge of an individual relative to a well-defined mastery criterion. The content of criterion-referenced tests is limited to certain specified objectives. The student’s perforamnce on this type of test helps the teacher to determine the specific criteria or skills on which the student needs help.
Critical Thinking
The intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.
Cultural Pluralism
A condition in which many cultures coexist within a society and still maintain their cultural uniqueness.
Curriculum
All the courses of study offered by an educational institution.
Decentralization
A process whereby a higher central source of responsibility and authority assign certain responsibility and authority to a subordinate position. Example: site-based management. Allowing lower level units of an organization make many of their own decisions.
De Facto Segregation
Segregation “by fact,” i.e., segregation that results from such factors as housing patterns rather than law.
De Jure Segregation
Segregation that is imposed by law.
Diagnostic Test
A test that helps the teacher to determine students areas of weakness. It helps to identify specific areas, skills or knowledge that are problems for the student.
Discovery Learning
A constructivist approach. A teaching strategy that allows students to learn by their own active exploration of a concep. Students begin learning with an activity designed to lead them to particular concepts or conclusions. Students acquire basic and advanced knowledge in random order. (Bruner’s approach)
Disequilibration
In Piaget’s theory, the “out of balance” state that occurs when a person realizes that his or her current ways of thinking are not working to solve a problem or understand a situation. New knowledge has be to integrated with the old knoweldge to restore balance.
Divergent Thinker
An open ended type of thinking that extends in different directions and considers multiple answers to a question. An instructional activity or question that taps into divergent thinking is one that is likely to result in the widest variety of student answers, responses or products.
Due Process
A judicial requirement that enacted laws may not contain provisions that result in the unfair, arbitrary, or unreasonable treatment of an individual.
Equilibration
Piaget’s term for the tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements; achieved through a balance between assimilation and accommodation.
Erik Erickson
A neo-Freudian psychologist that hypothesized that people pass through 8 social development stages from infancy to old age. Each challenge has an outcome that affects a person’s social and personality development.
- Infancy: Birth to 18 Months Ego Development Outcome: Trust vs. Mistrust Basic strength: Drive and Hope
- Early Childhood: 18 Months to 3 Years Ego Development Outcome: Autonomy vs. Shame Basic Strengths: Self-control, Courage, and Will
- Play Age: 3 to 5 Years Ego Development Outcome: Initiative vs. Guilt Basic Strength: Purpose
- School Age: 6 to 12 Years Ego Development Outcome: Industry vs. Inferiority Basic Strengths: Method and Competence
- Adolescence: 12 to 18 Years Ego Development Outcome: Identity vs. Role Confusion Basic Strengths: Devotion and Fidelity
- Young Adulthood: 18 to 35 Ego Development Outcome: Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation Basic Strengths: Affiliation and Love
- Middle Adulthood: 35 to 55 or 65 Ego Development Outcome: Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation Basic Strengths: Production and Care
- Late Adulthood: 55 or 65 to Death Ego Development Outcome: Integrity vs. Despair Basic Strengths: Wisdom
Ethnic Group
A group of people of the same race or nationality who share a distinctive culture.
Extinction
A conditioning process in which the reinforcer is removed and a conditioned response becomes independent of the conditioned stimulus. In other words, the behavior remains even after the reinforcer that originally encouraged the behavior has been stopped or removed.
Field Independent Learners
Students who are not as dependent on the teacher, other students and the learning environment.
Field Dependent Learners
Students who learn best with teacher and peer interaction and who rely heavily on the learning environment.
Fixed Interval Schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
Fixed Ratio Schedule
Schedule of reinforcement in which a specific number of correct responses is required before reinforcement can be obtained.
Generalization
Transfer of a response learned to one stimulus to a similar stimulus (psychology). A skill or behavior learned in one context, situation or environment is also used and implemented in different situatiosn or environments.
William Glassner
The developer of reality therapy and choice theory. His ideas, focus on personal choice, personal responsibility and personal transformation.
Grade Equivalent Score
Measure of grade level based on comparison with norming samples from each grade. Other words, comparing a students performance on a standardized assessment to the grade level of other students with similar performance.
Head Start
A federally funded preschool program for children from low-income families that also provides healthcare, nutrition services, and social services( part of the economic opportunity act of 1964 during the Johnson administration).
Heuristics
Sets of strategies, rather than strict rules, that act as guidelines for discovery-oriented problem solving.
Hidden Curriculum
Values or behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling. refers to the unspoken and unofficial norms, behaviors, and values that kids learn at school in addition to the official curriculum of math, reading, science, and so on. These can include expectations about how to act in public (standing in line), how to interact with non-parental authority figures, and messages about social hierarchies, and so on.
Homogenous Grouping
An educational practice in which students of similar abilities are placed within the same instructional groups. Research indicates that it is an ineffective instructional approach that can result in low student self-esteem and usually does not result in improved student learning.
House Bill 72
Series of education reforms in TX headed by Ross Perot that gave higher teacher salaries, more teacher requirements, and the no pass no play rule.
I-Message
Clear nonaccusatory statement of how something is affecting you practically and emotionally.
Individual Education Program (IEP)
A written educational plan for special needs students developed by professionals and the child’s parent. Describes education related services developed for each student with a disability. It is a requirement of the IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act).
Inductive Reasoning
Reasoning from detailed facts to general principles. It constructs or evaluates general propositions that are derived from specific examples. Inductive reasoning contrasts with deductive reasoning, in which specific examples are derived from general propositions.
Integration
Process of bringing people of different races in schools together rather than in separate schools or settings.
Intrinsic Motivation
A desire to do something that comes from within oneself. Type of motivation in which a person performs an action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner.
Lawrence Kohlberg
Theorist who claimed individuals go through a series of stages in the process of moral development. Kohlberg’s theory of moral development outlined six stages within three different levels. Kohlberg extended Piaget’s theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan.
Lau vs. Nichols
Supreme Court rule that schools that do not provide special help for children with limited English are limiting their civil rights.This is landmark legislation for bilingual education in the U.S.(1974). The Supreme Court ruled that school districts must help non-English speaking students learn English.
Learning Center
A specific area in the classroom where students can work at their own ability levels and where materials and activities may be used to develop knowledge in a given subject area(s).
Learning Disability
A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involving understanding or in using language, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to speak, think, listen, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. Students diagnosed with a learning disability compose almost half of all students placed in special education programs in schools.
Least Restrictive Environment
A legal requirement that children with disabilities be educated with their non disabled peers to the greatest extent possible. The says the students with disabilities should be separated from their age level peers only when their instructional needs can not be met in the general education setting.
Mainstreaming
The practice of educating students with special needs in regular classes during specific time periods based on their skills.
Abraham Maslow
Theory: “Hierarchy of Needs” Maslow is known for establishing a theory of a hierarchy of human needs in which certain lower needs must be satisfied before higher needs can be met. Lower level needs consist of food and safety, and belonging and higher level needs consist of esteem, independence and self-actualization (personal growth and fulfillment).
Mastery Instruction/Learning
An approach in which the form of instruction and the time available for learning are based on the individual needs of the student. instructional objectives are defined and taught directly. Immediate feedback is provided to the student. The teacher reteaches concepts until the student has mastered them before moving on to the next concepts.
Mean
The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.
Median
The score that falls exactly in the center of a distribution of scores.
Mental Retardation
A condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score (IQ) below 70 and difficulty in adapting behavior consists with IQ. The term has been changed to intellectual disability.
Metacognition
Literally means “thinking about thinking.” It involves activities such as planning how to approach a given learning task, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating progress toward the completion of a task are metacognitive in nature. It plays a critical role in successful learning.
Mode
The most frequently occurring score in a distribution; it is the simplest measure of central tendency to determine.
Morrill Act
(1862) Federal law that gave land to western states to build agricultural and engineering colleges.
Multicultural Education
Instruction that integrates throughout the curriculum the perspectives and experiences of numerous cultural groups.
Nation At Risk
1983 National Commission report calling for extensive educational reforms, including more academic course requirements, more stringent college entrance requirements, upgraded and updated textbooks, and longer school days and year.
Norm Referenced Test
A test designed to indicate how an individual performs in relation to a comparison of grade/age level peers. An IQ test is an example of this.
Normal Curve
A graph of frequency distribution shaped like a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve; a graph of normal distribution. It demonstrates the percentage of people having varying degrees of a certain characteristic ( such as height or IQ) that is normally distributed in the population.
Northwest Ordinance
The law that advocated some sort of elementary education should be provided free, at public expense and under public control, for everyone who could not afford or did not want private schooling.
Operant Conditioning
Learning that is strengthened when behavior is followed by positive reinforcement.
Jean Piaget
Swiss psychologist remembered for his studies of cognitive development in children (1896-1980) in which he described stages that children go through during cognitive development. Certain skills and abilities are only developed when students have developed to the appropriate stage. Some concepts associated with his theory are assimilation, accommodation, equilibrium, and schema.
Programmed Instruction
A set of instructional materials that students can use to teach themselves about a particular topic. It features self-pacing, immediate feedback, and division of materials into small units (frames).
Progressivism
A form of educational philosophy that believes that individuality, progress, and change are fundamental to one’s education. Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, progressivists center their curricula on the needs, experiences, interests, and abilities of students.
Punishment
Outcome or consequence of a behavior that weakens the probability of the behavior. Punishment is usually in the form of an aversive, or unpleasant consequence.
Reinforcement
A stimulus that strengthens or increases a desired behavior. While punishment results in a decrease or weakening of undesirable behavior, reinforcement results in the strengthening or increase of the desired behavior.
Reliability
The ability of a test to yield nearly the same score when the same people are tested and then retested on the same test or an alternative form of the test. It is related to the concept of consistency.
Remediation
An educational program designed to teach a person to overcome an academic weakness or need through additional and or specialized services and education.
Schemata
In cognitive learning, large, basic units for organizing information. Schemata serve as guides describing what to expect in a given situation, how elements should fit together, the usual relationships among elements, etc. A schema is like a model, framework or stereotype.
School Board
The governing body of a school district responsible for the development or approval of educational policies, approval of the budget, hiring of the superintendent, and other personnel matters.
Self Fulfilling Prophecy
A phenomenon whereby observers bring about what they expect to happen or what they perceive to be true.
Shaping
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. It is used when the student’s present level of the behavior is a long way from the desired level.
B.F. Skinner
An American psychologist known for his research in the area of learning and conditioning. He is known as the “father” of behavioral theory, that behavior change is accomplished through the appropriate use of reinforcement.
Smith Hughes Act
Legislation for government funding to go to public schools to provide vocational support and education in 1917.
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
A person’s position in society as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, place of residence, and other factors.
Socratic Method
The method of teaching used by the Greek philosopher Socrates. It employs a question-and-answer format to lead pupils to see things for themselves by using their own reason.
Spiral Curriculum
Bruner’s process of building on a student’s previous kowledge to introduce new and broader concepts that are related.
Standard Deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score (the square root of the variance).
Standardized Test
A test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. Many standardized tests allow a person’s performance to be compared with the performance of other individuals.
Stanine
Whole-number scores from 1 to 9, each representing a wide range of raaw scores. Stanine scores combine some of the properties of percentile ranks with some of the properties of standard scores.
Student/Learner Centered Instruction
Instruction which considers the ability and needs of the student in the planning process. Instruction focuses on the outcomes or behaviors expected and desired by the learners.
Summative Evaluation
Evaluation conducted after instruction to assess students’ final achievement.
Time On Task
Time spent actively engaged in learning the task at hand.
Time Out
A disciplinary technique in which a child is separated from other people and removed from social reinforcement and interaction for a specified time (usually one minute for each year old the child’s age).
Tracking
The process of monitoring a student’s achievement over a period of time, usually years. This information is often used for placement and instructional purposes. It can also refer to the process of placing students in specifically focused educational programs (an “academic track,” or a “vocational track”) and requiring them to remain in those programs.
Transfer of Knowledge
Occurs when a student connects the new knowledge being presented to familiar concepts.
Values-Centered Curriculum
Places special emphasis on moral and ethical issue. More popularly known as character education.
Portfolio
A collection of examples of a person’s work. For example, samples of products indicating an individual’s proficiency and skill in performing a certain type of work.
Annual Teacher Appraisal
In Texas these are required to support and assist teachers in identifying areas of needed approval in teaching so that they can obtain appropriate professional development.
Texas Education Agency (TEA)
The state agency in Texas that has administrative and supervisory authority over the operation of public schools. Implements laws passed by the legislature and establishes policies and procedures for implement laws and other legal requirements.
Workstations
An instructional approach that establishes instructional areas where students work individually or in small groups to work independently on instructional tasks and projects.
Rubric
An assessment method in which a form is developed specifying the requirement elements and components of an assignment, along with the points awarded for meeting various levels of quality for the individual components. It is a way of evaluating assignments consisting of some type of product (a paper, a project). It also allows students to know in advance the criteria by which the assignment will be evaluated.
Syntax
A major component of grammar, it is the rules by which words are put together in the right form and order to appropriately form sentences, phrases and clauses.
Semantics
The meaning of words, closely related to the concept of vocabulary. The relationship between and among words and their various meanings.
Baseline
Means the beginning point. When used with a word like “data” or “assessment” it refers to where a student was before beginning a lesson or intervention.
Gestalt
Means “unified whole.” It refers to theories of visual perception developed by German psychologists in the 1920s. It describes how people tend to organize visual elements into groups or unified wholes when certain principles are applied. These principles are: Similarity, Anomaly (difference), Continuation, Closure, Proximity, Figure and Ground.
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
A federal law that governs student confidentiality in schools. It requires that schools not divulge, reveal or share any personally identifiable information about a student or his/her family, unless it is with another school employee who needs the information to work with the student. An exception is the publishing of student directory information.
Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP)
A component of an IEP it is developed for students with special behavior problems and identifies the strategies and steps school personnel will use with the student to address the behavior.
Reflection
Thinking about something one has done or something that has been done as a means of analyzing its effectiveness and planning any needed changes or alterations for the future.
Elaboration
To expand or build upon something that was done or said.
