Post question review Flashcards
Reason for infants brown fat cells quantity
Infants cannot shiver at cold temperatures to maintain body heat. so their brown fat releases heat due to inefficient use in ETC.
Reflex Arc
Most are known as polysynaptic and are represented by a sensory neuron, then Interneuron, then Motor neuron
Some are known as monosynaptic and represented as just a sensory and motor neuron.
Types of experimental studies
Case control study: Two different groups are compared on basis of attribute
Experimental study: in which subjects are randomly assigned treatment vs no treatment
Cohort study: one or more profiles are examined for a particular characterstics
Cross-sectional study: Categorizing patients into different groups to asses for a prevalence.
why doctors test for a primitive reflex
Check for neurological disorders
Mark milestones for proper development
The reflexes generally disappear on a schedule.
Neural crest cells differentiate into?
Melanocytes dentin thyroid thymus adrenal medulla Chain ganglia Peripheral nerves Glial cells (
Fornix
links hippocampus to the rest of limbic system
dominant hemisphere functions
Complex voluntary movement
arithmetic
audio processing
How layers in epidermis of skin
4 and some areas have 5
- stratum basale
- stratum spinosum
- stratum granulosum
- stratum lucidum ( only found in “thick” skin areas with no hair)
- stratum corneum
REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep
- a.k.a Paradoxical sleep
arousal is high( composed of beta EEG waves) - EEG readout displays uninterrupted alpha waves
- Muscles are paralyzed
- 75% of dreams occur
- Implicit memory consolidation
SWS sleep
stages 3 and 4
low frequency waves known as EEG synchrony
high voltage waves
Growth hormone release.
Memory consolidation
Mostly found at beginning of sleep cycle.
Disruption is bad for memory, mood ,and problem solving.
Thick ascending limb of loop of Henley
active reabsorption solute since body and urine are isotonic to each other.
Cytosol has extra mitochondria for this energy purpose. the mitochondria also make the cell thicker.
Penetrance
the probability of expression of a trait within an individual who possess the allele.
heritability
the percentage of variation the can be accounted for genetically.
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
concerned with the ways that early childhood experiences couple with certain universal instincts shape personality
- Postulated Libido (sex drive) is present at birth; accounted for staged psychological processes.
- Oral stage (0 to 1): Libidinal energy centered on the mouth, fixation can lead to excessive dependency
- Anal stage (1 to 3): Toilet training occurs during this time, fixation can lead to excessive orderliness or messiness
- Phallic stage (3 to 5): Oedipal or Electra conflict is resolved.
- Latency stage (5 to 13): Libido is largely sublimated
- Genital stage (13 to 18): Begins at puberty; if previous stages have been successfully resolved , the person will enter into normal heterosexual relationships.
Skinner’s behaviorist theory
concerned with OPERANT CONDITIONING and other environmental influences on personality (i.e money as reward for a certain behavior)
focuses on the role the environment plays in shaping human behavior.
Social cognitive theory
idea that people learn central behaviors by observing others
Albert Bandura experiment is an example.
Trait theory
link genetic and personality
stage 1 sleep characteristics
- irregular, low frequency, high voltage theta waves
- Mild hallucinations
- hypnogogic jerk (twitching).
Types of defense mechanism
- Repression: unconscious forgetting.
- Suppression: conscious forgetting.
- Regression :reverting to earlier stage of development.
- Projection: attributing undesired feelings to others.
- Reaction formation: An unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite (i.e A gay guy tries to show that he’s straight)
- Rationalization: justification of behavior.
- Displacement: transferring of undesired urge from one person to another (i.e somebody making you mad, then you take it out on someone else innocent.)
- sublimation: transformation of unacceptable ages not socially acceptable direction.
Null Hypothesis
a hypothesis of equivalence which state that there is no difference between groups examined.
Parathyroid hormone
- Raises plasma calcium levels
- Promotes resorption of bone at high levels; activating osteoclasts in-order to grow new stronger bone.
- Activates vitamin D
Calcitonin
reduces plasma calcium levels
Red skeletal muscle fibers
- maintain high amounts of myoglobin, hence red color
- slow twitch fibers
- Resistant to fatigue
- Able to utilize aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Intramembranous ossification
occurs to form flat bone of the skull
- skull bones DONT have an epiphyseal plate or cartilage at all.
Epiphyseal plate
Region of cartilaginous cells separating the shaft of the long bone called the diaphysis, from its two dilated ends, called the epiphyses.
Its located at either end of long bones.
Site of long bone growth.
Hydroxyapatite
- Inorganic portion of bone
- Composed of calcium (Ca++), Phosphate(PO4-), and hydroxide ions(OH-).
Volkmann’s canals
The channels that contain ORGANIC material such as blood vessels, nerve fibers, and lymph vessels that maintain bone health.
Vitamin D
-promotes resorption of bone
Endochondral ossification
formation of long bones
Osteons
- basic unit of compact bone
- composed of Haversian and volkmann canals, canaliculi, lamellae(concentric circles), lacunae, osteocytes.
contraction of smooth muscle processes.
- Phospholipase C is activated after substance binds a smooth muscle receptor.
- Inositol triphosphate (IP3) causes the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
- Myosin kinase interacts with calmodulin and calcium to phosphorylate light chains of myosin.
Sinoatrial (SA) Node
- produces myogenic activity
- the pacemaker of the heart
- endocrine system (epinephrine) affects heart rate
- vagus nerve slows heart rate.
Disruptive selection
occurs when two extreme phenotypes are selected over the norm.
Penetrance
- a given genotype who actually expresses the phenotype or NOT AT ALL
Expressivity
-a given genotype who have different levels of phenotype expression (i.e tall genotype but individuals have different heights).
K-Complexes
characterized by a drastic drop in voltage of an EEG.
Paradoxical sleep
describes how EEG during REM sleep is similar to that of a person who is awake.
speciation
- rise of a reproductively distinct species.
- result of disruptive selection and reproductive isolation
Recognition-primed decision model
- a kind of educated intuition when making decisions.
- ability to recognize a pattern when faced with decision making during complex situations.
Phonology
- same word pronounced differently.
- only component of language that is altered when pronounced in different ways
- meaning is preserved.
Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligence
- linguistic (highly valued in western culture)
- logical-mathematical (highly valued in western culture)
- musical
- visual-spatial
- bodily-kinesthetic
- interpersonal
- intrapersonal.
Darwin’s Theory
- FItness = Reproducibility success
- chance variation that give survival advantage is favorable and heritable
modern synthesis model
Genetic Inheritance and gene pool changes.
Differential Reproduction
Favorable mutation Is more likely to pass on to next generation.
inclusive fitness
organisms success by number of offspring, ability to support offspring.
Punctated equilibrium
evolutionary changes occurring in rapid bursts instead of evenly over time ( contrast w/ darwinism)
Modes of natural selection
stabilizing selection
directional selection
disruptive selection
stabilizing selection
preference for the normal and not the extreme phenotypes
directional selection
prevalence of one of the extreme phenotype over the other
disruptive selection
Prevalence of both ends of extreme phenotypes
Patterns of evolution
divergent (development of dissimilar traits) , parallel, and convergent (development of similar traits.)
Availability Heuristics
likely hood based on imagined scenarios and not stereotypes
inductive reasoning
using specific examples to create broader generalizations
sleep cycle changes in a healthy adult
SWS predominates early in the night, then REM predominates later in the night.
Arcuate fasciculus
- connects Broca’s are to the Wernicke’s
- used in process of repeating something that has been said.
- loss of arcuate fasciculus causes conduction aphasia.
Nativist Theory of language acquisition
innate ability using LAD to pick up language
Credited to Noam Chomsky
LAD (language acquisition Device)
Pathway in the brain allowing infants to absorb and process language.
Learning Theory of Language acquisition
operant conditioning to pick up language.
credited to B.F Skinner
Social interactionist theory of language acquisition
desire to communicate in social manner; infants pick up language
Language Acquisition Theories
Nativist
Learning
Social Interactionist
Self-Fulfilling prophecy
a prediction that causes itself to become true due to positive feedback between belief and behavior.
Ethnocentrism
judgment that one own’s culture is superior based on beliefs.
whorfian hypothesis
Our perception of reality is determined by the content of language
Language has influence on cognition.
Rapid eye movement (REM)
Paradoxical sleep, arousal is high (composed mainly of beta EEG waves), muscle are paralyzed, 75% dreams occur, implicit memory consolidated
Night terrors
occur during SWS and exhibit SYMPATHETIC system overdrive
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
- posits the inability to measure exact position/orbit radius and momentum of electrons SIMULTANEOUSLY.
- This is caused by the limitations inherent in the measuring process: if a particle is moving, it has momentum, but trying to measure that momentum necessarily creates uncertainty in position .
Quantum numbers
if.. n = 2 l = 1 or 0 ml = -1 or +1 if... l = 1 ms = +1/2 or -1/2
if…
n = 4
l = 3,2,1, or 0
ml = 2
Maximum # of electrons in sub shell
4l + 2
Maximum # of electrons in single energy level
2n^2
frequency equation
f = c/𝛌
Pauli exclusion Principle
Assumes that each electron has an intrinsic spin of +1/2 or -1/2 the differentiates it from any other electron that can occupy the same orbital.
Therefore no two atomic electrons can have the same four quantum numbers or otherwise they would be occupying the same space.
First Quantum Theory
- By Planck
- E=hf
Bohr model
L=hn/2pie , E = -R/n^2
Angular momentum of an electron is directly proportional to its principle quantum number
The energy of that electron increases exponentially with the principle quantum number.
- R is Rydbergs constant*
- n is shell number*
Which electron orbit is expected to have the lowest energy, according to Bohr?
n=1
hence the equation: E = -R/n^2
The energy of that electron increases exponentially with the principle quantum number.
Balmer series
the wavelength emitted when an electron falls from an energy level greater than 3 down to 2nd energy level. (i.e 4 to 2.. or 5 to 2… or 3 to 2)
the only series that emits visible light
atomic radius factors
number of valence electrons
number of electron shells.
four properties of metals
malleable
low electronegativities
valence electrons move freely
very dense; high melting point.
Transition metals
- capable of forming more than one ion (fe2+ or fe3+)
- can form hydration complexes with water which increases its solubility within the solvent.
effective nuclear charge, Zeff
- strength with which the protons in the nucleus can pull on electrons.
- i.e if there are more protons than electrons; high Zeff
- i.e if there are Less protons than electrons; low Zeff
- its equal to # of valence electrons (i.e Zeff of calcium is 2… or Zeff of sulfur is 6)
what is the highest-energy orbital of elements in the n=3 shell.
d-orbital
Metalloids
shiny
brittle
semiconductive
Reaction formation
- Defense mechanism
- An unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite
Type 1 error vs Type 2 error
Type 1 is that we incorrectly reject the null hypothesis while type 2 error is that we fail to correctly reject the null hypothesis
Controlled Processing
Technique for active memorization of information
Discrimination
the process by which two similar but distinct stimuli produce different responses.
Latent Learning
Learning something without a reward, but the act is demonstrated once the reward is introduced.
Associative learning
- includes classical conditioning and operant conditioning
- creating a connection between two stimulus or stimulus and response.
transition metals
have different possible charged forms, or oxidation states
- association with water (hydration complexes)
- associates also with nonmetals.
Recognition
- identifying information that was learned.
amygdala
- stores the memory of emotion (implicit memory)
Long term potentiation
converting short term into long term memories by increasing neurotransmitter release.
- two ways: Elaborate Rehearsal and practice.
chacolgen
group16 on periodic table.
escape learning
behavior to reduce current unpleasantness (e.g taking aspirin)
- example of negative reinforcement
Erik Erikson (psychosocial) theory
- Unlike Freud’s theory, mastery of a stage is not required but individual will lack the skills
- Trust and mistrust stage (0 to 1): Can I trust the world
- Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt (1 to 3): is it okey to be me?
- Initiative vs guilt (3 to 6):Is it okay for me to do, move, and act?
- Industry vs Inferiority (6 to 12): Can I make it in the world of people of things?
- Indentity vs. Role confusion (12 to 20): Who am I? What can i be?
- Intimacy vs isolation (20 to 40): can I love ?
- generativity vs stagnation (40 to 65): can i make my life count?
- Integrity vs despair (65 to death): is it okay to have been me?
poor procedural (implicit) memory
- individual cannot learn new tasks / skills
- Typical of AD patients.
Long term declarative memory
- reffered to as explicit memory
- includes: semantic and episodic
Electrical potential energy
U = kQq/r
factors that can be the cause of confabulation ( creating false memories)
- misinformation effect
- source-monitoring error.
Source monitoring
keep track of where various information came from
Misinformation effect.
a person’s recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post-event information.
