Powers and borders

Question 1

The world political map

Answer 1

• The world political map shows territories of sovereign nation states
  
  • These are spatially bounded areas of land, which physically define independent, self-governing countries.
  • These political units are the dominant entity in the global political system and are considered to be the most important form of spatial governance
  • The dynamic nature of the map is demonstrated by the formation of numerous new countries since 1990 such as:
    
    • The Czech Republic and Slovakia becoming independent states after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia which although it was partially caused the Velvet Revolution in late 1980s, can be considered as a largely peaceful example of independence without violence being displayed.
    • Whereas South Sudan seceded from Sudan in 2011, following a protracted civil war with numerous border regions such as Abyei remaining contested.
  • The significance of these border changes is far more than a matter of territory as they affect sovereignty over populations and physical resources whilst also influencing global patterns (i.e trade and migration)

Question 2

State - definition and characteristics

Answer 2

The term ‘State’ refers to the area of land, of an independent country, with well-defined boundaries, within which there is a politically organised body of people under a single government.

Characteristics of States:

• An internationally recognised defined territory
• Sovereignty
• A globally recognised government (often achieved through UN membership)
• Independence

Question 3

State power and resilience

Answer 3

• State power is achieved through state apparatus (the set of institution and organisation which have enabled the achievement of power)
  
  • State power is largely dependent on numerous economic, social, physical and political factors such as the following:
    
    • The ability to exploit natural resources
    • Geographical location
    • Human resources
    • The ability to regulate its economy.
• The level of resilience a state has is measured by the Fund for Peace (FFP) Fragile States Index, which looks at a wide range of social, economic, military and political indices such as the following:
  
  • The number of refugees per capita
  • The number fatalities from conflict
  • The number of political prisoners

Question 4

States on the world political map

Answer 4

• Globally there is inequality in power and influence of states
  
  • Some states have the ability to dominate and drive global systems and have significant influence on geopolitical events
  • Others have little influence and can only react or respond to global change
    
    • Economic power can be measured in terms of trade and wealth generated over long periods
    • Military power may also depend on wealth and government policy
    • A state may also be influential in the global spread of its cultural attributes, such as the concept of ‘Americanisation’ which can be seen most vividly in the Caribbean

Question 5

Nation - definition and characteristics

Answer 5

A ‘Nation’ is a large group of people with similar identities as a result of a shared descent, history, tradition, culture and language.

Characteristics of Nations:

• A lack of sovereignty
• A nation is not an independent state and if it does it is then formally considered as a nation-state

Example: The Kurds

• Kurds are a non Arab, Middle Eastern population inhabiting the region known as Kurdistan which is an extensive plateau and mountain area located amongst the countries of Iraq, Iran, Syria, Turkey and Armenia.
• The Kurds are a nation united by culture but without a state or sovereign power

Question 6

Nations on the world political map

Answer 6

• A nation is different to a state in the sense that spatially, a nation may be confined to one country, or its people may live in an areas across adjoining countries and some may be scattered globally in the diaspora
• In modern global politics nearly all states refer to themselves as nation states as every government attempts to build a sense of national identity among its citizens
  
  • In many nation-states the government actively promotes nationality, often through its education system and media
    
    • This process is referred to as Nation-building

Question 7

Sovereignty

Answer 7

‘Sovereignty’ refers to the absolute authority which independent states exercise in the government of the land and people in their territories.

Sovereignty is achieved via two political processes

• Internal sovereignty, in which a state has exclusive authority within its bound territory and no other state can intervene in its domestic policies
• External sovereignty, whereby sovereignty is established through mutual recognition among other sovereign states.

Sovereignty applies to:

• Rocks, soils, minerals and space beneath the ground
• Agreed areas of sea and sea-bed resources
• Agreed air space

The concepts of sovereignty and territorial integrity are being challenged by processes developing as a result of globalisation which are a potential source of conflict.

Question 8

Territorial integrity

Answer 8

It’s the principle under international law that confirms territorial divisions and sovereign states and orders nations not to promote border changes in other nation-states

• The Charter of the United Nations, under Article 2.4, expresses the importance of territorial integrity
• The preservation of territorial integrity and sovereignty is therefore important in achieving and maintaining international security and stability in the world.

Question 9

Norms

Answer 9

“Norms” are derived from moral principles, customs and behaviours which have developed over time throughout the world

• These norms are based on principles set out in the Charter of the United Nations which outline the universally accepted understanding of sovereignty and territorial integrity
  
  • This includes state responsibilities of maintaining the global system and protecting their citizens such Article 2.1 of the UN Charter which states:
    
    • “The organisation is based on the principle of sovereign equality of all its Members”
• This means that all member states have equal right to determine their own form of government, which they can choose without outside influence.
• However the government also has the responsibility to respect the sovereignty of other states under Article 2.4 which makes specific reference to:
  
  • “The preservation of the territorial integrity and political independence of state”
• Externally, states are obliged to promote and develop friendly external relations between nations
• Internally, the obligation of a state is to protect its citizens. This includes:
  
  • To respect, protect and fulfil human rights
  • To allow citizens to be involved in government
  • To allow the freedom and opportunity to have a role in which they can contribute to society
• Governments are expected to put in place domestic measures and laws compatible with the UN charter and any other treaty obligations which they have signed
• Some states are said to be fragile because the sovereign government has been unable to fulfil these obligations or responsibilities, often because states apparatus is ineffective
• There are increasing numbers of norms and principles of accepted behaviour which are established not only by the UN but also in the charts of regional organisations such as the EU and ASEAN

Question 10

Intervention

Answer 10

‘Intervention’ encompasses actions of international organisations in resolving conflicts or humanitarian crises arising from challenges to sovereignty and territorial integrity

Intervention can undertake several different norms:

• Economic sanctions - as outlined in Article 41 of the UN Charter
• Military intervention authorised by the UN (Article 42)
• Humanitarian assistance by Civil Society organisations, including NGOs and aid Agencies

Circumstances when intervention is perceived as necessary

• When a state government fails to protect its citizens from violation of human rights
• A direct act of aggression by another state - could be caused over territorial disputes (Korea 1950)
• Where civil war arises as a result of poor or corrupt governance
• Where there is conflict between ethnic groups
• Where religious fundamentalism and terrorist activity have serious effects
• Where TNCs have negative economic, social or environmental impacts on countries in which they invest

Question 11

Geopolitics

Answer 11

‘Geopolitics’ involves the global balance of political power and international relations

Geopolitical power is very uneven throughout the world:

• Advanced Countries (ACs) - including the US superpower
• Emerging and Developing Countries (EDCs) - which are increasingly important economically and politically
• Low Income Developing Countries (LIDCs) - less powerful peripheral economies
• Supranational political and economic co-operations such as the UN, EU, ASEAN, OPEC and NAFTA
• Trans-state organisations such as TNCs, who have increasing influence on countries in which they locate as globalisation continues to spread

Question 12

Why Sovereignty and Territorial integrity are complex issues

Answer 12

Intervention is controversial as it is argued that the principle of sovereignty, which is actively promoted by the UN, is undermined by the act of intervention even though sanctioned by the UN Security Council as it conflicts with Article 2.4 which stresses the importance of the preservation of territorial integrity of a state

• The geopolitics of intervention in sovereignty and territorial integrity issues is very important
• When the international community is called upon to intervene, it requires consideration of:
  
  • Reasons why intervention is necessary
  • Appropriate types of intervention
  • Political composition of groups of countries and organisations involved
  • Characteristic features of the country
  • Government and peoples affected
  • Potential socio-economic, environmental effects

Therefore Global governance of sovereignty and territorial integrity issues are complex and multifaceted

Question 13

Dissolution of Czechoslovakia - reasons for the split and process

Answer 13

• Reasons For The Split
  
  • Some suggest that the dissolution was inevitable, due to the vast differences in the levels of success between the two regions after the adoption of communism, whist others believe that the events of the Velvet Revolution (Between 1989 and 1992) was the causation
  • Politicians saw a chance to attain and/or consolidate their power by creating another state with a separate parliament, government etc
  • In a September 1992 poll, only 37% of Slovaks and 36% of Czechs favoured the dissolution
• The Process
  
  • With the Constitution Act 542, passed on 25th November, they agreed to the dissolution of Czechoslovakia as of the 31st December 1992
  • The separation occurred without violence – the dissolution of Czechoslovakia was the only former socialist state to have a peaceful breakup (unlike the Soviet Union or Yugoslavia)

Question 14

Dissolution of Czechoslovakia - legacy

Answer 14

• Legacy
  
  • The present relations between the Czechs and Slovaks, as many people point out, are probably better than they have ever been.
  • Furthermore, it has become customary that the elected presidents pay their first and last official foreign visits during their term to the other republic of the former Czechoslovakia
  • The Czech Republic continues to be Slovakia’s most important business partner
  • After the dissolution in 1990s the new TV channels in the Czech Republic practically stopped using Slovak and young Czech people now have a much lower understanding of the Slovak language whereas in comparison young Slovak people still have the same knowledge of the Czech language as their predecessors.

Question 15

Factors that can erode sovereignty and challenge territorial integrity

Answer 15

Some of the most significant measurements of this breakdown are used as indicators on the fragile states index

• Cohesion
  
  • Security apparatus
  • Factionalized elites
  • Group grievance
• Economic
  
  • Economic decline
  • Uneven economic development
  • Human flight and brain drain
• Political
  
  • State legitimacy
  • Public services
  • Human rights and
• Social
  
  • Demographic pressures
  • Refugees and IDPs
  • External intervention

Question 16

The impact of current political boundary tensions on sovereignty

Answer 16

• The current system of nation states with clearly defined political boundaries and parameters is based on the Westphalian model (1648), which was established on the principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity and the sovereign equality of all states.
  
  • These principles are currently enforced by the UN Charter
• However this system has been challenged by many current threats as control of territory and its borders have been increasingly contested in the last two decades both within and between sovereign states:
  
  • Contested territory - Russia’s annexation of Crimea and support of separatists in Ukraine and disputes over claims of islands in the South and East China Seas
  • Separatism - Claims for secession by Catalan national groups in Spain along with Scottish nationalists in the United Kingdom
  • Sectarian tensions - Where political and ethnic conflict in the Middle East has challenged sovereignty and territorial integrity
  • Transnational movement of terrorist and extremist activity - The border of Turkey and Syria has experienced the smuggling of foreign fighters, weapons and other military supplies which has threatened territorial integrity and sovereign control of the two countries
  • The legacy of colonisation - the ‘Scramble for Africa’ in the 18th and 19th centuries, where arbitrary political boundaries and European administration of territory (Sykes-Picot Agreement: 8th May 1918), has caused ethnic partitioning

Question 17

Sovereign Wealth Funds - background information

Answer 17

• Sovereign Wealth Funds, otherwise known as SWF, act as global ‘piggy banks; which many states rely on to build global influence and diversify their income sources
• Only a minority of countries operate SWFs, many of which are funded through raw materials such as mineral resources (Chile’s Copper Wealth and Botswana’s diamonds)
  
  • However China’s is funded by a balance of payment surplus (occurs where export outweigh the value of imports)

Question 18

Sovereign Wealth Funds in the UK

Answer 18

• The United Kingdom is the most popular destination for SWF investment
  
  • China’s SWFs own ½ of the House of Fraser Department Franchise
    
    • By 2025, China will own an estimated £100 billion of UK energy property and transport investments
  • China has made an £800 million investment in the Airport City Manchester Project
  • Manchester City FC is owned by Abu Dhabi
  • Cadbury is headquartered in London but owned by the US TNC Kraft
• Sovereign Wealth Funds have increased exponentially in the UK since 2008 due to the UK’s need to fund new projects without adding substantial portions of debt
• However some argue that the large scale investments represent a loss of sovereignty as ownership belong to foreign governments as opposed to foreign companies
  
  • In effect, the UK government is giving power over national assets to foreign governments

Question 19

The impact of TNCs on sovereignty - background

Answer 19

• Economic integration reduces the possibility of conflict
  
  • Thomas Friedman created the theory that no two countries with a McDonalds have ever gone to war since the opening of McDonald’s (Golden Arch Theory)
    
    • However this is not the case, since Russia and Ukraine, who both have McDonalds, fought in the 2014 Crimean crisis
• TNCs are powerful and can lobby governments and undermine the government’s ability to make decisions in the interests of its people
• Environmental fines are often small compared to earnings and so many laws are not followed
• Arbitrage - Whereby a TNC objects to a government policy and threatens to close down its local production and increase production in another country.
• Triangulation - When a TNC evades a trade sanction because it operations above national law

Question 20

The impact of TNCs on sovereignty - Ken Saro-Wiwa

Answer 20

• Saro-Wiwa was a famous campaigner on behalf of the Ogoni people, leading peaceful protests against the environmental damage caused by oil companies in the Niger Delta
  
  • Ken originally protested against how Shell conducted their activity as they were using open pits and oil pipelines criss crossing the land that the Ogoni people had inhabited which destroyed their livelihoods
  • No doubt that Shell were damaging the environment, they were forced to pay out 84 million dollars as a result of old pipes ballooning and spilling oil.
  • This environmental exploitation has led to the rise of other militant groups that destabilize the region by being set against TNCs such as Shell and Exxon for example the so-called ‘Niger Delta Avengers’.
• He was hanged by the Nigerian military in 1995 after being charged with incitement to murder after the death of four Ogoni elders
• Numerous prosecution witnesses later admitted that they had been bribed to give evidence against Saro-Wiwa
• Allegations suggest that Shell actively subsidised a campaign of terror by security forces in the Niger Delta and attempted to influence the trial that led to Saro-Wiwa’s execution
  
  • The lawsuit alleges that the company attempted to bribe two witnesses in his trial to testify against him
• Shell has affected sovereignty drastically by undermining the justice system, influencing government policies and allowing corruption

Question 21

The impact of TNCs on sovereignty - Oil Field OPL 245

Answer 21

• Emails recovered by ‘Finance Uncovered and Global Witness’, showed that Shell took part in a scheme which deprived Nigeria and its people of $1.1 billion in a deal for access to one of Africa’s most valuable oil blocks - OPL 245
  
  • The money paid for the block equates to 1 ½ times what the UN says is needed to respond to the current famine crisis in Nigeria which sees five million people face starvation
  • The money also equates to more than Nigeria’s health budget
  • Rise in illegal oil refineries as the benefits of the land that shell is exploiting do not find their way back to local people
    
    • This has led to a huge drop in the production capabilities of the Niger delta from 2.5 million barrels to 1.85 million in just five years
• Shell were aware that the massive payments for the oil block would go to Dan Etete - a convicted money launderer and ex Minister of Oil along with significant proportions going to influential people in the country, such as President Goodluck Jonathan.
• Shell affected Nigeria’s sovereignty by not following the rule of law, corruption and by passing the government

Question 22

The impact of TNCs on sovereignty - VRG in Cambodia

Answer 22

• Vietnam’s two biggest rubber companies, Hoang Anh Gia Lia and the Vietnam Rubber Group (VRG), are moving into Cambodia and Laos, seizing farmland, flouting land and forest protection laws and destroying local lives
• Both companies operate through a web of subsidies, of which the Deutsche Bank and the International Finance Corporation are key backers, which help hide the identity of their true owners
• These Rubber Barons have carried out forced land grabs without compensation, whilst satellite images show they are logging illegally in protected forest
  
  • The indigenous people are unable to operate in their usual manner after the rice fields have been destroyed by the TNCs
    
    • The area of the land is ½ the size of Ireland

Question 23

The impact of TNCs on sovereignty - Bi-Water in Tanzania

Answer 23

• In the 1990s, in order to obtain World Bank loans of 143 million dollars, the Tanzanian government agreed to privatise their water system, a move which coincided with the promotion of privatising state-run organisations by the World Bank.
  
  • The national water system was very ineffective with only 98,000 households in the city of Dar es Salaam of 2.5 million people having house connections
• 13% of water consumption was through unauthorised use of illegal taps and non payers
• In 2003, a 10 year lease contract was signed between the government of Tanzania and City Water, a consortium consisting of the former British Firm Biwater
• However as people had never bought water before, along with the fact that 98% of investment went to areas where the richest 20% lived, meant that poor families started to drink contaminated water as a substitute
• In 2005, the Tanzanian government cancelled their contract with Biwater and obtained a loan from India to reinstate their nationally run service
• In 2005, 3 million pounds was awarded in damages to DAWASA, the Tanzanian water utility, and ½ a million pounds in legal costs

Question 24

The impact of supranational organisations such as the EU and the UN on sovereignty

Answer 24

• Supranational institutions represent a tier of governance above that of the individual state
• Within supranational institutions member states retain their sovereignty: they are independent countries have equal rights, and exercise exclusive control over, and responsibility for, their citizens.
• But having achieved membership countries are also bound to the requirements of the supranational body, including any treaties they sign
  
  • In this respect , member states are said to surrender some aspects of their sovereignty since they must comply with the international or regional laws of these institutions

Question 25

The United Nations

Answer 25

• Each of the 193 sovereign states in the UN is a member of the General Assembly
• Sovereignty and territorial integrity are important norms (Articles 2.1 and 2.4) which underpin the global political system
• However these norms are conflicted as the UN, with the backing of the security council, has the right to sanction intervention as in Articles 41 and 42
  
  • These norms are increasingly applied by the international community when a state fails to protect its citizens
• A General Assembly World Summit in 2005, a UN resolution reaffirmed that the primary responsibility to protect its citizens still lies with the individual state, but intervention should apply in instances of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and ethnic cleansing

Question 26

The UN and Darfur

Answer 26

• Militants from several non-Arab African tribes in Darfur, in particular the Fur and Zaghawa, started a rebellion against the Arab-led Sudanese government in 2003
• The government used a local militia, known as Janjaweed, to crush the insurgency
• The Janjaweed, with the support of Khartoum, targeted civilians of the same ethnicity as the rebel groups.
  
  • More than 85,000 people have since been killed along with 200,000 as a result of war-related diseases
• Although the United States have described the actions as “genocide”, the UN has gone no further than the terms “crimes against humanity” and “war crimes”
• The reasoning behind it is that the genocide convention of 1948 imperils countries to act to prevent genocide when it occurs
• The chance of a solution dwindled after Sudan told the African Union, who were overseeing the peace agreement in Darfur, that it must leave the region by the end of September 2006
  
  • Although the UN Security Council passed a resolution on the 26th August stating that it would send 17,000 peacekeepers to Darfur to replace the AU troops, the Sudanese government rejected these plans.

Question 27

Reasons for and against UN intervention in Darfur

Answer 27

• Reasons for Intervention
  
  • The genocide in Rwanda showed just how bad things can get if local rivalries are allowed to issue in organised killing
  • There is not much point in having an international convention on genocide if no one enforces it
  • The implications of allowing another genocide to take place in Africa could lead to a complete collapse in the UN’s authority
• Reasons Against Intervention
  
  • Only the United States and NATO have the power to enforce a military solution, and they would be seen as western imperialists
  • The recent examples of Iraq and Afghanistan show how much easier it is to overthrow a government than to ensure order afterwards
  • As bad as Darfur could become if left alone outside intervention might well make matters even worse

Question 28

The European Union (EU)

Answer 28

• The EU is a trading bloc which is not only an economic union but also a political union with its own parliament and a monetary ‘Eurozone’
• There are 28 sovereign member states, but their integration in the EU can bring challenges to their individual power and autonomy
  
  • Exclusive Competence: The Union has exclusive competence to make directives and conclude international agreements
    
    • Monetary policy for members of the Eurozone
    • Members must follow a common customs union
  • Shared Competence: Member States cannot exercise competence in areas where the Union has done so
    
    • Agriculture policy
    • Energy
    • Transport
  • Supporting Competence: The Union can carry out actions to support, coordinate or supplement Member States
    
    • Tourism
    • Education
    • Sport

Question 29

Pooled sovereignty definition

Answer 29

A term used to describe the sharing of decision making powers between states in systems of international cooperation.

Question 30

Supranational definition

Answer 30

Having power or influence that transcends national borders or governments.

Question 31

Intergovernmental definition

Answer 31

Relating to or conducted between two or more governments

Question 32

EU - Greek debt crisis

Answer 32

• Until 2001, the national currency was the Drachma, but adopted the Euro joining the Eurozone in 2001
• One of the reasons for why the crisis has been so confounding is that Greece’s monetary policy is controlled by the central bank whereas Greek fiscal policy is coordinated by the Greek government
  
  • Greece and other Eurozone countries are meant to follow a set of rules such as no more than a 3% annual budget deficit however many have broken these rules
    
    • Since the mid 1990s, the Greek government had been reporting deficits and debts that were much lower than the actual deficits and debts
  • In 2009, a newly elected government announced that the budget deficit was 13.9% of GDP
    
    • Caused by rising labour costs after joining the Eurozone whilst Greece was also disproportionately affected because two of its biggest industries (shipping and tourism) fared well in recessions
• In the spring of 2010, the European Commission and the International Monetary Fund came to Greece’s aid with a 110 billion euro bailout. The European Central Bank also helped out by buying some Greek debt, and giving Greek banks access to capital, and these three institutions came to be known as “the troika”.
• In exchange for these loans, Greece agreed to austerity measures
• Greece did decrease their budget deficit from 25billion euro in 2009 to just 5.2 billion euro in 2011.
  
  • It caused the Greek economy to contract dramatically.
    
    • People had less money to spend as their pensions shrank and their taxes rose, and that in turn led to the failure of businesses and fewer jobs.
• And as the economy shrank, so did tax revenues, because the economy is the thing that governments tax, and in the end, nothing really got better.
  
  • Greece still didn’t have a sustainable economy, so in 2012, the troika loaned them another 130 billion euro
    
    • 30% of people in Greece now live in poverty, and almost one in five doesn’t have enough money to buy food that will meet their daily nutritional needs.
• From a wider European economic perspective, things have gotten a lot better in the last five years.
  
  • Private European banks own much less Greek debt than they did in 2010 and the economies of Ireland and Portugal are much healthier so the impacts of a ‘Grexit’ were numbed
• End of 2014, a new leftist government were elected in Greece, and they put a stop to austerity measures
  
  • The troika stopped sending loan payments
  • In a referendum on the 5th July, the Greek people voted overwhelming against austerity measures
  • Now without these payments coming into Greece, there is suddenly a very serious liquidity crisis in Greek banks.
    
    • Greek banks may have only 500 million euro left, which is like 45 euro per person in Greece.
    • Many ATMs are out of cash, others can only dispense 10 euro notes because they’re out of 20s.

Question 33

EU - common fisheries policy (CFP)

Answer 33

• The CFP is a set of rules for managing European fishing fleets and for conserving fish stocks
  
  • The policy gives all European fishing fleets equal access to EU waters and fishing grounds and allows fisherman to compete fairly
• The policy was first introduced in the 1970s but has undergone significant updates, the latest of which occurred in 2014
• However often EU rules prohibit British ships from travelling outside their ports
  
  • The fishing village of North Footdee has been in decline as a result
• Whilst remainers argue that fishermen are able to trade their commodities with no tariffs, the fisherman are often unable to buy shares from the current system after the EU cut down the number available for purchase
  
  • As a result the North Sea is largely dominated by French and Spanish fleets
• Norway’s decision not to join the EU in order to preserve their waters had been regarded as largely successful as they determine the preservation of cod
  
  • 60% of Norway’s fish stocks are exported to the EU, the majority of which originate from the Salmon farms
    
    • However due to high tariffs on smoked fish, much of the salmon is exported whole where it is then smoked in either Germany or Poland
    • As a result, many jobs have been lost in the local fishing industries (however not to the same extent of which can be seen in the UK)
• It is often argued that the Common Fisheries policy undermines the concept of sovereignty as by passing quotas which limit the number of fish allowed to be caught the trading bloc is undermining the concept that the government in power has absolute authority over areas of seas and ocean

Question 34

The impact of the political dominance of ethnic groups on sovereignty (Catalonia) - timeline

Answer 34

• June 2010: Spain’s constitutional court quashes parts of Catalonia’s autonomy statute
• 11 September 2012: Barcelona’s police estimate at 1.5 million the number of people attending the Diada march for independence
• 20 September 2012: Prime Minister Rajoy rebuffs Catalonia bid to cease being net contributor to the Spanish state
  
  • On the National Day of Catalonia, over 1.5 million took to the streets of Barcelona to protest
• 9 November 2014: Catalan authorities hold consultation on secession - more than 80% vote in favour, but turnout is only 40%
• 27 September 2015: In regional elections presented as independence plebiscite, pro-sovereignty forces win majority of seats with 48% of popular vote

Question 35

Reasons for Catalan Independence

Answer 35

• Catalonia is not Spain
  
  • Catalans are part of a distinct, proud nation with its own language, history, culture and flag and that separate identity has survived Franco’s brutal attempts to suppress the Catalan language in the decades after the Civil War
  • Supporters of independence argue that their language and culture is not sufficiently respected by the Spanish central government, and they worry that, unless something is done, their culture will be absorbed
• Unequal Partnership
  
  • Every year, Catalans are forced to contribute 17 billion euros of their taxes to the Spanish government’s coffers in Madrid
  • These demands have pushed Catalonia into debt and left a wealthy country struggling to provide basic services for its own people
  • The refusal of the Madrid government to grant Catalonia even the fiscal autonomy enjoyed by the Basque country shows that only through independence will Barcelona be able to take control of its finances and its economic future
• The People’s Choice
  
  • Some polls suggest that up to 57% of Catalans want independence
    
    • The Catalan people have rejected attempts by the government in Madrid to roll back the autonomy which Catalonia has gained since the death of Franco in 1975
    • Catalans do not want to live in a centralised Spanish state under a monarchy for whom they have little affection
  • It is undemocratic not to let them exercise their right to self determination

Question 36

Reasons Against Catalan Independence

Answer 36

• Balkanisation of Europe
  
  • If Catalonia becomes independent, then it may encourage a wave of separatism in Scotland, Flanders and Bavaria (Areas of land which are also fighting for independence)
  • In a time of mounting populist nationalism, the rush to breakaway could create dangerous potential for conflict
• Selfish Nationalism
  
  • Catalonia receives billions from EU structural funds, and the regional government is in debt of 42 billion euros
  • If Catalonia refuses to support less prosperous regions of Spain, why should the rest of Europe help Catalonia save its banks or finance its growing pension bill
  • Catalonia would have to cope with economic chaos and an exodus of spooked foreign investors while they wait to reapply for membership of the European Union, the eurozone and the EU’s single market

Question 37

Ukraine - background geography

Answer 37

• Country with population of 43 million people lying in the “Great European Plain”, composed of flat, fertile grassland with its largest border (2000km) with Russia
• GDP of $9,000 per capita, economic base is mostly primary with large pockets of heavy industry in the east
• Most significant exports are ferrous metals, chemicals, fuels and petroleum products
• Biggest trading partners are Russia and the EU - each make up around 25% of imports and 305 of exports
• Ethnicities - 78% Ukrainian, 17% Russian, 5% other

Question 38

Ukraine - causes of the conflict

Answer 38

• Internal political divisions between Russian-speaking provinces in the east and more nationalistic Ukrainians in the west, manifested by the shift from a pro-Russian government to a pro-EU government 2013-14
• Economics - as income from legal activities declines, insurgency is likely to rise
• Inability to build a common national identity
• Endemic corruption and unpopular government policies
• Russian invasion of Crimea in 2014
• Precarious geographical position between Russia and EU countries

Question 39

Ukraine - timeline

Answer 39

• 1991 - Ukraine declares independence from the USSR
• 2004 - the ‘Orange Revolution’ occurs, forcing a pro-European change of government
• 2010 - Pro-Russian President Yanukovych is elected fairly
• November 2013 - the Kremlin backed Yanukovych cabinet abandons an association agreement with the EU which would have offered £610 million to upgrade the economy
  
  • Instead of the EU deal, Putin made an offer to buy $15 billion of Ukrainian debt and reduce Russian oil prices by 1/3
  • This goes against the wishes of much of Western Ukraine, and consequently 3 months of protest in Kiev ensue featuring over 100,000 people
  • Yanukovych is eventually sacked by parliament
• February 2014 - Russian gunmen seized key buildings in Crimea, many in the capital Simferopol
• April 2014 - Russia backed forces who seized towns and cities in the east, sparking a drawn out conflict

Question 40

Ukraine - impacts on people

Answer 40

• 1.5 million of the 5 million people in Lugansk and Donetsk are now IDPs
  
  • 600,000 have become international refugees fleeing to neighbouring countries
• There have been 7,000 deaths and 14,000 injuries since the conflict began
• Population in Ukraine is now declining at the fourth highest rate in the world
• Evacuees have been forced to move to dorms in summer camps, forests and even a sanatorium Svetagovsk
  
  • This leads to a poor quality of life and limited access to services

Question 41

Ukraine - impacts on places

Answer 41

• Crimea previously made up 4% of Ukrainian GDP, which has now been lost
• Ukraine has lost its gas discount from Russia, which was 30%
• Debaltseve has been badly bombed
  
  • Population has declined from 32,000 to 8,000
  • It is geopolitically important as it is the main city between Lugansk and Donetsk, contains the main railroad from Russia and is the destination for most imports
• 5 hospitals in Eastern Ukraine have been destroyed since June 2014
• Donbass’ industrial and residential areas have lost power, water supply and gas
• Steppes and forests have been badly burned
• Economic sanctions have been put in place by the EU and USA, causing a drop in the value of the rouble in Russia
  
  • November 2013 - 32 roubles to the dollar
  • February 2015 - 66 roubles to the dollar
• There is the potential for water wars, as Ukraine is damming the Dnieper River which flows through Crimea
• A recession has caused a 10% loss in GDP in Ukraine and a 60% fall in Donetsk

Question 42

Ukraine - management

Answer 42

• Ukraine is not a member of NATO, so has not received military support
• The EU has imposed sanctions on Russia banning the import of Crimean goods, limiting its access to EU markets and suspending it from the G8 (now G7 after Russia left in 2017)
• Ukraine has sued Russia at the UN’s highest court, the case beginning in January 2017
• Peace talks occured when the EU, Russia and Ukraine met in Geneva in April 2014
• The EU has been a major mediator between parties, implementing the EUropean Commission stabilisation plan worth 11 billion Euros in March 2014
• NATO has increased its strengths in vulnerable former Soviet states around the Baltic (+800 in Estonia, 1200 in Latvia and 1200 in Lithuania)
• Ukraine has moved refugees to Svetagovsk

Question 43

Challenges to sovereignty/territorial integrity which lead to conflict

Answer 43

• Challenges to sovereignty and/or territorial integrity, which lead to conflict, arise where:
  
  • Citizens are treated unjustly or groups of citizens have limited representation in government
  • There is competition for the same, or scarce, resources such as water supplies, agricultural land or oil
  • People seek autonomy, independence and self determination if suppressed or marginalised by a state government
  • A government fails to protect its citizens from violation of human rights
  • People’s religious or political beliefs, on which their identity depends, conflict or they are persecuted
  • There are different ethnic identities and ethnic conflict within a state
  • A government, through poor management or deliberate policy, fails to supply people’s basic human needs

Question 44

The Global Peace Index

Answer 44

Patterns of conflict throughout the world are represented by the Global Peace Index

• This interactive map shows changes in global patterns of peace over time and is produced by the Institute for Economics and Peace
• The index is composite, based on 23 indicators which are grouped into three main categories
  
  • Level of safety and security in a society
  • Number of international and domestic conflicts
  • Degree of militarisation
• Numbers are allocated for each criterion, the highest total score being the least peaceful country

Question 45

Natural resources in the Arctic - historic issues

Answer 45

• In recent times, the changing physical state of the Arctic has caused conflict and captured the attention of states and other organizations including the EU
• A key event in precipitating controversy was the 2007 planting of the Russian flag on the bottom of the central Arctic Ocean
  
  • Images of the titanium flagpole being established were widely circulated in national and global media networks
• The flag planting episode brought to attention the changing geopolitical imagination of the Arctic and the governance of the Arctic through international cooperation
• During the Cold War, the Arctic was a region where the presence of thick sea ice acted as a barrier to movement, making it a space of ‘thin governability’
  
  • Both sides developed polar strategies based on containment and conducted numerous operations in the area, making it a highly militarized space with little evidence of cooperation
• After Gorbachev’s call in 1987 for the Arctic to be a ‘zone of peace’, concerted efforts were made to improve relations between the five Arctic Ocean coastal states and neighbouring countries such as FInland and Sweden
  
  • One manifestation of this was the 1996 creation of the Arctic Council (AC), an intergovernmental organization intended to aid and abet Arctic states in areas of common interest

Question 46

Natural resources in the Arctic - present and future

Answer 46

• Climate change has been a great driver of change, with melting sea ice widely identified as indicative of greater accessibility in a political and material sense
  
  • As the North West Passage is now open and there is the possibility of further resource extraction in areas such as oil and gas, countries have been keen exploit these opportunities, raising the possibility of conflict
• At present, Arctic Ocean governance is shaped by the Arctic Council, the Law of the Sea and a host of regional regimes such as fisheries agreements
  
  • The AC is a soft-law institution, meaning it has no legal competence and lacks a permanent secretariat; neither Russia nor America have appeared keen to extend its jurisdiction
  • The Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC) regulates large sways of the ocean through establishment of various zones of influence
  • There are also a patchwork of national and regional fisheries management organizations which will need to be developed further as sea ice thins
• Future governance of the Arctic is likely to be determined by the AC and provisions of the LOSC, as neither Russia or the USA appears willing to act in hegemonic ways
  
  • They and smaller states benefit from the current ‘pooling’ arrangement, and emphatically rejected a proposal by the EU Commission in 2008 to create an Arctic Treaty

Question 47

Water supply conflict in Kashmir

Answer 47

• Sovereignty over Kashmir has been contested between Pakistan and India since the partition of India in 1947
• Periodic firing across the border by both countries has caused deaths of military personnel and internal displacement of thousands of poor farmers and their families
  
  • Troops are even stationed high in the Karakoram Range at over 6000 m to control the territory of the Siachen Glacier, a major source of the River Indus
• Although there are ethnic, cultural and religious differences, water insecurity is at the heart of the Kashmir dispute
  
  • The Indus is a very important natural resource to both countries for irrigation and hydroelectric power
• Mediated by the World Bank, the Indus Water Treaty of 1960 shared the waters of the Indus and is still in force
• But Pakistan, occupying the lower part of the Indus Basin, complains that India adversely affects its water supplies by damning the upper tributaries which flow through that part of Kashmir under Indian control
• The dispute is one of escalating importance for both countries owing to:
  
  • The rapid growth of their populations, increasing demand for water
  • The water resource itself depleting as global warming causes Himalayan glaciers to retreat
• The dispute remains unresolved, requiring greater cooperation between the two countries

Question 48

The global system of sovereign nation-states and the need for protection

Answer 48

• The sovereign nation-state is the basis of the global political system
  
  • Intervention by the international community is used when sovereignty is threatened by genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and ethnic cleansing
• Institutions can become involved in the intervention process to sustain or reproduce the global political system
  
  • These could be supranational organisations such as the EU, IMF
  • They could also be NGOs (e.g. Amnesty International - Write for Rights), which work in cooperation with various bodies and provide humanitarian relief, as well as working towards a peace through mediation and direct monitoring

Question 49

The UN’s role in regulating conflict and reproducing the global political system

Answer 49

• Founded in 1945, it is an international organisation of 193 elected member states
• Its headquarters are located in New York City
• In regulating conflict the UN aims to:
  
  • Achieve worldwide peace and security
  • Develop good relationships between nations
  • Foster cooperation among nations
• The UN Charter gives the Security Council primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security
  
  • As many methods are increasingly difficult to achieve in the twenty-first century, preventative diplomacy and mediation are increasingly important
  • Monitoring and observation have also taken on greater significance, enabling peacekeeping operations to be deployed earlier
• The UN operates all its policies as part of a global partnership, which helps to give its interventions legitimacy, sustainability and global reach
  
  • Currently there are 16 peacekeeping missions, which are backed by the legal and political authority of the UN Security Council, the experience of the Secretariat departments (which carry out the day-to-day responsibilities of the UN), the support of the host country and the use of personnel and finance contributed by member states

Question 50

NATO’s role in regulating conflict and reproducing the global political system

Answer 50

• NATO is an alliance of European and North American countries, its purpose is to safeguard the freedom and security of its 28 members through political and military means
• Politically - NATO promotes democratic values and encourages consultation and cooperation on defence and security issues to help prevent conflict
• Militarily - NATO attempts to achieve peaceful resolution of disputes
  
  • If diplomatic measures are ineffective, it has the military capacity and mandate needed to undertake crisis management operations either alone or in cooperation with other countries and international organisations

Question 51

The EU’s role in regulating conflict and reproducing the global political system

Answer 51

• After the Second World War, the aim of the EU was to foster economic cooperation on the understanding that international trade between member countries would enhance economic interdependence, making them more likely to avoid conflict
• In addition, today the EU has an important security role, providing forces from member states on an ad hoc basis for rapid response operations
  
  • It also has many institutional bodies through which it aims to regulate conflict by its policies
  • These are the Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, the Common Security and Defence Policy, and the European Neighbourhood Policy

Question 52

G7’s role in regulating conflict and reproducing the global political system

Answer 52

• Aims to drive prosperity and economic growth across the world, allowing its members to cooperate and communicate to deal with global challenges
• Members are Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK, USA
• Has prioritised African development, with G7 countries supporting the APRM (African Peer Review Mechanism) which is a self-monitoring mechanism for political, economic and corporate governance standards
  
  • In 2007, 26 countries had signed up to the process

Question 53

The importance of treaties/conventions

Answer 53

• A treaty, or convention, is a written international agreement between two or more states and/or international organisations; states that sign and ratify a treaty are bound to it by international law
  
  • Many multilateral treaties have been adopted by the UN, a key one relating to conflict is the Convention relating to anti-personnel mines
    
    • By 2015, 162 countries had signed up to this legally binding agreement
    • It remains open to ratification by the others, which include the USA, Russia, China and India
• A primary goal of the UN is to develop international law based on multilateral treaties it has adopted
  
  • International law defines responsibilities of states in their conduct with each other and treatment of their citizens
    
    • In terms of conflict, there are laws relating to human rights, disarmament, refugees, nationality issues, treatment of prisoners, use of force and conduct of war
  • International law also regulates conflict over global commons, which are resource domains or areas which lie outside political reach of any one nation-state, including the high seas, the atmosphere, Antarctica and outer space
    
    • There are legal and institutional frameworks which address environmental issues of the global commons, including for example the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

Question 54

Origins of treaties/laws

Answer 54

• Treaties and laws are derived from norms, which are long-established, common practices in many countries set out in the UN Charter; they in turn are formalised and reinforced vy treaty and legal requirements
  
  • Six new norms relating to cyber conflict have been created by Microsoft, which is an increasing threat to sovereignty
  • Microsoft, the US multinational technology corporation and fifth largest TNC in the world, has assumed responsibility for this issue
  • By creating cybersecurity norms for state governments it has attempted to limit potential conflict in cyberspace
  • This is expected to bring stability and security to the international environment in our increasingly globally connected society

Question 55

The role of flows of people, money, ideas and technology in geopolitical intervention

Answer 55

• The flows of people and money are an integral part of the global governance of conflict
• Attempts by the international community to intervene and provide assistance in conflict zones include UN missions and the involvement of regional organisations plus the work of NGOs
  
  • These all require movement of personnel into conflict zones and the transfer of finances, donated by member states, sometimes amounting to more than 10,000 people and over $1 billion per mission
• Planning and executing intervention involves exchange of ideas
  
  • The sharing of good practice, coordination of strategies and flows of intelligence are essential for effective governance of conflict
  • Flows of ideas and information are a feature of bilateral meetings of governments, regional council meetings, UN conferences and discussion at the General Assembly
• There is increasing dependence on technology in peacekeeping
  
  • The advanced technology of the military such as satellite imagery, remotely controlled drones and weaponry is used for surveillance and air strikes
  • Also the growth of modern ICT enables information to e supplied via the internet, international databases and the media
  • Communications via mobile telephony and web-based social network services are indispensable for transnational networking in the monitoring of behaviour and in conflict management

Question 56

The South China Sea

Answer 56

• The South China Sea is hugely significant as 30% of shipping traffic passes through it, equivalent to $5.3 trillion in total trade annually
• Five countries lay claim to the South China Sea, however China has recently asserted its right
  
  • It has historic claims to the sea, suggesting the enforcement of the 9 dash line, an imprecise line covering 90% of the South China Sea
  • This goes against the UN law of the seas, which establishes only a 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ)
• China has built 6 military bases in the South China Sea (e.g. fiery cross island)
  
  • Through the transportation of sediment, 3.5 acres of island are being added to the sea every day
• A key set of islands are the Spratley Islands, which China claims mark the end of their border
  
  • They are currently using the cabbage strategy to enforce control of the islands
• The USA is discussing future war in the South China Sea, and has used aerial maneuvers and naval convoys to defy the Chinese military in the area
• The Philippines went to International Court of Justice at The Hague over the issue in July 2013
  
  • In July 2016 the court ruled in their favour, finding that the ‘nine-dash line’ had no legal basis for its claims to historic rights to resources in the South China Sea
  • The Chinese foreign ministry dismissed the court’s award, stating it had no binding force

Question 57

South Sudan - background

Answer 57

• South Sudan is the newest sovereign state, coming into existence in 2011
• Its population is around 8 million, of which 400,000 live in the capital, Juba
• There is no dominant culture due to the presence of over 200 ethnic groups
• Fertility rate is 5, with 45% of the population under 15
• 98% of GDP is derived from oil

Question 58

South Sudan - causes

Answer 58

• 95% of Sudanese oil lies in South Sudan, however a pipeline runs north through Sudan to Port Sudan
  
  • President Kiir accused Sudan of stealing $1 billion in crude oil money
  • This also disrupted a proposed $4 billion pipeline to go through Uganda and Djibouti over the next 3 years
• The most significant conflict occurs between the Dinka and Nuer tribes
  
  • President Kiir is Dinka and Vice-President machar Nuer
• In 2013, following disputes over the pipeline, Machar criticised Kiir’s leadership and announced that he would challenge him in the 2015 presidential elections
• Chinese oil MNCs fund $40 million of weapons for South Sudan to protect their oil as they are the largest oil exporter

Question 59

South Sudan - timeline

Answer 59

• 2011 - South Sudan gains independence, the referendum achieving 99% support
• 2011 - Sudan occupies the oil-rich region of Abyei on the northern border of South Sudan
• 9th July 2011 - Independence Day
• 2012 - there are over 200,000 refugees in South Sudan from disputed border areas in the north
• June 2012 - Sudan and South Sudan reach an agreement on trade, oil and security deals
• 2013 - civil war erupts after President Kiir sacks the cabinet and accuses VP Machar of plotting a failed coup
• 2014 - a ceasefire is quickly broken and ongoing troubles continue
• 2016 - the UN makes an official declaration of ethnic cleansing
• 2017 - famine is declared

Question 60

South Sudan - impacts

Answer 60

• There are over 2 million internal refugees, with 1 million fleeing across national borders
• Death toll of 300,000
  
  • The worst incident was the Benitu Massacre, in which the SPLM killed over 400 people
• Oil production has been slashed by 1/3, reducing it to 160,000 barrels per day
• 8 million are at risk of food insecurity, with 1 in 3 children malnourished
• There have been human rights violations due to attacks on UN peacekeeping forces
• 20,000 child soldiers have been recruited

Question 61

South Sudan - UN involvement

Answer 61

• The UN has raised troop numbers in South Sudan from 7,000 to 17,000
• The UN Children’s Fund has invested $150 million
• The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has given grants to implement programmes to engage populations impacted by conflict
• UNMISS has opened bases to protect over 68,000 civilians seeking refuge on UN ground
  
  • These are located in Akobo

Question 62

South Sudan - NGO involvement

Answer 62

• There are over 300 NGOs involved in South Sudan, including MSF, Amref and Save the Children
• The Sudan Humanitarian Country Team manages aid, creating 3 year plans which am to save lives and make aid more efficient
• Missing Maps has attempted to improve the clarity of maps in the area to help aid workers
• Food aid has been given by the World Food Programme, which has used $830 million in funds
• FACE has implemented a 3 month pilot project for peacebuilding activities and raising citizen awareness in decision making

Question 63

South Sudan - Ugandan involvement

Answer 63

• Ugandan troops arrived in Juba to protect Ugandan nationals, but have helped stability more broadly
• The Ugandan people’s Defence Force (UPDF) secured Juba airport and fought rebels in and around Bor
• The UPDF left a contingent of 3000 advisors in South Sudan to help set up a new government
• It became involved due to interdependency and proximity

Question 64

South Sudan - other involvement

Answer 64

• The WHO has operated cholera vaccinations
• The government has started polio vaccinations through health aid

Question 65

South Sudan - consequences of global governance of the conflict for local communities

Answer 65

• Aid agencies have coordinated their efforts to position essential supplies during the dry season, enabling easier access to emergency food during the wet season when roads are difficult
• Villagers have received training in maintaining livestock health and use of fishing equipment to improve longer-term food security
• Vulnerable children have received treatment for acute malnutrition, via NGOs such as MSF
• Aid agencies have negotiated access in areas where fighting is ongoing
• Civilian protection camps have been expanded for IDPs (life expectancy for Nuer men is 30 minutes outside them)
• However security developments have largely been negative, with groups splintering further and adopting more local agendas, and scorched earth government tactics have hindered local communities
• The government of CAR has failed to recognise many people as citizens
• There are 7.6 million South Sudanese in dire need of humanitarian assistance, and humanitarian aid is hampered by the government
• The IGAD-led peace process has been criticised for ignoring the grievances of many marginalised groups and instead being dominated by political elites
• The SPLA believes that the international community is ignorant to South Sudanese issues, distrusting the UN

Question 66

Aim of global governance

Answer 66

• Where sovereignty and territorial integrity have been threatened, global governance by the international community aims to re-establish effective political control by the state and restore the social and economic life of the country
  
  • Such interventions have consequences, not only for the state government but also for its citizens and the communities in which they live

Question 67

Intended short-term benefits of global governance

Answer 67

• Humanitarian aid, via aid agencies and donated funds
• Supply of food
• Access to supplies of clean drinking water
• Supply of medicines and medical treatment
• Provision of shelter or safe havens for IDPs
• Security and protection of civilians in conflict zones
• Maintaining police on the ground by policing
• Periods of intermediary ceasefire negotiated and monitored
• Border control to facilitate movement of people and goods
• Warning systems for ongoing conflict
• Reduced forced conscription of child soldiers
• Assistance for IDPs and their return

Question 68

Intended longer-term benefits of global governance

Answer 68

• Agricultural training to improve food security
• Educational programmes which aim to prevent further conflict
• Support fair elections and democratic institutions
• Upholding of human rights and reinforcement of norms, treaties and laws
• Training police and military so that they can take over when international forces leave
• Improving trade relationships to help reduce effects of economic shock
• Improve the business environment by counter-corruption and diminishing terrorism financing
• Development of sustainable food and water supplies
• Mediation between factions ensuring lasting peace
• Restore territory according to international law
• Development of sustainable food and water supplies
• Technical assistance to improve legislative and administrative frameworks
• Integrate gender equality into policies and practices
• Re-establish state authority and state apparatus

Question 69

Mali - background

Answer 69

• There are significant socio-economic and environmental contrasts in Mali
  
  • The north is a vast area of desert and semi-desert in which the Tuareg are the dominant ethnic group
  • The south has the most economic activity as well as the capital, Bamako, located on the Niger
• Gold, cotton and agricultural exports generate income but overall this is a very poor, landlocked country which depends heavily on foreign aid and migrant remittances

Question 70

Mali - sovereignty/territorial integrity issues

Answer 70

• In 2013 Malian interim authorities requested the assistance of France ‘to defend Mali’s sovereignty and restore its territorial integrity
  
  • Operation Serval (enacted on 11th January 2013), the French armed forces targeted the Tuareg forces moving towards the south of Mali
  • This was response to a military coup d’etat in 2012 when President Toure was overthrown and replaced by President Traori
  • Insurgency occurred subsequently
• These challenges to sovereignty and territorial integrity can be explained by the following:
  
  • International boundaries delineated by European colonial powers in the early twentieth century had little regard for tribal lands, resulting in arbitrary division of the Tuareg ethnic group
  • The Tuareg declared independence for Azawad an area of northeast mali over which they claim territorial and cultural rights
  • This action is linked to the prevalence of militants who had overthrown Gaddafi
  • There was fighting in the north to control routes for both legal trade and illicit smuggling, for example the Tilemsi valley
  • There has been ineffective state governance of the north, which has been marginalised and neglected from Bamako
  • There is not just a centre-periphery divide in Mali; in addition to the Tuareg there are many other significant ethnic groups, for example the Songhai are prominent in the Gao area

Question 71

Mali - UN and African governance

Answer 71

• Global and regional institutions have intervened to resolve the sovereignty and territorial integrity issues
  
  • Their overarching aim is to sustain the global system of sovereign nation-states by restoring and maintaining Malian sovereignty and territorial integrity
• The United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) was established by the UN Security Council in 2013
  
  • It aims to support the political process and stabilise Mali, ensure security, protect civilians, assist re-establishment of state authority and protect human rights
• Currently just over 9000 military personnel, around 1000 police and more than 1300 international and local staff are involved
  
  • They operate in the main population centres, keeping open important lines of communication and providing humanitarian assistance, including the return of displaced persons and preparation for free and peaceful elections
• ECOWAS and the African Union have been involved in mediation and returning power to civilian administration
• Success of the combined efforts of global governance is evident in the 2015 peace deal which the Mali government formulated with the Tuareg, providing some degree of autonomy for the north
  
  • This includes recognition of locally elected leaders, greater representation of the northern population in national institutions, and transferring a greater proportion of state budget to local authorities in the north
• Despite the presence of MINUSMA forces, this is increasingly difficult work in areas of armed bandits involved in smuggling, carjacking, kidnapping (of tourists, NGO workers and diplomats for ransom money) and land mines

Question 72

Mali - NGO intervention

Answer 72

• NGOs provide assistance to local communities, examples include:
  
  • Population Services International - reproductive health projects
  • Care - food insecurity and poverty alleviation
  • World Education Mali - addressing educational barriers to literacy
  • Solidarites International - water, hygiene, sanitation and food security in the northern settlements of Timbuktu, Kidal and Gao, and in Koulikoro in the south

Question 73

Mali - opportunities for stability, growth and development

Answer 73

• Stability
  
  • MINUSMA is establishing mechanisms for political, social and economic stability
    
    • Provision of military force and strengthening of police are designed to minimise terrorist activity, and to support the government in providing more effective legislation and rule of law, and to set up democratic elections
  • Protection of human rights is a priority, reinforcing international norms of behaviour
  • Re-establishing sovereign state control of the north and territorial integrity within internationally recognised boundaries is also a UN aim
• Growth
  
  • GDP per capita is recovering after it fell in the two years following the coup ($780 in 2016)
  • Reduction of import dependency and increased economic diversity are essential for Mali to reduce its trade deficit; main exports are gold (72%) and cotton (10%)
    
    • The World Bank supports smallholder farmers by enhancing supply chains for farming and fishery products, for which Mali has a strong comparative advantage, through the Agricultural Competitiveness and Diversification Project
• Development
  
  • Mali’s development in 2015 was very low
    
    • Mean years of schooling - 2 years
    • Literacy rate - 33%
    • Life expectancy - 55 years
    • HDI - male 0.45, female 0.35
  • The UN mission is paving the way for stability to precede the development process
  • Other international organisations in cooperation with the Mali government include Water Aid, working with local communities in rural and urban areas to secure sustainable water supplies and sanitation - a vital opportunity for citizens to become healthier, better educated and more food secure

Question 74

Mali - challenges of inequality and injustice

Answer 74

• Inequality
  
  • Socio-economic inequalities between the north and south remain; the north is undeveloped and under-represented politically
  • Deep-rooted cultural and linguistic divisions within and between Tuareg, Arab, Songhai and other ethnic groups in the north are a major challenge for peace
    
    • The international community has mistakenly attempted to deal with the north as one area; not all its peoples see Azawad as common territory
  • Like much of sub-Saharan Africa, inequalities between urban and rural areas in Mali demonstrate the problem of limited infrastructure and service provision; many villagers feel abandoned and disconnected from the state
    
    • Electricity - 8.5% of rural population vs. 86% of urban population have access
    • Health clinics - 48% rural vs. 89% urban
• Injustice
  
  • The government’s inability to police its own country has led to high levels of human trafficking, drug smuggling, kidnapping, embezzlement and corruption
  • The government is unable to protect citizens from human rights abuse; in particular, children and women are subject to a disproportionate amount of domestic and agricultural work, early marriage, FGM, military conscription and unsafe conditions in gold mines
  • There are abductions, killings, bombings and the problems of land mines
  • There are high rates of maternal and child mortality
  • The government was unable to stop extreme Sharia law spreading quickly in Azawad
  • 123 peacekeepers died in Mali