PPL Study Flashcards
What are the pitot-static flight instruments
Airspeed Indicator
Vertical speed Indicator
Altimeter
Which instruments use the static ports
Airspeed Indicator
Vertical speed Indicator
Altimeter
Which instruments use the pitot port
Airspeed Indicator
How do the pitot-static instruments respond to blockages
Static blocked
* airspeed decreases with altitude gain; increases with loss
* indicated altitude does not change with altitude gain or loss
* vsi does not change with vertical speed changes
ram air blocked and drain open
* airspeed displays zero knots
* altitude indicated unaffected
* vsi unaffected
ram air blocked drain blocked
*altitude increases with altitude gain; decreases with loss
* altitude indicated unaffected
* vsi unaffected
both blocked
* all indicators remain constant under all changes.
What are the gyroscopic instruments
Heading indicator
turn coordinator
attitude indicator
heading and attitude indicators are powered by an engine driven vacuum pump
turn coordinator is electrically powered
describe the principles of gyroscopes
rigidity in space.
a spinning gyroscope will tend to stay fixed in its plane of rotation
precession
when a force is applied, the resultant force is 90 degrees ahead of the rotation
explain the errors in a magnetic compass
Variation - the magnetic north pole is NOT geographic north pole/axis of rotation
Deviation - any electrical activity in the aircraft can affect the magnetic compass
Dip errors
Acceleration Error
Oscillation error
A combination of all of these errors and results in the compass swinging back and forth
around the headings being flown
Describe the engine in your aircraft
180 hp lycoming O-360
Horizontally opposed 4 cylinder air cooled, normally aspirated reciprocating piston engine
What does “normally aspirated” mean?
Ambient air enters the intake manifold – there is no turbo or supercharger
What is used to cool the engine?
Air intakes at the front of the engine cowling allow outside air to cool the cylinders.
Fins on the cylinders allow a greater surface area to be exposed and thus cooled by the air.
Engine oil is crucial in internal engine cooling. Some engines have an oil cooler.
A rich mixture will cool the engine because the gasoline is cool and the over rich mixture does not burn fully or as hot.
Why do we need oil in the engine?
Lubricates - all of the engine’s moving parts
Cools – reduces friction and removes heat from the cylinders
Seals – it creates a seal between the cylinder walls and pistons
Cleans – carries away contaminants inside of the engine
What are compass Dip errors
When on a north or south heading, turning errors occur
heading N
- turn left the compass will initially show a turn right and lag behind the heading
- S the compass will lead the turn.
The southern hemisphere is opposite
what are compass acceleration errors
- while on E/W heading
acceleration causes a turn to the north
deceleration causes a turn to the south
ANDS
opposite in southern hemisphere
What is the difference between controlled and uncontrolled airspace?
Class G is the only uncontrolled airspace. ATC has no jurisdiction.
When do we need a Mode C transponder?
Class A, B, C airspace. Inside of the mode C veil, above class C airspace, and above 10000’
What documents must you have with you to fly the airplane?
(61.3)
Pilot certificate, medical certificate, and government issued photo ID
*as a student pilot, these documents in addition to your logbook (to show endorsements) are only required when acting as PIC (solo flight)
What are your limitations as a student pilot?
(61.89)
1. No passengers
2. Cannot carry property for compensation or hire
3. Cannot fly in furtherance of a business
4. Cannot fly with a flight or surface visibility of less than 3sm during the day and 5sm at night and flight
must be made with visual references to the surface.
What privileges and limitations apply to private pilot?
(61.113) (91.146)
Privileges
- Act as PIC and carry passengers
– conduct search and rescue operations
- fly for charitable, non-profit, or community event
- act as an aircraft salesman if you have at least 200 hours.
Limitations
– Cannot fly for hire
- must pay no less than pro rata share
Do you need to take your logbook with you?
(61.51)
Only as a solo student pilot on a cross country flight
When does an ELT battery have to be replaced or recharged?
(91.207)
12
Calendar Months
1
Hour Cumulative Use
.5
Half of Battery Life
Recite the MEL (daytime)
ATOMATOFLAMES (91.205b)
Altimeter
Tachometer
Oil pressure
Magnetic compass
Airspeed Indicator
Temperature gauge (for liquid cooled engines each engine)
Oil temperature gauge (for air cooled engines each engine)
Fuel quantity gauge
Landing gear position indicator (for retractable landing gear)
Anti-collision lights – Aviation red or white (e.g. red rotating beacon or white strobes)
Manifold pressure gauge (for airplanes with a constant speed propeller)
ELT
Seat belts (metal clasps)
Recite the MEL (night)
FLAPS (91.205c)
Fuses 3 of each kind or 1 complete set
Landing light if airplane is being flown for hire (including flight training)
Anti-collision lights
Position lights – Also called navigation lights – red on the left side, green on the right and white on the tail
Source of electricity – Battery or alternator
What would you do if you found that the landing light was inoperative?
(91.213)
Cannot fly at night per the FARs – During the day you would deactivate or remove the component
and placard it inoperative (deactivating could be as simple as pulling the circuit breaker out)
Can an aircraft owner change an MEL?
If a change is sought, a letter and a proposed MEL that is based off of the Master MEL must be sent to the FAA for approval
What are the four forces of flight?
Lift Weight Thrust Drag
Explain the different types of drag.
Parasite – increases with speed
Induced – byproduct of lift, decreases with speed
What are some types of parasitic drag
form, skin friction and interference, it increases with speed.
form is caused by the shape of the aircraft and the airflow around it. Anything that extrudes from the aircraft contributes. antennas, wheels, cowlings, air inlets….
skin friction, anything like rivits, dirt, anything disrupting the smooth surface
interference is anywhere airstreams intersect. Such as the wing root connections to the fuselage.
Explain induced drag
byproduct of lift, decreases with speed.
An increased angle of attack will increase induced drag because the lift vector is tilted backwards.
Wingtip vortices also create induced drag.
lift itself is a form of induced drag.
What is camber? Can we change it?
Curvature of the wing – it can be changed by extending/retracting flaps
What is angle of incidence? Can we change it?
The angle between the wing chord line and the fuselage – it cannot be changed
What is center of gravity? What happens when it moves forward/aft?
(PHAK 4-38)
CG is the point where the aircraft is balanced or the place where the entire weight is concentrated
Forward CG
- This is a nose heavy condition that results in the pilot having to use more back pressure to maintain a level flight attitude.
- More tail down force means that the wings must overcome this weight. The cruise speed is lower because of this. The imposed load increases the
stall speed. - Lower cruise speed
- Higher stall speed
- More stable
- Favorable stall recovery
- Difficulty in rotation, steering, roundout, and flare
Aft of CG
– Less tail down force (provided by our stabilator) is required when flying with an aft CG.
-This means that the wings also have less of this load to overcome therefore there is less overall drag allowing for a faster cruise speed.
-Because stall speeds increase with load, an aft CG also means that the stall speed is lower.
-The distance between the CG and the stabilator is crucial in maintaining authority over the control surface. An aft CG means a shorter arm and thus, less
authority. This translates into adverse stall recovery characteristics.
- Higher cruise speed
- Lower stall speed
- Less stable
- Adverse stall recovery
- Lower elevator authority
What causes a wing to stall?
(PHAK 4-22)
The wing will stall anytime the critical angle of attack is exceeded.
How does temperature change the takeoff distance? Weight? Air density?
(PHAK 10-2 and 9-2)
High temperatures = less dense air
Less dense air exerts less force on airfoils (wings and propeller) making them less efficient and also deprives the engine of power. This leads to longer take off rolls and decreased climb performance.
Higher weight also leads to longer take off rolls and increased landing distance because it takes more engine power to accelerate a heavy aircraft to Vr and more braking power to slow the aircraft down.
What are the different types of airspeeds?
(PHAK 7-6 and 10-17)
IAS – indicated
CAS – calibrated (IAS corrected for instrument, position, and installation error) It is equal to TAS
in the standard atmosphere at sea level.
TAS – true (CAS corrected for non-standard temperature and pressure)
GS – ground (TAS corrected for wind)
What are the different types of altitudes?
(PHAK 7-6 and 10-17)
Indicated – altitude as read off of the altimeter with appropriate setting
Pressure – vertical distance above the standard datum plane: a theoretical plane where sea level
pressure exists. It can be found by setting 29.92 in Kollsman window and reading the altitude.
Density - Pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temp.
True – vertical distance above sea level (MSL)
Absolute - vertical distance above terrain (AGL)
Calculate pressure altitude.
PA = Altitude (field elevation) + (29.92 - current altimeter setting) x 1000
Calculate density altitude.
DA = PA + [120 x (outside air temp.in degrees Celsius – standard temp. for that altitude)]
What factors affect air density?
(PHAK 10-4)
Heat – warm air expands is less dense
Height (altitude) – air at higher altitudes is less dense
Humidity – A parcel of humid air is less dense because water molecules take up more room and spread out the air molecules.
Why is the ramp weight different from takeoff weight?
(POH 1-8)
Ramp weight = max weight approved for ground maneuvers (taxi)
Takeoff weight = max weight approved for takeoff run
How do you find the crosswind component? Max crosswind component for aircraft?
(AIM
4-3-3) (POH 4-1)
Max demonstrated crosswind is 17 knots
How does wind affect takeoff and landing?
Headwinds decrease takeoff and landing roll
Tailwinds increase the takeoff and landing roll
Does Vg change? Why?
Vg is only 70 at max gross weight.
Vg will be slower at a lower weight
Discuss V-speeds
(PHAK 10-17) (POH section 2)
fix these for cherokee 180
Vso 45 – stalling speed in the landing configuration
Vs1 50 – stalling speed in specified configuration
Vy 76 – best rate of climb (greatest altitude gain per unit of time)
Vx 64 – best angle of climb (greatest altitude gain per distance over the ground)
Vfe 102 – flap extension speed
Va 89-113 – design maneuvering speed (heavier aircraft = higher maneuvering speed)
Vno 125 – maximum structural cruising speed (flight above this speed only permissible in smooth
air)
Vne 154 – never exceed speed
When would you want to climb at Vx? How about a Vy climb?
Vx is used to clear an obstacle
Vy is used to get to altitude in the shortest amount of time
What are the left turning tendencies
Torque
Gyroscopic Precession
Asymmetrical Thrust
Spiraling Slipstream
All are greater at low airspeeds, high angles of attack and high power settings.
How does torque cause left turn tendencies
The clockwise spinning prop causes airplane to roll left about the longitudinal axis. This is an example of Newton’s 3rd law.
On the ground, this left rolling tendency causes more weight to be on the left main gear thereby increasing the friction and inducing a left yawing tendency.
How does Gyroscopic Precession cause left turn tendencies
During a descent the tail rises and causes a force to felt on the top of the
propeller. The resultant force is therefore 90 degrees ahead in the direction of the rotation (RIGHT SIDE of propeller) causing a left yawing tendency.
This is mostly associated with tailwheel aircraft because on their takeoff roll the tail has to be raised and this creates a left turning
tendency.
How does Asymmetrical Thrust cause left turn tendencies
In a climb, the descending propeller blade (RIGHT SIDE) has a greater
angle of attack and therefore creates more lift. This causes a left yawing tendency.
How does Spiraling Slipstream cause left turn tendencies
Propeller wash strikes the aircraft of the left side of the vertical stabilizer
causing a left yawing tendency.
The slipstream also strikes the right wing from above causing a right rolling tendency. The left rolling tendency from torque, however, makes this effect negligible.
What is lateral stability
Resistance to roll
- Wing dihedral is what gives our aircraft lateral stability. The soft V shape means that during a side slip, the lower wing has a greater angle of attack and this helps return it to equilibrium.
- Effectively managing fuel can also influence this because if the fuel load is imbalanced, one wing will be lower than the other
What is longitudinal stability
Resistance to pitch
Flying “inside of the envelope” is the greatest factor here. CG must be within limits to maintain longitudinal stability.
What is vertical stability
Resistance to yaw
The size of the vertical stabilizer and the area of the fuselage aft of the CG contribute to vertical stability. The bigger and father aft the vertical stabilizer is, the greater the stability.
what is positive stability
tendency to return to equilibrium
what is neutral stability
Tendency to stay in new position
what is negative stability
Tendency to continue to move away from equilibrium
what is dynamic stability
response over time
What does the mixture control do?
As we gain altitude, the air becomes less dense.
If we do not make any adjustments then we will have an excessively rich fuel/air mixture.
This can result in carbon build up in the cylinders which can foul the spark plugs and reduce engine power. Leaning the mixture decreases the fuel flow and compensates for this.
Leaning the mixture also causes the engine temp to increase as the fuel has a small cooling effect as it enters the cylinder. Enriching the mixture allows more cool fuel to enter the cylinder.
What color is 100LL? How about other types of fuel? What happens when they are mixed
together?
Mixed fuel becomes clear when mixed in equal amounts. a lighter form of the predominant color shows when the mixture is unequal
100LL is blue
100 is green
80 is red
jet a is colorless or ‘straw’
Why do you drain a sample of fuel before each flight?
Fuel weighs roughly 6lbs and water weighs about 8lbs. Because it is heavier it always sinks to the bottom of the fuel tanks. This is why we drain from the lowest points in the fuel system. We also want to visually inspect the fuel for the proper grade and to make sure that it is free of sediment.
What are stall strips?
They are placed on the leading edge of the wing close to the wing root to help induce a stall towards the wing root so that pilot still has directional control with the ailerons.
How does the vacuum system operate?
An engine driven vacuum pump creates suction. Air is pulled through a filter and then directed to the instrument case. Rotor vanes on the gyros catch the air like a water wheel and cause it to rotate at a high speed. some planes have an electrical vacuum pump to be used as a backup.
Describe the electrical system.
12 or 24 volt battery with alternator at +2 or +4 volts (to push it in)
The electrical system provides power to all of the radio equipment, the engine gauges, turn coordinator, stall warning horn and all the lights, pitot heat
The magnetos are a self-sustaining source of electricity. As long as the propeller and crankshaft is turning, they will continue to provide electricity to the spark plugs and the engine will run. This means that in the event of an electrical failure, you will NOT lose your engine.
What is the difference between controlled and uncontrolled airspace?
Class G is the only uncontrolled airspace. ATC has no jurisdiction.
Describe class A airspace
FL 180 to FL 600 – Instrument Rating and IFR flight plan needed – Mode C Transponder and 2-way radio communication – no weather minimums
Describe class B airspace
Upside down wedding cake design up to 10,000 MSL
– Endorsement needed if student pilot
– Clearance from ATC required to enter
– Mode C Transponder required any time within 30 nm (mode C veil)
– 3 miles visibility and clear of clouds
Describe class C airspace
Inner core 5 nm radius and from surface to 4500 AGL
– outer core 10 nm radius and from 1200’ AGL to 4000’ AGL
– Mode C Transponder and 2 way radio communication
– 3 miles visibility and 1000’ above 500’ below and 2000’ horizontal from clouds
Describe class D airspace
4 nm radius and from surface to 2500’ AGL
– 2 way radio communications
– 3 miles visibility and 1000’ above 500’ below and 2000’ horizontal from clouds
Describe class E airspace
Can start at the surface, 700’ AGL, or 1200’ AGL and may extend up to but not including FL
180
– Class E also exists above FL 600
– No equipment requirements
- Below 10,000’ : 3 miles visibility and 1000’ above 500’ below and 2000’ horizontal from clouds
– Above 10,000’ : 5 miles visibility and 1000’ above 1000’ below and 1 mile horizontal from clouds
Describe class G airspace
uncontrolled airspace
– may start at the surface and can go as high as 14,500’ MSL or 1200’ AGL
– no equipment requirements
– Below 1200’ AGL : 1 mile visibility and clear of clouds
– Above 1200’ AGL but below 10,000’ MSL : 1 mile visibility and 1000’ above 500’ below and 2000’ horizontal from clouds
– At night: 3 miles visibility and 1000’ above 500’ below and 2000’ horizontal from clouds
– Above 10000’ : 5 miles visibility and 1000’ above 1000’ below and 1 mile
horizontal from clouds
When do we need a Mode C transponder?
(91.215)
Class A, B, C airspace. Inside of the mode C veil, above class C airspace, and above 10000’
What are the standard temperature and pressure values for sea level?
15C or 59F – 29.92” Hg or 1013.2 mb
Discuss isobars. What does it mean when the isobars are close together?
Isobars connect equal lines of pressure. Closely spaced isobars means that there is a strong
pressure gradient and winds will be strong.
How do surface winds flow in relationship to isobars? Why? Winds aloft?
At the surface winds flow at an angle to the isobars because of surface friction.
Aloft, winds from more or less parallel because of the Coriolis force.
What type of clouds, visibility and precipitation would you expect from stable air?
stratiform clouds, poor visibility, smooth air, steady or continuous precipitation
What type of clouds, visibility and precipitation would you expect from unstable air?
Cumuliform clouds or clouds with vertical development, good visibility, turbulence, and
showery precipitation
What are the general characteristics of low/high pressure areas?
Low – Cyclone – counterclockwise and rising air
High – Anti Cyclone – clockwise and descending air
opposite in southern hemisphere
What is a ridge? Trough?
Ridge – extended area of high pressure – descending air
Trough – extended area of low pressure – rising air
What must be present in order for a thunderstorm to form?
Unstable atmosphere – an unstable atmosphere can be noted by the ambient lapse rate. We
know that the standard lapse rate is about 2 degrees Celsius per 1000’ of altitude. If the ambient lapse rate is greater than the standard lapse rate (i.e. the temperature is decreasing rapidly as you climb), this means the atmosphere is unstable.
Sufficient Moisture – the temperature/dew point spread can be used to determine how moist the air is. The closer the temperature and dew point spread, the closer the air is to becoming saturated or so full of moisture that it can hold no more. Warmer air can hold more moisture than cooler air.
Lifting Action – Some of these lifting actions may include heating from below (rising warm air
called thermals), orographic lifting (wind pushing a moist unstable air mass upslope), or frontal lifting (a fast moving cold front displacing warm, moist, and unstable warmer air for example).
What are the stages of a thunderstorm?
Cumulus – the building stage of a thunderstorm characterized by updrafts only. All thunderstorms begin as cumulus clouds but not all cumulus clouds become thunderstorms.
Mature – Updrafts and downdrafts both occur at this point. Violent turbulence can be experienced if flight is attempted beneath a cumulonimbus cloud because of this shear zone. The mature stage can be recognized by the beginning of rainfall.
Dissipating – At this point the cloud is only giving off downdrafts and the thunderstorm is
dissipating. During this stage, large cumulonimbus clouds may have a recognizable “anvil top”
that is a portion of the cloud that has been sheared off by the jet stream. The direction in which the anvil top is facing also shows the direction in which the storm is moving.
What is wind shear? Why is it an operational hazard?
Rapid change in wind direction or velocity – it can cause dramatic changes in indicated airspeed and causes severe turbulence within the shear zone
What does dew point mean?
The temperature at which the air becomes saturated
Advection Fog
moist warm air moves over colder land or water
Radiation Fog
forms on clear nights with little or no wind and only over land
Upslope fog
moist unstable air is cooled as wind pushes it up a slope
Precipitation Induced fog
warm rain falls through cool air. Evaporation from the rain saturates the
cool air and fog forms.
Steam fog
Cold dry air over warm water
Induction Icing
This includes any icing that impedes that process of air entering the intake
manifold to be mixed with fuel. Ice that builds up on the air intakes is an obvious form of this.
Carburetor ice is also a form of induction icing. This can be attributed to the incomplete
vaporization of fuel in combination with the pressure decrease inside of the venturi. Even on a day as warm as 70°F, carburetor ice can began to form with adequate moisture in the air.
Instrument Icing
Icing of the pitot tube or static ports can cause the instruments to give
inaccurate readings or to fail completely.
Structural Icing
Ice that forms on the surface of the aircraft. Since airfoils create lift by
decreasing the pressure and thus the temperature of the air around them, icing on the propeller, horizontal and vertical tail surfaces, and wings can form at ambient temperatures that are above the freezing level.
Rime Icing
Small rain drops found in stratified clouds or drizzle freeze upon impact with
the airfoil. Air that is trapped between the droplets give the ice a white or opaque
appearance. It builds up typically at the leading edge only and has an irregular shape. This
makes it more easily recognizable to the pilot and easier to remove by deicing equipment.
Clear Ice
Large super-cooled water droplets found in either heavy rain or in cumuliform
clouds strike the airfoil but do not freeze immediately. Instead they slide backwards across
the surface as they freeze. Clear ice is smooth and glossy making it very difficult to see
from the cockpit. Because it adheres to the surface beyond the leading edge it can be
difficult to remove.
What types of weather briefings can you get from a Flight Service Station briefer?
Standard – Should be requested when planning a flight and no previous weather information has been gathered
Abbreviated – Used to supplement mass disseminated data or to update a previous briefing
Outlook – Request when proposed departure time is 6 or more hours away.
What is a METAR? Types, issue, and valid times?
(3-1) (AIM 7-1-31)
Aviation Routine Weather Report
Routine or special
Issued hourly
Valid for the hour
What is a TAF? Issue, valid times, area of coverage?
(7-19) (AIM 7-1-31)
Terminal Aerodrome Forecast
3 types: Routine (TAF) Amended (TAF AMD) or Corrected (TAF COR)
Issued 4 times a day (every 6 hours)
Valid for 24-30 hours
Forecast for area within 5sm of airport
What is the definition of a ceiling?
(7-26) (AIM 7-1-16)
The height above the ground of a broken or overcast layer
Does a TAF report cloud ceilings in MSL or AGL?
MSL
Describe FROM, BECMG, TEMPO, PROB, on a TAF?
(7-28 - 7-31)
FROM – Rapid change occurring within 1 hour
BECMG – Gradual change to take place over the course of 1 hour
TEMPO – Between the predicted period, this weather will only occur for less than an hour
PROB – number placed afterwards is the probability of the weather forecasted to occur
Area Forecast? Issue, valid times? What are the four sections of an Area Forecast?
Issued 4 times daily
Header
Synopsis: Valid for 18 hours – contains a short description of weather affecting the area during the
valid period. This includes location and movement of pressure system.
VFR clouds and weather: Valid for 12 hours – gives a general description of clouds and weather
that are significant to VFR operations.
Outlook: Valid for 6 hours –describes the prevailing condition
Does an Area Forecast report cloud ceilings in MSL or AGL?
MSL unless preceded by AGL or CIG (ceiling)
AIRMET? Issue, valid times, Sierra, Tango, Zulu?
(6-23) (AIM 7-1-10) (PHAK 12-12)
Airmen’s Meteorological Information
Issued for: Mountain obscuration and widespread IFR conditions (Sierra)
Moderate turbulence and surface winds greater than 30kts (Tango)
Moderate Icing (Zulu)
Valid for 6 hours
SIGMET? Issued? Valid? Why are they issued?
(6-1)
Significant Weather Information
Issued for: Severe Turbulence not associated with T-storms
Widespread dust storms and volcanic ash
Severe Icing
Valid for 4 hours
CONVECTIVE SIGMET? Issued? Valid? Why issued?
(6-4)
Issued for thunderstorm (convective) activity
Winds greater than 50 kts
Hail greater than 3⁄4”
Winds and Temperatures aloft Forecast?
(7-39)
Issued twice a day every 12 hours and provide wind and temperature information for specific areas
within the U.S.
How are temperatures above 24,000 identified?
Temperature above 24000 feet are negative
What constitutes night flight
Sunset -> nav lights
Civil Twilight -> log flight time
1 hour after sunset -> log night landings
lights, flights, landings
Discuss the Surface Analysis Chart? Issued? Valid? Information?
(PHAK 12-15)
Issued 8 times daily and valid for 3 hours
Shows position of pressure systems, fronts, local weather, wind speed and directions, and visual obstructions.
Discuss the Weather Depiction Chart? Issued? Valid? Information?
(5-38) (PHAK 12-16)
Graphical depiction of METAR information
Issued 8 times daily and valid for 8 hours
It is a flight planning tool to see overall surface conditions across the U.S.
Discuss the Significant Weather Prognostic Chart? Issued? Valid? Info?
Forecast of aviation weather hazards such as icing, freezing levels, and turbulence
Issued 4 times a day there is a 12 hour forecast and a 24 hour forecast
Discuss the Radar Summary Chart? Issued? Valid? Info?
(5-47) (PHAK 12-17)
Issued 35 minutes past every hour and valid for 1 hour.
Displays areas of precipitation and indicates the height of the radar echo tops in hundreds of feet MSL.
Movement of cells is indicated by an arrow that points in the direction of the movement
with the speed in knots beside it. This chart does not show clouds or fog, only precipitation.
What preflight action is required by the FARs?
NWKRAFT (91.103)
NOTAMS
Weather
Known ATC delays
Runway Lengths
Alternates
Fuel
Takeoff and Landing Distances
What is a NOTAM?
(AIM 5-1-3)
Notice to Airmen – it is time critical information that is not known in advance enough to be published on an aeronautical chart.
Where can I Find Runway Lengths?
A/FD
Airport Facility Directory
Now known as the Chart Suppliment
What is an Alternate?
A second option for landing in case you cannot land at your planned destination
What are the Fuel requirements for VFR flight?
(91.151)
Day VFR – to the destination + at least 30 minutes of reserve fuel
Night VFR – to the destination + at least 45 minutes of reserve fuel
What the right-of-way rules are as applied to the different categories of aircraft?
EBGAAR
(91.113)
Emergency - Aircraft in distress have priority
Balloon
Glider
Aircraft refueling
Airship
Rotorcraft or airplane
Required action for all aircraft confrontations (same category):
converging, head-on, overtaking
91.113
Converging: Aircraft on the right has the right of way
Head on: Both divert to the right
Converging: Aircraft on the right has the right of way
Head on: Both divert to the right
Minimum Safe altitudes - congested and non
91.119
Congested
1,000 feet above highest obstacle within 2,000 feet horizontally
non
500 above surface except open water or sparsely populated areas. In this case, never within 500 feet of a person, vehicle, or structure.
What is the maximum airspeed below 10,000’ MSL?
(91.117)
250 knots
Define Minimum Safe Altitude.
(91.119)
A minimum safe altitude is one that allows for an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons or property on the surface.
steady green on the ground
cleared for takeoff
steady green in the air
cleared to land
flashing green on the ground
cleared for taxi
flashing green in the air
return for landing (to be followed by steady green later)
steady red on the ground
stop
steady red in the air
give way to other aircraft and continue circling
flashing red on the ground
taxi clear of runway in use
flashing red in the air
airport unsafe, do not land
flashing white on the ground
return to starting point on airport
flashing white on the ground
not applicable
alternating red and green (everywhere)
use extreme caution
What is pilotage? Dead reckoning?
(PHAK 15-12)
Pilotage: Using visual landmarks and references
Dead Reckoning: Using predetermined headings and performance calculations
What is magnetic variation?
(PHAK 15-7)
Difference between magnetic north and true north
What limitations apply to VOR?
(PHAK 15-26) (AIM 1-1-3)
VORs are limited by their power output. Service volumes range from 25nm to 130nm depending on class of VOR and altitude of aircraft.
VORs also operate off of the line of sight principle. This means that if there is terrain between the aircraft and the station, the signal may not be received.
What do you do if you become lost in-flight?
5 Cs (PHAK 15-34)
Climb – obtain a better view of your surroundings
Circle – don’t become more lost; stay in one spot
Conserve – lean your mixture and save fuel
Communicate – make contact with an FSS or an air traffic controller
Confess - admit you are lost and ask for help
How often is the A/FD updated?
Every 56 days
What are the body systems that are used to ascertain our orientation and movement in
space?
(PHAK 16-5)
Vestibular – The inner ear system composed of 3 semicircular hollow but fluid filled canals arranged in the pitch, roll, and yaw axes. This endolymph fluid inside the canals moves when the head or body moves and displaces tiny hair cells that stimulate nerve impulses. These signals are then sent to the brain and interpreted as motion.
Somatosensory – The nerves in our skin cells. This is basically “flying by the seat of your pants” or the sensations of motion that we feel in our bodies from acceleration or turning.
Visual – Our Eyes. Light from the sun is constantly being reflected by everything on Earth. This light enters the eyeball through the cornea, travels through the lens and falls on the photoreceptors of the retina. The two kinds of photoreceptors are rods and cones. Rods are used for night and peripheral vision while cones are used to sense color.
What is the cause of middle ear pain in flight and how can we mitigate it?
(PHAK 16-4)
Air inside of the middle ear is normally equalized through the Eustachian tube: a tube that travels from the ear to the back of the throat on each side. If there is any kind of congestion or blockage it makes this equalization difficult or impossible.
* In a climb, the air outside becomes less dense and the trapped higher pressure air in the middle ear tends to expand.
* In a descent, the trapped air is of lower pressure than the outside air and feeling of compression is experienced. This is typically more painful and more difficult to resolve.
Sinus congestions cause pain from similar circumstances and can be very painful. The first step in avoiding this pain is to not fly with head colds or ear/sinus infections.
In flight, equalization can be helped along by swallowing, yawning,
tensing the throat muscles, or by executing the Valsalva maneuver. This is accomplished by pinching the nostrils, closing the mouth, and attempting to exhale.
Oral decongestions do not provide adequate relief and may have adverse side effects.
What is hypoxia and what are the different types?
(AIM 8-1-2) (PHAK 16-2)
Hypoxia is a state of oxygen deficiency in the body. It is occurs at 4 different levels
Lung: Hypoxic Hypoxia
Oxygen is not available at adequate pressure for the lungs to absorb. This occurs when
we climb higher in altitude and the air becomes less dense.
Blood: Hypemic
This is the inability of the red blood cells to carry oxygen to the other cells. The most common cause in aviation is carbon monoxide poisoning especially with small piston aircraft. Cabin heat is provided by ducting engine heat from the exhaust manifold into the cockpit. If there is any kind of leak in this system, exhaust fumes containing carbon monoxide will enter the cockpit as well. Carbon dioxide molecules bond to the hemoglobin in red blood cells 200x faster than oxygen molecules, leaving no more room for the blood cells to carry the oxygen. Smoking cigarettes will also induce hypemic hypoxia because you are inhaling carbon monoxide. Other causes of this type of hypoxia include anemia (a sickness caused by lowered hemoglobin) or donating blood.
Cell: Histotoxic
This is the cells’ (other than blood cells) inability to use the available oxygen. Using drugs or alcohol can cause this. When using even over-the-counter medicine, consult an AME to see if it is okay for use in flight.
Transport: Stagnant
Inability of oxygen to reach cells because of poor circulation. The most common form of this in aviation is when the body experiences excessive G-forces.
What are the in-flight illusions?
ICEFLAGS (AIM 8-1-5) (PHAK 16-6)
Inversion – Abrupt change in altitude creates the illusion of tumbling backwards
Coriolis – Rapid head movement causes the illusion of accelerating or turning
Elevator – An updraft causes the pilot to think that aircraft is in a climb. Pilot reacts by forcing the nose down inducing a dive.
False Horizon – Sloping cloud formations or obscured horizons confuse the pilot into misaligning with the horizon.
Leans – Abrupt recovery from a roll can mislead pilot into thinking aircraft is in a turn in the opposite direction.
Autokinesis – At night, stationary lights may appear to be in motion. Pilot may lose control of aircraft trying to align it with “moving” light.
Graveyard Spiral – In a prolonged constant rate turn, sensation of the turn is not felt. In recovery to straight and level, the pilot may sense a turn in the opposite direction and pull back on the yoke, only tightening the spiral.
Somatogravic – Rapid acceleration causes the illusion of the being in a nose up attitude. Rapid deceleration will have the opposite effect.
What are the runway illusions?
Runway width
- a narrower than usual runway can create an illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is, leading to a lower approach
- a wider than usual runway can create an illusion that the aircraft is lower than it actually is, leading to higher approach
Runway slope illusion
- a down sloping runway can create the illusion that the aircraft is lower than it actually is, leading to a higher approach
- an up sloping runway can create the illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is, leading to a lower approach.
What is the definition of ADM?
A systematic approach to risk assessment and stress management. The two defining elements of ADM are hazard and risk.
What are the hazardous attitudes and their antidotes?
RAIIM
Resignation – The feeling of uselessness or inability or effect change. A pilot who exhibits resignation is an essentially a victim of circumstance.
Antidote: I am not helpless. I can make a difference.
Antiauthority – Disregard for regulations. This is the “Don’t tell me what to do” attitude.
Antidote: Follow the rules. They are usually right.
Impulsivity – Acting without thinking.
Antidote: Not so fast. Think first.
Invulnerability – The thought that “it can’t happen to me”.
Antidote: It could happen to me.
Macho – An attitude that “you can do it”. This is often associated with trying to impress others or show off.
Antidote: Taking risks is foolish.
What are some of the ways we can mitigate risk?
IMSAFE/PAVE/5Ps
Illness – Am I sick?
Medication – Am I taking any medication? If so, have I discussed with my AME if it is safe for flight?
Stress – Am I under psychological stress? School/Work? Money? Health? Family/Social life?
Alcohol – Have I been drinking within the previous 8 hours? Am I still experiencing the effect of alcohol?
Fatigue – Have I gotten adequate rest?
Eating – Am I hungry?
Pilot – Am I ready for this trip (IMSAFE)? Are my certificates/ratings current? Am I proficient?
Aircraft – Is the airplane airworthy (AVIATES)? Does it have all of the required documentation (ARROW)? Is it equipped for the intended operation (ATOMATOFLAMES/FLAPS)? Can it carry the intended passengers/load (weight and balance/fuel)? Performance characteristics?
enVironment – (NWKRAFT)
External pressures – Are my passengers/employer urging me to get somewhere? Do I have stress influencing my life?
Pilot – physical fitness, currency, and proficiency
Passengers – Are they fit to fly? Are they comfortable flying?
Plane – Airworthiness and documentation
Programming – Are you proficient using the avionics? Are the GPS databases up to date?
Plan - (NWKRAFT)
