Power Point 1 Flashcards
Prototype Theory
Rosch, 1978
prototype
“best exemplar” or a “typical” of the category
non-existent
composite
an average of category members commonly experienced
membership in a category is determined by comparing the item to a prototype that represents the category
an average of category members commonly experienced
Prototype Theory
Prototype Theory
-High Typicality
the closer the item is to the prototype (in term of features) of a given category, the more likely it will be considered a member of that category
high typicality members
the category member closely resembles the category prototype (it is like a “typical” member of the category)
the more “distant” the item is to the prototype of a given category, the less likely it will be considered a member of that category
Prototype Theory- Low Typicality
Prototype Theory- Low Typicality
the category member does not closely resemble a typical member of the category.
Prototype Theory- Empirical Evidence
Results of Rosh’s experiment, in which participants judged objects on a scale of 1 (good example of a category) to 7 (poor example)for ratings of birds
How well do good and poor examples of a category compare to other items within the category?
family resemblance- prototype theory
items in the category whose characteristics have a large amount of overlap with characteristics of other items in the category
high family resemblance items
high family resemblance items
items in the category whose characteristics have a large amount of overlap with characteristics of other items in the category
items in the category whose characteristics have minimal to no overlap with characteristics of other items in the category
low family resemblance items
low family resemblance items
items in the category whose characteristics have minimal to no overlap with characteristics of other items in the category
Prototype Theory
Family Resemblance
strong positive relationship between prototypicality and family resemblance
strong prototypical members of a category share many attributes with other members of the category (high family resemblance)
weak prototypical members of a category share few attributes with other members of the category (low family resemblance)
sentence verification paradigm
Prototype Theory
Typicality Effect
participants are asked to respond sentences with either a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response
“Is an apple a fruit?”
“Is a pomegranate a fruit?”
participants are asked to respond sentences with either a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response
“Is an apple a fruit?”
“Is a pomegranate a fruit?”
sentence verification paradigm
prototypical objects are processed ______ (“typicality effect”) - prototypical items result in faster decision times
preferentially
prototypical items result in ______ decision times
faster
In the sentence verification experiement, reaction times were faster for objects rated _____ in prototypicality
higher
prototypical objects are also named more _____
quickly
prototypical objects are recalled more ____
easily
Family resemblance
Things in a category resemble each other in a number of ways.
High prototypical items receive high ratings in terms of family resemblance.
typicality
People react rapidly to members of a category that are “typical” of the category.
Sentence Verification Paradigm.
Faster RTs to statements like “A _____ is a bird” when high-prototypical items (e.g., robin) are used than for low-prototypical items (e.g., ostrich).
naming/recall
People are more likely to list/recall some objects more than others when asked to name/recall objects in a category.
High-prototypical items are named/recalled first when people list/recall examples of a category.
Exemplar Approach
membership in a category is determined by comparing the item to other real, actual items of that category (or exemplars)
membership in a category is determined by comparing the item to other real, actual items of that category (or exemplars)
Exemplar Approach
exemplars
actual members of the category (vs abstract prototype)
new items are compared to stored exemplars in order to categorize the new item
actual members of the category (vs abstract prototype)
new items are compared to stored exemplars in order to categorize the new item
exemplars
exemplar approach explains many of the effects found with ______ theory
prototype
typicality effect
sentence verification tasks result in faster reaction times for better examples of a category compared to poorer examples
sparrow is similar to many bird exemplars so would be classified faster than a penguin, which is similar to few bird exemplars
sentence verification tasks result in faster reaction times for better examples of a category compared to poorer examples
sparrow is similar to many bird exemplars so would be classified faster than a penguin, which is similar to few bird exemplars
typicality effect
family resemblance effect
high typicality items will have higher family resemblance (higher overlap of similar features)
low typicality items will have lower family resemblance (lower overlap of similar features)
high typicality items will have higher family resemblance (higher overlap of similar features)
low typicality items will have lower family resemblance (lower overlap of similar features)
family resemblance effect
Prototypes or Exemplars?
the use of prototypes means that the features of outliers (unusual category members) aren’t recognized, because the way in which items are categorized is to compare against a prototype, which highlights average or common features
BUT it may be an efficient way of learning quite a bit about a category
_____ are better suited for categories for which a prototype would be hard to imagine
- games
- modes of transportations
exemplars
_______may be a better approach to use for small categories
exemplars
exemplar or prototype: both approaches are used, depending on the _____ and _____
category and age
“We know generally what cats are (_______), but we know our own specific cat the best” (______)
the prototype approach
exemplar
semantic networks:
categories or concepts are organized or arranged in networks where concepts are linked to one another via links
categories or concepts are organized or arranged in networks where concepts are linked to one another via links
semantic networks
in a semantic network, _____ represent a category or concept
nodes
in semantic networks, _____ represent the connections between the nodes
links
Hierarchical Semantic Networks
concepts are arranged in hierarchical networks that represent the way concepts are organized in the mind
concepts are arranged in hierarchical networks that represent the way concepts are organized in the mind
Hierarchical Semantic Networks
hierarchical nature is due to fact that more general concepts are at _____ levels than the more specific concepts found at the ____ levels
higher
bottom
shared properties are stored once only at higher-level nodes (general)
exceptions are stored at lower nodes (specific)
cognitive economy
cognitive economy
shared properties are stored once only at higher-level nodes (general)
exceptions are stored at lower nodes (specific)
cognitive economy belongs to?
Hierarchical Semantic Networks
inheritance belongs to?
Hierarchical Semantic Networks
lower-level items share properties of higher-level items
inheritance
inheritance
lower-level items share properties of higher-level items
sentence verification tasks
A canary is a canary «_space; A canary is a bird «_space;A canary is an animal.
A canary can sing «_space;A canary can fly «_space;A canary has skin.
Belongs to?
Hierarchical Semantic Networks
what theory could not exaplain the typicality effect?
Hierarchical Semantic Networks
Criticisms of Hierarchical Semantic Networks
typicality effects
hierarchical structure
loosely structured network
- nodes (semantic representations)
- links
hierarchical relationships can exist but are not necessary
Spreading Activation Network
Spreading Activation Network
loosely structured network
- nodes (semantic representations)
- links
hierarchical relationships can exist but are not necessary
activation of node results in spreading of activation to connected links
spreading activation network
spreading activation network
activation of node results in spreading of activation to connected links
concepts that receive activation are primed and more easily accessed from memory
concepts that receive activation are primed and more easily accessed from memory
spreading activation network
Spreading Activation Network
-mechanisms of activation
mechanisms of activation
- selection of representation (node) is dictated by threshold levels of activation
- automatic processes (i.e., processes are not under conscious control)
- spread of activation is initiated at the targeted concept and spreads to other concepts
Spreading Activation Network
strength of connection & distance between nodes are determined by______
relationship between concepts
____ semantic relations will have ______connections to one another so semantic representations are _____
____ semantic relations will have ___ connections to one another so semantic representations are _____
strong
strong
close together
weak
weak
further apart
