POWERPOINTS Flashcards
pseudoscience
a collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method.
natural science
biology, chemistry, physics, geology, and zoology (non-human)
social science
anthropology, psychology, political science, education, criminal justice, criminology, sociology. (human)
Nature of Social Science: TENTATIVE NATURE
The fact that we can never fully understand social reality.
Solving one question will lead to another question.
We don’t know how to answer the right question.
Nature of Social Science: out there to be discovered (2- common tags or labels)
Scientific evidence: knowledge; objectivity.
Nature of Social Science: personal experience, tradition, customs, authority, experts, media, common sense. WAHT IS THE ALTERNATIVE?
scientific evidence, NON- NATURE sources
when a program doesn’t work but is better than no intervention what is the effect?
moderation effect.
paradigm could be understood as accepted level of what?
ignorance
If research is done on the “causes of crime”, what type of research is this? PURE OR APPLIED?
pure research or basic research
If research is done on the “crime problem”, what type of research is this? PURE OR APPLIED
applied research
the term “for the sake of knowledge” referes to what thype of research? APPLIED OR PURE
pure or basic research
If I address a specific concern or a solution to a problem what type of research is this? PURE OR APPLIED
applied research
ASC American Society of Criminology is applied or pure research organization? BASIC OR APPLIED
pure research
Academic of Criminal Justice Services (ACJS) is pure or applied? BASIC OR APPLIED
applied research
To examine a little understood the crime or issue is what type of research?
EXPLANATORY, DESCRIPTIVE, EXPLORATORY, OR EVALUATIONAL
Exploratory research
To paint a picture to answer the questions such as who when where or how is characteristic of what type of research?
EXPLANATORY, DESCRIPTIVE, EXPLORATORY OR EVALUATIONAL
Descriptive research
To explain why events occur and to build, elaborate, or test a theory it, is what type of research?
EXPLANATORY, DESCRIPTIVE, EXPLORATORY OR EVALUATIONAL
Explanatory research
Does particular crime control policy work? Is what type of research question? EXPLANATORY, DESCRIPTIVE, EXPLORATORY OR EVALUATIONAL
Evaluational research
Exploratory research
To examine a little understood crime or issue
Descriptive research
To paint a picture to answer the questions such as who, when, where, or how.
Explanatory research
To explain why events occur and to build, elaborate, or test that theory.
Evaluational research
Does a particular crime control policy work?
LECTURE 2
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS
Are qualitative and quantitative two types of RESEARCH OR METHODOLOGY? yes or no
YES; research
Name two types of reasoning.
Inductive and deductive reasoning
Name three approaches to scientific research
positivist; interpretive, and critical
how many building blocks in research?
5
name the five blocks
ontology; epistemology; methodology; methods, sources
name two postivist.
Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim
objective reality objectivism absolute social truths causality verification of human experience.
Are these QUANTATIVE OR QAULITATIVE methodology?
QUANTITATIVE
data that is collected via measurement, sample or experiment is QUALITATIVE OR QUANTITATIVE?
QUANTATIVE
Name an INTERPRETIVE scientist.
Max Webber
subjective reality
Verstehen
social world differs from person to person
subject matter immersion
Are these QUANTITIVE OR QUALITATIVE methods?
QUALITATIVE
When the gathering of data is done via OBSERVATION AND INTERVIEW it is what type of methodology?
QUALITATIVE IS UNDER THE ISS (INTERPRETIVE SOCIAL SCIENCE)
When the gathering of data is done via MEASUREMENT, SAMPLE AND EXPERIMENT it is what type of methodology?
QUANTITATIVE IS UNDER THE PSS (POSITIVIST SOCIAL SCIENCE)
which social science is:
objective and subjective Illusion Source of inequality, injustice and oppression Purpose is to break the illusion Reinterpreted evidence Uses critical theoretical framework
POSITIVIST, INPERPRETIVE OR CRITICAL ?
CRITICAL SOCIAL SCIENCE
standardized measures exact measures statistical testing large samples theory testing THESE ARE ALL CHARACTERISTICS OF?
QUANTITATIVE
a researcher is an instrument experiences exacting stories exacting themes small samples small saturations hypothesis generating theory generating THESE ARE ALL CHARACTERISTICS OF?
QUALITATIVE
What are the two styles of “reasoning?”
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE
Are the four stations of each (inductive and deductive) identical? yes or no
no
which of the four stations of inductive and deductive reasoning are the same?
Theory (1) and Hypothesis (2)
which of the four stations of inductive and deductive reasoning are different?
Inductive: pattern (3) and observation (4)
deductive: observation (3) confirmation (4)
generalizations to specific observations
positivist social science
quantative methodology
IS WHAT TYPE OF THINKING OR REASONING?
DEDUCTIVE
specific observations to generalizations
interpretive social science
qualitative methodology
IS WHAT TYPE OF REASONING OR THINKING?
INDUCTIVE
A strict positivist is which methodology?
QUANTITATIVE
A strict constructivist is which methodology?
QUALITATIVE
A mixed methodology is called?
TRIANGULATION
To decide which methodology and reasoning to use it is all done on assumptions. TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
Is there a limitation on which one and how much to use?
yes or no
NO
speculations
definite knowledge
unascertainable
IS EITHER SCIENCE OR THEOLOGY?
THEOLOGY
appeals to human reason
definite knowledge
scientific perspective
IS EITHER SCIENCE OR THEOLOGY
SCIENCE
How many stages make up the criminal justice research?
7
What are the first four stages?
Formation of research question
Preparation of research design
Measurement
Sampling
Last three stages?
Data collection
Data processing
Data analysis and interpretation
what is the golden standard of research
RCT randomized control trials - designed to eliminate bias. Normally done with control groups (placebo groups).
Causality standard is the same as Explanation research. TRUE OR FALSE?
TRUE
experimental
evolutional
causality
RCT or golden standard
ARE ALL KEYWORDS FOR WHAT TYPE OF RESEARCH?
APPLIED RESEARCH
correlational research
survey research
explanatory/exploratory
ARE ALL KEYWORDS FOR WHAT TYPE OF RESEARCH?
PURE RESEARCH
Give two examples of an APPLIED research INDEPENDENT variable.
CRIME CONTROL POLICIES
EVALUATING POLICIES
Give two examples of PURE research
INDEPENDENT variables.
PRESUMED CAUSES OF CRIME
THEORY TESTING
What three things make a good research question?
Feasibility
Social importance
Scientific relevance
Feasibility
Doable with reasonable resources and time.
Social importance
Important for public or crime control policy.
Scientific relevance
Resolve a puzzling issue in criminological theory. Anomalies!
In the black swan example, what is the premise of Positivist Social Science Approach?
All swans are white
Is the black swan example an analogy to the problem of inductive reasoning? yes or no
yes
scientific research is limited to its data; therefore, unless all known relevant data is collected which may be impossible there will always be some level of error. Here then is where the black swan problem is the reality of life rather than the exception.
by Lazaro (2019)
Must a research question be falsifiable? yes or no
yes
Should falsifiable evidence be found? yes or no
yes
Does good theory survive multiple attacks of falsification?yes or no
yes
A good theory needs a statement that makes it falsifiable. TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
Is a hypothesis a statement? Yes or no
Yes
Is a hypothesis considered a relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable? TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
Presumed cause of crime
Particular policy/
Are examples are examples of which variable?
Independent variable
How many IV and DV per hypothesis?
only one!
objective measurement
Objective performance measures are independent of the observer. That means the measurement is done using something other than the person observing.
This independent measure can include: a stop-watch, measuring tape or record of goals. The objectivity of the performance measure is increased through measures such as: time, checklists, or established criteria.
THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF WHAT TYPE OF MEASURE?
OBJECTIVE MEASURE.
SUBJECTIVE MEASUREMENT
subjective performance measures are dependent on the observer and based on opinions, feelings, and general impressions.
Subjective measures rely more on the observer than independent measures. Sports such as dance and gymnastics are more subjective than objective in their measures.
THESE ARE EXAMPLES OF WHAT TYPE OF MEASURE?
SUBJECTIVE MEASURE
SOCIAL REALITY: is there a social reality? Yes or no
Yes
SOCIAL REALITY: abstract concepts. True or false
true
SOCIAL REALITY: verified by direct human experience. TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
SOCIAL REALITY: involves instrument, observation, measurement tools. True or False
True
SOCIAL REALITY: converts abstract concepts to concrete numbers. True or False
true
THE PROCESS OF MEASUREMENT: Conceptualization means?
Clear Label and,
Clear Definition
THE PROCESS OF MEASUREMENT: Operationalization means?
Measureable and
Testable
THE PROCESS OF MEASUREMENT:
tool
method
instrument
Is part of Operationalization or Conceptualization?
Operationalization
THE PROCESS OF MEASUREMENT:
Links the Abstract Concepts and the Empirical World
Which measurement process is this?
Operationalization
CONCEPTUALIZATION PROCESS - STEP 1:
The process of formulating and clarifying concepts/constructs is to?
Clearly Define
CONCEPTUALIZATION PROCESS- STEP 2
REFINEMENT:
Is distinguishing the construct from similar constructs part of the refinement process? yes or no
yes
CONCEPTUALIZATION PROCESS- STEP 2
REFINEMENT:
Selecting the unit analysis; either micro or macro level.
Is this part of the refinement process? yes or no
yes
CONCEPTUALIZATION PROCESS- STEP 2
REFINEMENT:
Separating two extremes of the construct is part of the refinement process. TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
CONCEPTUALIZATION PROCESS- STEP 2
REFINEMENT:
Should I be think-pair-share? yes or no
yes
CONCEPTUALIZATION PROCESS- STEP 2
REFINEMENT:
Should I think Self-efficacy? yes or no
yes
HOW TO CONCEPTUALIZE A DV.
Is done in three steps - which one’s are they?
- Define
- Compare with other similar but different constructs
- Identify the Unit Analysis of the DV
HOW TO CONCEPTUALIZE A DV.
Is done in three steps - which one’s are they?
- Define
- Compare with other similar but different constructs
- Identify the Unit Analysis of the DV
CONCEPTUALIZATION OF CONTROL VARIABLES:
How many control variables (CV)?
2
CONCEPTUALIZATION OF CONTROL VARIABLES: ID or pick two CV Define each CV A justification for inclusion in research ID the "Unit Analysis" of the CV
THESE ARE ALL FOUR STEPS. TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
OPERATIONALIZATION PROCESS:
It is an INSTRUMENT/TOOL/INDICATOR. true or false?
true
OPERATIONALIZATION PROCESS:
a linkage exists between:
The language of Theory and Concepts
and
The language of Empirical World
TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
OPERATIONALIZATION PROCESS:
A definition generated in the Conceptualization process is which one:
Languange of Empirical World
or
Language of Theory and Concepts
Language of Theory and Concepts
OPERATIONALIZATION PROCESS:
What is the language of the Empirical world?
Numerical Values and Numbers
THE NATURE OF ABSTRACT CONCEPTS:
Are abstract concepts invisible? yes or no
yes, unless!
THE NATURE OF ABSTRACT CONCEPTS:
Could measurement be done through observation?
yes or no
yes
MEASUREMENT
the process by which we describe and ascribe meaning to the key facts, concepts, or other phenomena that we are investigating.
THE NATURE ABSTRACT CONCEPTS
Indirect measurement of the conceptualized constructs (invisible?) yes or no
unknown
MORALITY CONCEPTUALIZED – AN EXAMPLE:
A- Conceptualize definition:
1- Ability to judge what is right or wrong.
B-Ask People hypothetical scenarios of right and wrong and moral or immoral behaviors.
1- killing a cat
2-killing a person
3-cheating on exams
4-making fun of people
Is this a PowerPoint example of how to conceptualize morality? YES or NO
YES
MORALITY CONCEPTUALIZED – AN EXAMPLE:
A- Conceptualize definition:
1- Ability to judge what is right or wrong.
B-Ask People hypothetical scenarios of right and wrong and moral or immoral behaviors.
1- killing a cat
2-killing a person
3-cheating on exams
4-making fun of people
Is this a PowerPoint example of how to conceptualize morality? YES or NO
YES
4 Levels of Measurement:
Name the two discrete/categorical variables.
nominal variables
ordinal variables
4 Levels of Measurement:
Nominal and ordinal is what type of variables?
- discrete variables
- categorical variables
Which 2 variables are “CONTINUOUS VARIABLES?”
- interval variables
- ratio variables
FOUR LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT (CHARACTERISTICS) are the following:
- different precision & specificity
- operational definition (limited by conceptualization)
- measurement error
TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
WHO classified variables into four levels? nominal ordinal interval scale ratio scale
Stevens (1946)
NOMINAL VARIABLES
Are these all characteristics of Nominal Variables:
-unordered limited categories
-unordered finite categories
-there is a difference between categories
-two or more categories
-there is no ranking
(which is higher or lower)
true or false
true
Is CODING a type of Operationalization? yes or no
yes
is the following a good example of coding?
1= democrat
2=republican
3=other
yes or no
yes
DICHOTOMOUS
A dichotomous variable is one that takes on one of only two possible values when observed or measured.
The value is most often a representation for a measured variable (e.g., age: under 65/65 and over) or
an attribute (e.g., gender: male/female).
another name for binary variable?
dichotomous variable
could binary be nominal and ordinal levels of measurement? yes or no
yes
JUSTICE OUTCOMES: CRIMES
OPERATIONALIZATION
is the process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors. The process defines fuzzy concepts and allows them to be measured, empirically and quantitatively.
Empirical Research
Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief. … Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)
Operationalization of crime:
Give nominal example:
0= no crime 1= violent crime 2=property crime 3=mutiple crimes 4=other types of crime
Operationalization of crime:
Give a dichotomous or binary example.
1=yes
2=no
Are the following 4 characteristics of Ordinal Variables? YES OR NO
- ordered limited/finite categories
- difference between categories
- assigned ranking (or sequence)
- relative comparison (similarities) across ranking (categories).
YES
what determines if a binary survey design is nominal or ordinal?
The nature of the variable.
Could there be binary and nominal variables with exclusive categories? yes or no
yes
EXMAPLE: think of good and bad posture BINARY, AND ITS EXCLUSIVE benefits (EXCLUSIVE CATEGORIES).
Could there be binary and nominal variables with exclusive categories? yes or no
yes
EXMAPLE: think of good and bad posture BINARY, AND ITS EXCLUSIVE benefits (EXCLUSIVE CATEGORIES).
CATEGORICAL MEASUREMENT:
are they collectively exhaustive? yes or no
yes
what is collectively exhaustive
Exhaustive means that there must be enough categories that all the observations will fall into some category. Mutually exclusive means that the categories must be distinct enough that no observations will fall into more than one category. This is the most basic level of measurement; it is essentially labeling.
mutually or collective?
means that the categories must be distinct enough that no observations will fall into more than one category; Labeling or Measurement
exhaustive
means that there must be enough categories that all the observations will fall into some category. NO OBSERVATION LEFT BEHIND WITH A CATEGORY.
CATEGORICAL MEASURE:
are they mutually exclusive? yes or no
yes
Stevens (1946) defined the levels of measurement or levels of data - what are they?
nominal: can the data be ordered? nominal/ ordinal
ordinal: are differences meaningfu? ordinal/interval
interval: does zero correspond to none of the value? ordinal/ratio
ratio:
QUANTITATIVE
variables
could be classified as which two?
Quantitative variables can be classified as discrete or continuous variables.
A CATEGORICAL variable. . .contains. . .a . . . f. . .n . . . o. . .c
Contains a finite number of categories or distinct groups.
Categorical data might not have a logical order.
For example, categorical predictors include gender, material type, and payment method
A DISCRETE variable. . . are. . .num. . . v. . . that. . . h. . .a. . .c. . n. . . of . . .val. . b. . . a. . . t . . . values.
Discrete variables are “numeric” variables that have a countable number of values between any two values. A discrete variable is always “numeric.”
For example, the number of customer complaints or the number of flaws or defects.
CONTINUOUS VARIABLE
Continuous variables are “numeric” variables that have an infinite number of values between any two values. A continuous variable can be numeric or date/time. For example, the length of a part or the date and time a payment is received.
LIMITATION TO CATEGORICAL /DISCRETE VARIABLE - EXAMPLE. (perceptions of daily crime)
0= no crime
1= 1-10 crimes
2=more than 10 crimes.
CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT:
Which two levels of measurement are considered continuous?
interval
ration
CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT:
Which two measurements are more accurate and precise than nominal and ordinal?
interval
ration
CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT:
Do interval and ratio have a continuous and infinite number of values that flow along a continuum? yes or no
yes
CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT:
values that could be further divided into many smaller increments is characteristic of which type of measurements?
interval
ration
RATIO VARIABLES:
are the differences between categories infinite? yes or no?
yes
RATIO VARIABLES:
with assigned rankings (which value is higher or lower)
TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
RATIO VARIABLES:
a characteristic is that they have equal distance or “intervals” between numbers. TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
RATIO VARIABLES:
ratios have an absolute? difference. A specific amount of difference.
TRUE OR FALSE
true
RATIO VARIABLES:
negative values are impossible. TRUE OR FALSE
true
RATIO VARIABLES:
zero (0) point is non-arbitrary. TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
RATIO VARIABLES:
zero means absent.
TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
RATIO VARIABLES:
means 0 is not an additional measurement. TRUE or FALSE
TRUE
NATURE OF THE CONCEPT (RATIO)
which three are they? N; Z; Z
No negative value for speed;
Zero (0) is non-arbitrary
Zero means absent
INTERVAL VARIABLE:
difference between categories are “infinite.” TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
INTERVAL VARIABLE:
assigned ranking. TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
INTERVAL VARIABLE:
Equal distance between in “numerical” form (absolute difference [specified the amount of difference] TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
INTERVAL VARIABLE: negative values are possble zero (0) is arbitrary zero does not mean absent zero is an additional measurement. TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
TEMPERATURE IS AN INTERVAL MEASUREMENT.
TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
INTERVAL VARIABLE:
SEA LEVEL RISE BETWEEN YEARS; WHERE RISE 8-INCHES IS SPECIFIC FROM ONE YEAR TO ANOTHER YEAR 3-FEET. true or false
true
RATIO VARIABLES:
zero calories on a soda is a ratio measurement. TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
INFORMAL RULES IN CRIMINOLOGY:
are an infinite number of categories necessary? yes or no
no
INFORMAL RULES IN CRIMINOLOGY:
criminological scientific research “usually” does not use interval. TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
INFORMAL RULES IN CRIMINOLOGY:
Could some ORDINAL variables be used as CONTINUOUS variables? yes or no
yes
INFORMAL RULES IN CRIMINOLOGY:
which level of measurement??
precision
conceptualization
literature review
what level of measurement is: age/income
ratio
what level of measurement is: 0=famale; 1-male
0= convicted; 1=innocent
0=democrat 1=republican 0=other
nominal
what level of measurement is:
4= SA 3= A 2= D 1= SD
if a neutral is in the middle does that change the level of measurement? yes or no
ordinal
no
SCALING TO MINIMIZE ERROR:
how do you minimize error?
scaling
SCALING TO MINIMIZE ERROR:
what’s the 1st way to scale?
choose a higher level of measurement
-increasing precision and points of measure
SCALING TO MINIMIZE ERROR:
what’s a 2nd way to minimize error?
choose an index/scale/composite measure (terms are interchangeable.
- increase the content of the measurement
- use Liker scales
- Rensis Likert (1920’s)
SCALING TO MINIMIZE ERROR:
what’s a 3rd way to minimize error
Literature
