PP test 2 Flashcards
genome
the complete set of genes an organism possesses. The human genome contains somewhere between 20,000 and 30,000 genes
genome
the complete set of genes an organism possesses. The human genome contains somewhere between 20,000 and 30,000 genes
genetic junk
the 98% of the DNA in human chromosomes that are protein-coding genes; scientists believed that these parts were functionless reside
DNA junk
not junk at all - parts of these chunks of DNA have an impact on humans affecting everything from persons physical size to personality
eugenics
the notion that the future of the human race can be influenced by fostering the reproduction of persons with certain traits, and discouraging reproduction among persons without those traits or who have undesirable traits
percentage variance
individuals vary or are different from each other, and this variability can be partitoned into percentages that are related to separated causes or separate variables
Heritability
is a statistic that refers to the proportion of observed variance in a group of individuals that can be explained or “accounted for” by genetic variance. describes the degree to which genetic differences between individuals caused differences in some observed property
- ex: height
phenotype variance
observed individual differences, such as in height, weight or personality
genotype variance
genetic variance that is responsible for individual differences in phenotype expression of specific traits
environmentally
the percentage of observed variance in a group of individuals that can be attributed to environmental (non-genetic) differences. Generally speaking, the larger the heritability, the smaller the environmentally. and vise versa, the smaller the heritability, the larger the environmentatily
Nature-Nurture debate
the ongoing debate as to whether genes or environment are more important determinate of personality
selective breeding
one method of doing behaviour genetic research. Researchers might identify a trait and then see if they can selectively breed animals to posses that trait
ex- dog breeders
family studies
correlate the degree of genetic overlap among family members with the degree of personality similarity
equal environments assumptions
assumption that environments experienced by identical twins are no more similar to each other than are the environments experienced by fraternal twins
equal environments assumptions
assumption that environments experienced by identical twins are no more similar to each other than are environments experienced by fraternal twins
selective placement
if adopted children are placed with adopted parents who are similar to their birth parents, may inflate the correlations between the adopted children and their adopted parents
shared environmental influences
features of the environment that siblings share
- ex; the number of books in the home the presence or absence of a TV and VCR, the values and attitudes of the parent, the schools and the church
non-shared environmental influences
features of the environment that siblings do not share
ex- some children may get special or different treatment from parents, different groups of friends
genotype environment interaction
the differential response of individuals with different genotypes to the same environment
genotype environment correlation
the differential exposure of individuals with different environments
passive genotype environment correlation
occurs when parents provide both genes and environment to children, yet the children do nothing to obtain that environment
reaction genotype environment correlation
occurs when parents (or others) respond to children differently depending on the genotype
active genotype environment correlation
occurs when a person with a particular genotype creates or seeks out a particular environment
molecular genetics
techniques designed to identify the specific genes associated with specific traits, such as personality traits. the most common, called the association method, identifies whether individuals with particular gene have higher or lower scores on a particular trait measure
DRD4 gene
a gene located on the short arm of chromosome 11 that codes for a protein called a dopamine receptor. The function of this dopamine receptor is to respond to the presence of dopamine, which is neurotransmitter
environmentalist view
environmentalist believe that personality is determined by socialization practices, such as parenting style and other agents of society
physiological systems
organ systems within the body
ex - the nervous system, the cardiac system and the musculoskeletal system
theoretical bridge
the connection between two different variables
ex - dimensions of personality and physiological variables
electrodes
a sensor usually placed on the surface of the skin and linked to a physiological recording machine
telemetry
the process by which signals are sent from electrodes to a polygraph using radio waves instead of wires
Sympathetic nervous system
that branch of the automatic nervous system that supports the flight-or-fight response. SNS is activated when a person feels threatened or experiences strong emotions such as anxiety, guilt or anger
autonomic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that connects to vital bodily structures associated with maintaining life and responding to emergencies
electrodermal activity
electricity will flow across the skin with less resistance if that skin with less resistance if that skin is made damp with sweat. Sweating on the palms of the hands is activated by the sympathetic nervous system, and so electrodermal activity is a way to directly measure changes in the sympathetic nervous system
Cardiac reactivity
the increase in blood pressure and heart rate during times of stress. Evidence suggests that chronic cardiac reactivity contributes to coronary artery disease
ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)
a structure in the brain stem thought to control overall cortical arousal: the structure Eysenck originally thought was responsible for differences between introverts and extraverts
Arousal level and arousability
in Eysencks original theory of extraversion, he held that extraverts had lower levels of cortical or brain arousal than introverts. More recent research suggests that the difference between introverts and extraverts lies more in the arousability of their nervous systems, with extraverts showing less arousablility or reactivity than invoverts to the same level of sensory stimulation
reinforcement sensitivity theory
Gray’s biological theory of personality. based on recent Brian function research with animals. Gray constructed a model of human personality based on 2 hypothesized biological systems
- the behavioural activation system
- the behavioural inhibition system
behavioural inhibition system (BIS)
in grays reinforcement sensitivity theory, the system responsible to cues for punishment, frustration and uncertainty. The effect of BIS activation is to cease or inhibit behaviour or to bring about avoidance behaviour. This system is highly correlated with the of neuroticism
behavioural inhibition system (BIS)
in grays reinforcement sensitivity theory, the system responsible to cues for punishment, frustration and uncertainty. The effect of BIS activation is to caese or inhibit behavior
genetic junk
the 98% of the DNA in human chromosomes that are protein-coding genes; scientists believed that these parts were functionless reside
DNA junk
not junk at all - parts of these chunks of DNA have an impact on humans affecting everything from persons physical size to personality
eugenics
the notion that the future of the human race can be influenced by fostering the reproduction of persons with certain traits, and discouraging reproduction among persons without those traits or who have undesirable traits
percentage variance
individuals vary or are different from each other, and this variability can be partitoned into percentages that are related to separated causes or separate variables
Heritability
is a statistic that refers to the proportion of observed variance in a group of individuals that can be explained or “accounted for” by genetic variance. describes the degree to which genetic differences between individuals caused differences in some observed property
- ex: height
phenotype variance
observed individual differences, such as in height, weight or personality
Monoamine oxidase
An enzyme found in the blood that is known to regulate neurotransmitters, those chemicals that carry messages between nerve cells. MAO may be a causal factor in the personality trait of sensation seeking
environmentally
the percentage of observed variance in a group of individuals that can be attributed to environmental (non-genetic) differences. Generally speaking, the larger the heritability, the smaller the environmentally. and vise versa, the smaller the heritability, the larger the environmentatily
Nature-Nurture debate
the ongoing debate as to whether genes or environment are more important determinate of personality
selective breeding
one method of doing behaviour genetic research. Researchers might identify a trait and then see if they can selectively breed animals to posses that trait
ex- dog breeders
family studies
correlate the degree of genetic overlap among family members with the degree of personality similarity
equal environments assumptions
assumption that environments experienced by identical twins are no more similar to each other than are the environments experienced by fraternal twins
equal environments assumptions
assumption that environments experienced by identical twins are no more similar to each other than are environments experienced by fraternal twins
selective placement
if adopted children are placed with adopted parents who are similar to their birth parents, may inflate the correlations between the adopted children and their adopted parents
shared environmental influences
features of the environment that siblings share
- ex; the number of books in the home the presence or absence of a TV and VCR, the values and attitudes of the parent, the schools and the church
non-shared environmental influences
features of the environment that siblings do not share
ex- some children may get special or different treatment from parents, different groups of friends
genotype environment interaction
the differential response of individuals with different genotypes to the same environment
alpha wave
a particular type of brain wave that oscillates 8 to 12 times a second. The amount of alpha wave present in a given time period is an inverse indicator of brain activity during that time period. The alpha wave is given off when the person is calm and relaxed. In a given time period of brain wave recording, the more alpha wave activity present the more we can assume that part of the brain was less active
passive genotype environment correlation
occurs when parents provide both genes and environment to children, yet the children do nothing to obtain that environment
reaction genotype environment correlation
occurs when parents (or others) respond to children differently depending on the genotype
active genotype environment correlation
occurs when a person with a particular genotype creates or seeks out a particular environment
molecular genetics
techniques designed to identify the specific genes associated with specific traits, such as personality traits. the most common, called the association method, identifies whether individuals with particular gene have higher or lower scores on a particular trait measure
DRD4 gene
a gene located on the short arm of chromosome 11 that codes for a protein called a dopamine receptor. The function of this dopamine receptor is to respond to the presence of dopamine, which is neurotransmitter
environmentalist view
environmentalist believe that personality is determined by socialization practices, such as parenting style and other agents of society
physiological systems
organ systems within the body
ex - the nervous system, the cardiac system and the musculoskeletal system
theoretical bridge
the connection between two different variables
ex - dimensions of personality and physiological variables
electrodes
a sensor usually placed on the surface of the skin and linked to a physiological recording machine
telemetry
the process by which signals are sent from electrodes to a polygraph using radio waves instead of wires
Sympathetic nervous system
that branch of the automatic nervous system that supports the flight-or-fight response. SNS is activated when a person feels threatened or experiences strong emotions such as anxiety, guilt or anger
autonomic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that connects to vital bodily structures associated with maintaining life and responding to emergencies
electrodermal activity
electricity will flow across the skin with less resistance if that skin with less resistance if that skin is made damp with sweat. Sweating on the palms of the hands is activated by the sympathetic nervous system, and so electrodermal activity is a way to directly measure changes in the sympathetic nervous system
Cardiac reactivity
the increase in blood pressure and heart rate during times of stress. Evidence suggests that chronic cardiac reactivity contributes to coronary artery disease
ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)
a structure in the brain stem thought to control overall cortical arousal: the structure Eysenck originally thought was responsible for differences between introverts and extraverts
Arousal level and arousability
in Eysencks original theory of extraversion, he held that extraverts had lower levels of cortical or brain arousal than introverts. More recent research suggests that the difference between introverts and extraverts lies more in the arousability of their nervous systems, with extraverts showing less arousablility or reactivity than invoverts to the same level of sensory stimulation
reinforcement sensitivity theory
Gray’s biological theory of personality. based on recent Brian function research with animals. Gray constructed a model of human personality based on 2 hypothesized biological systems
- the behavioural activation system
- the behavioural inhibition system
behavioural activation system (BAS)
in Gray reinforcement sensitivity theory, the system that is responsive to incentives, such as cues for rewards and regulates approach behaviour. when some stimulus is recognized as potentially rewarding, the BAS triggers approach behaviour. When some stimulus is recognized as potentially rewarding, the BAS triggers approach behaviour. This system is highly correlated with trait extraversion
behavioural inhibition system (BIS)
in grays reinforcement sensitivity theory, the system responsible to cues for punishment, frustration and uncertainty. The effect of BIS activation is to caese or inhibit behavior
anxiety
an unpleasant, high-arousal emotional state associated with perceived threat. In the psychoanalytic tradition, anxiety is seen as a signal that the control of the ego is being threatened by reality, impulses from the id, or harsh controls exerted by the superego. Freud identified three different types of anxiety; neurotic anxiety, moral anxiety, and objective anxiety. According to Rogers the unpleasant emotional state of anxiety is the result of having an experience that does not fit with one’s self conception
impulsively
a personality trait that refers to lowered self-control, especially in the potentially rewarding activities, the tendency to act before one thinks, and a lowered ability to anticipate the consequences of one’s behaviour
Sensation seeking
a dimension of personality postulated to have physiological basis. It refers to the tendency to seek out thrilling and exciting activities, to take risks, and to avoid boredom
Sensory deprivation
often done in a sound-proof chamber containing water in which a person floats, in total darkness, such that sensory input is reduced to a minimum. Researchers use sensory deprivation chambers to see what happens when a person is deprived of sensory input
Optimal level of arousal
Hebb believed that people are motivated to reach an optimal level of arousal. if they are under-aroused relative to this level, an increase in arousal is rewarding; conversely, if they are over-aroused, a decrease in arousal is rewarding. By optimal level of arousal, Hebb meant a level that is “just right” for any given task
Comorbidity
the presence of two or more disorders of any type in one person
neurotransmitters
chemicals in the nerve cells that are responsible for the transmission of a nerve impulse from one cell to another. some theories of personality are based directly on different amounts of neurotransmitters found in the nervous system
Monoamine oxidase
An enzyme found in the blood that is known to regulate neurotransmitters, those chemicals that carry messages between nerve cells. MAO may be a causal factor in the personality trait of sensation seeking
dopamine
a neurotransmitter that appears to be associated with pleasure, dopamine appears to function something like the “reward system” and has been called the ‘feel good’ chemical
serotonin
a neurotransmitter that plays a role in depression and other mood disorders. Drugs such as Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil block the rep-uptake of serotonin, leaving it in the synapse longer, leading depressed persons to feel less depressed
norepinephrine
a neurotransmitter involved in activating the sympathetic nervous system for flight or fight
tridimensional personality model
Cloninger’s tridimensional personality model ties three specific personality traits to levels of the three neurotransmitters, The first trait is called novelty seeking and is based on low levels of dopamine. The second personality trait is harm avoidance, which he associates with low levels of serotonin. The third trait is reward dependance, which coninger sees as related to low levels of norepinephrine
novelty seeking
in Clongingers tridimensional personality model, the personality trait of novelty seeking is based on low levels of dopamine. Low levels of dopamine create a drive state to obtain substances or experiences that increase dopamine. Novelty and thrills and excitement can make up for low levels of dopamine, and so novelty-seeking behaviour is thought to result from low levels of this neurotransmitters
Harm avoidance
in cloninger’s tridimensional personality model, the personality trait of harm avoidance is associated with low levels of serotonin. People low in serotonin are sensitive to unpleasant stimuli or to stimuli or events that have been associated with punishment or pain. Consequently, people low in serotonin seem to expect that harmful and unpleasant events will happen to them, and they are constantly vigilant for signs of such threatening events
reward dependance
In Cloninger’s tridimensional personality model, the personality trait of reward dependence is associated with low levels of norepinephrine. people high on this trait are persistent; they continue to act in ways that produce reward. They work long hours, put a lot of effort into their work, and will often continue striving after others have given up
morningness - eveningness
The stable differences between persons in preferences for being active at different times of the day. The term was coined to refer to this dimension. Differences between mornings - and evening - types of persons appear to be due to differences in the length of there underlying circadian biological rhythms
circadian rhythm
many biological processes fluctuate around an approximate 24 - to 25 - hour cycle. These are called circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms in temporal isolation studies have been found to be as short as 16 hours in one person, and as long as 50 hours in another person.
free running
a condition in studies of circadian rhythms in which participants are deprived from knowing what time it is (ex - meals are served when the participant asks for them, not at prescheduled times). when a person is free running in time, there is no time cues to influence behaviour or biology
frontal brain asymmetry
asymmetry in the amount of activity in the left and right part of the frontal hemispheres of the brain. Studies using EEG measures have linked more relative left brain activity with pleasant emotions and more relative right brain activity with negative emotions
cortisol
a stress hormone that prepares the body to flee or fight. Increases in cortisol in the blood indicates that the animal has recently experienced stress
natural selection
Darwin reasoned that variants that better enabled an organism to survive and reproduce would lead to more descendants. The descendants, therefore, would inherit the variant that led to their ancestors’ survival and reproduction. Through this process, the successful variants were selected, and unsuccessful variants weeded out. Natural selection, therefore, results in gradual changes in a species over time, as successful variants increase in frequency and eventually spread throughout the gene pool, replacing the less successful variants
hostile forces of nature
hostile forces of nature are what Darwin called any event that impedes survival. Hostile forces of nature include food shortages, diseases, parasites, predators, and extremes of weather
sexual selection
the evolution of characteristics because of their mating benefits rather than because of their survival benefits. according to Darwin, sexual selection takes two forms; intrasexual competition and intersexual selection
intrasexual competition
In Darwin’s intasexual competition, members of the same sex compete with each other, and the outcome of their contest gives the winner greater sexual access to members of the opposite sex. Two stages locking horns in combat is the prototypical image of this. The characteristics that lead to success in contents of this kind, such as greater strength, intelligence, or attractiveness to allies, evolve because the victors are able to mate more often and hence pass on more genes
intersexual selection
in Darwin’s intersexual selection, members of one sex choose a mate based on their preferences for particular qualities in that mate. These characteristics evolve because animals that posses them are chosen more often as mates, and their genes thrive. Animals that lack the desired characteristics are excluded from mating, and their genes perish
differential gene reproduction
reproductive success relative to others. the genes of organisms who reproduce more than others get passed down to future generations at a relatively greater frequency than the genes of those who reproduce less
inclusive fitness theory
modern evolutionary theory based on differential gene reproduction. The “inclusive” part refers to the fact that the characteristics that affect reproduction need not affect the personal production of offspring; they can affect the survival and reproduction of genetic relatives as well
adaptive problem
anything that impedes survival or reproduction. all adaptations must contribute to fitness during the period of time in which they evolve by helping an organism to survive, reproduce, or facilitate the reproductive success of genetic relatives
xenophobia
the fear of strangers
byproducts of adaptations
evolutionary mechanisms that are not adaptations, but rather are byproducts of other adaptations.
- ex; nose is adaptation for smelling, but the fact that we use of nose to hold up eye glasses is incidental byproduct
domain specific
domain specificity implies thats election tends to fashion specific mechanisms for each specific adaptive problem
functionality
the notion that our psychological mechanisms are designed to accomplish particular adaptive goals
deductive reasoning approach
the top-down, theory driven method of empirical approach
inductive reasoning approach
the bottom-up, data-driven method of empirical research
social anxiety
discomfort related to social interactions, or even the anticipation of social interactions
- Baumeister and Tice propose that social anxiety is a species-typical adaptation that functions to prevent to prevent social exclusion
evolutionary-predicted sex differences
evolutionary psychology predicts that males and females will be the same or similar in all those domains where the sexes have faced the same or similar adaptive problems
- ex; both sexes have sweat glands because both sexes have faced the adaptive problem of thermal regulation
effective polygyny
because female mammals bear the physical burden of gestation and lactation, there is considerable sex differences in minimum obligatory parental investment.
- this difference leads to differenaces in the variance in reproduction between the sexes
- ex; most females have some offspring, whereas a few males will sire many offspring, and some will have none at all
sexually dimorphic
species that show high variance in reproduction within one sex tend to be highly sexually dimorpic, or different in size and structure
reactively heritable
traits that are secondary consequences of heritability traits
balanced selection
when genetic variation is maintained by section because different levels of personality trait are adaptive in different environments
psychopathy
a term often used synonymously with the antisocial personality disorder. it is used to refer to individual differences in antisocial characteristics
unrestricted mating strategy
a women seeking a man for the quality of his genes is not interested in his level of commitment to her. if the man is pursuing a short term sexual strategy, any delay on the women’s part may deter him from seeking sexual intercourse with her, thus defeating the main adaptive reason for her mating strategy
- gangestad and Simpson
restricted sexual strategy
a women seeking a high-investing mate would adopt a restricted sexual strategy marked by delayed intercourse and prolonged courtship. this would enable her to assess the man’s level of commitment, detect the existence of prior commitments to other women and/ or children, and simultaneously signal to the man the women’s sexual fidelity and, hence, assure him of his paternity of future offspring
psychic energy
a source of energy within each person
