Post Midterm #2 Flashcards

Question

What is the pathway of the basal ganglia? It is between the sensory and motor cortices

Answer 1

Collection of nuclei in the forebrain that regulate habit learning. It integrates sensory and motor information from throughout the brain, initially acting as a passive "observer" When successful behaviors are repeated over and over, the basal ganglia starts to automate the stimulus-response process. The basal ganglia creates habitual ways of responding, leaving transcortical circuits free to do something else. When this happens, habitual movements can be effective without any conscious consideration of the details.

Answer 2

Drives habit learning by controlling synaptic plasticity in the basal ganglia. It provides a “thumbs up / thumbs down” signal that determines the likelihood an animal will repeat a behavior

Answer 3

Nearly every area of the cerebral cortex projects to the basal ganglia.

Answer 4

Inputs to the basal ganglia primarily synapse in an area called the striatum, which consists of three parts: the caudate, putamen, and nucleus accumbens.

Answer 5

by releasing more or less dopamine in the striatum (caudate, putamen, nucleus accumbens).

Answer 6

TRUE Transient fluctuations in dopamine signaling seem to drive learning by signaling how unexpectedly good or bad the current moment is

Answer 7

Different areas of the striatum process information from different cortical areas. For example, the nucleus accumbens in the ventral striatum receives input from limbic areas such as the hippocampus, amygdala, and parts of PFC Seems to regulate people’s priorities and cravings.

Answer 8

Disrupt reinforcement learning and habit learning, but they do not strongly affect perceptual learning or stimulus-stimulus learning.

Answer 9

Doctors cut out his hippocampus bilaterally to cure his epilepsy It worked, but he lost the ability to form new explicit memories (severe anterograde amnesia). He also suffered from a graded retrograde amnesia (events that occurred within 1 or 2 years were lost as well as some events that happened even longer ago than that). He still had a brief working memory and a high IQ, but he could not learn new words or names or learn to navigate a new space.

Answer 10

Permanent anterograde amnesia caused by brain damage, usually resulting from chronic alcoholism. Korsakoff’s patients are unable to form new memories but can still remember old ones before the brain damage occurred.

Answer 11

Reporting of memories of events that did not take place without intention to deceive Seen in people with Korsakoff's syndrome

Answer 12

Most psychologists believe that learning consists of at least two stages: short-term memory and long-term memory Simplest model of the memory process The hippocampus is not the location of either short or long-term memories, but it is critical for the consolidation of short-term memories into explicit long-term memories

Answer 13

inability to learn new information or retain new information ‘after’ brain injury. Memory for events that occurred before the injury remain largely intact

Answer 14

inability to remember events that occurred ‘before‘ the brain injury.

Answer 15

A deficit in memory caused by brain damage or brain diseases (it can also be temporarily caused by different drugs). Complete amnesia in either direction is rare

Answer 16

Refers to the inability to form new explicit memories ‘after’ brain injury. Memory for events before the injury remain largely intact.

Answer 17

Refers to the inability to remember events that occurred ‘before‘ the brain injury. Commonly seen in neurodegenerative diseases that are associated with brain-wide neurodegeneration and that also affect one’s ability to think, learn, and make decisions.

Answer 18

Damage to the hippocampus or to regions of the brain that supply its inputs and receive its outputs causes anterograde amnesia, but nondeclarative learning ability remains intact.

Answer 19

When amnesic patients are trained and tested, we find that they are capable of three of the four major types of learning: perceptual learning, motor learning, and stimulus–response learning. However, amnesic patients do not explicitly remember anything about what they have learned.

Answer 20

Verbal behavior is lateralized in the brain. Most language disturbances occur after damage to left side of brain, regardless if people are left-handed or right-handed The left hemisphere is dominant for speech in 90 percent of the population Right-hemisphere speech dominance is seen in 4 percent of right-handed people and 27 percent of left-handed people

Answer 21

Even newborn infants can recognize the voices of their parents.

Answer 22

YES. People with left hemisphere damage might not be able to understand words but they could still recognize voices.

Answer 23

A disorder where people have great difficulty recognizing voices. It results from localized brain damage to the right superior temporal cortex

Answer 24

Refers to a disturbance in understanding, repeating, or producing meaningful speech. The difficulty must not be caused by simple sensory or motor deficits or by lack of motivation. You can see, hear, move but you can't speak

Answer 25

posterior aphasia sensory aphasia receptive aphasia Wernicke’s aphasia fluent aphasia

Answer 26

anterior aphasia motor aphasia expressive aphasia Broca’s aphasia non-fluent aphasia

Answer 27

you cannot understand language/don't use it intelligently They can read but they can't understand what they are reading They can point at something that they want but they cannot TELL you what it is.

Answer 28

Located at the junction of the temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes, around the posterior end of the lateral fissure. It is critical for language comprehension (regardless of whether the words are heard, seen, or spoken).

Answer 29

Transcortical Sensory Aphasia

Answer 30

Speak fluently but words have no meaning to you Failure to comprehend the meaning of words and an inability to express thoughts with meaningful speech. Word perception and speaking might be fine (without any comprehension of what is heard or spoken). For example: Word repetition (e.g., repeat after me…) Reading (without understanding) Writing (without understanding)

Answer 31

Characterized by an inability to repeat the exact words you hear. Other than that, you are fine, that is you have meaningful, fluid speech and good speech comprehension. When asked to repeat the word ‘house’, the person may say “home”. When asked to repeat a nonsense word like ‘blaynge’, the person will be unable to do it. They will just say I didn’t hear you.

Answer 32

arcuate fasciculus

Answer 33

Involved in analysis of speech sounds and in recognition of spoken words. Region of auditory association cortex on left temporal lobe of humans.

Answer 34

result of damage to a small part of Wernicke’s area Pure word deafness is a disorder of auditory word recognition, an inability to comprehend or repeat spoken words. “I can hear you, but I don’t recognize the words you are saying. I even have trouble repeating what you say.”

Answer 35

the result of damage to both Wernicke’s area and the Posterior language area, which means you have features of transcortical sensory aphasia and pure word deafness. poor language comprehension These people can have fluent speech production, but what they say is meaningless and typically filled with function words, such as a, the, in, about (as opposed to content words that convey meaning, such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives).

Answer 36

Patients with transcortical sensory aphasia have trouble with language comprehension, but they can repeat what other people say to them; they can recognize spoken words.

Answer 37

Patients with Wernicke's aphasia have trouble with language comprehension and are generally not capable of repeating what other people say to them.

Answer 38

Both of these aphasias are associated with damage in and around Wernicke’s area, including Posterior Language Area. These brain areas aren’t really separable, or rather the functions of language comprehension and spoken word recognition are interweaved in and around Wernicke’s area. You wouldn’t be able to differentiate between Wernicke’s aphasia and transcortical sensory aphasia just by looking at a brain scan

Answer 39

Disrupts the ability to perceive written words People with this damage (Pure Alexia or Pure Word Blindness) cannot read, as they cannot recognize written words. However, they can write just fine. They just can’t read what they write.

Answer 40

makes it difficult for patients to express themselves verbally Hard time talking and writing: they recognize it and become frustrated Comprehension is fine and their hands and mouths work but they can't communicate (hear their mouth saying something different than what they want to say)

Answer 41

Articulation problems, Agrammatism and anomia

Answer 42

Movement of tongue, lips, jaw, and other speech organs to make speech sounds. Articulation problems might make it hard for someone to hear the words you are saying. Or it could cause a sequencing problem: lipstick saying likstip.

Answer 43

Difficulty comprehending or using grammatical devices, such as verb endings (-ed) and word order (e.g., man bit dog). People with agrammatism typically do not derive meaning from the sequence of words or the grammar of sentences. Thus, they almost exclusively use content words (nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.) without any function words (the, on, about, etc.)

Answer 44

Difficulty in finding (remembering) the appropriate word to describe object, action, or attribute; one of symptoms of Broca’s aphasia

Answer 45

People with anomic aphasia have a hard time thinking of the word they want to say. They can understand what other people say just fine. If their speech is fluent, they will often describe things in roundabout ways (circumlocution)

Answer 46

Strategy by which people with anomia find alternative ways to say something when they are unable to think of most appropriate word

Answer 47

He understands over half of what he hears, and he can understand what he reads in a book or newspaper. Byron cannot spell or repeat words. He can read numbers, do math problems, make change, and analyze a financial statement better than I can. So, from 0% comprehension and “word salad” to 60% comprehension and some functional language is not bad in 5 years.

Answer 48

Related to age – probability doubles each decade after 45 years of age and reaches 1–2 percent per year by age 75

Answer 49

Process in which linings of arteries develop a layer of plaque, deposits of cholesterol, fats, calcium, and cellular waste products. Risk factors include high blood pressure, cigarette smoking, diabetes, and high blood levels of cholesterol. Precursor to heart attacks (myocardial infarction) and strokes

Answer 50

rupture of cerebral blood vessel

Answer 51

occlusion of a blood vessel 87% of strokes are ischemic

Answer 52

Blood clot that forms within a blood vessel, which may block it and reduce blood flow to the affected area.

Answer 53

Piece of matter (such as a blood clot, fat, or bacterial debris) that dislodges from its site of origin and occludes an artery. In the brain, an embolus can lead to a stroke

Answer 54

Administer drugs that dissolve blood clots in an attempt to reestablish circulation to an ischemic brain region This approach has met with some success. For example, administration of a clot-dissolving drug called tPA (tissue plasminogen activator) after the onset of a stroke has clear benefits, but only if it is given within 3-4 hours.

Answer 55

Devices can be deployed through the vascular system to the site of an occlusion. The devices use various strategies to secure and/or remove occlusions. The devices can include coils (a), aspiration devices (b), or be incorporated into stents (c). After Stroke Treatments Drugs that reduce swelling and inflammation Physical, speech, and/or occupational therapy Exercise and sensory stimulation (constraint-induced movement therapy)

Answer 56

mass of cells whose growth is uncontrolled and that serves no useful function

Answer 57

Noncancerous, “benign” tumor. Has distinct border and cannot metastasize

Answer 58

Cancerous (literally, “harm-producing”) tumor. Lacks distinct border and may metastasize

Answer 59

Process by which cells break off of a tumor, travel through the vascular system, and grow elsewhere in the body

Answer 60

Malignant If the tumor is cancerous it grows by infiltrating the surrounding tissue, and there will be no clear-cut border between tumor and normal tissue Non-Malignant If there is a border (encapsulate), the tumor is non-malignant; the surgeon can cut it out, and it will not regrow

Answer 61

These cells will produce new tumors

Answer 62

compression and infiltration.

Answer 63

Can directly destroy brain tissue, or it can do so indirectly by blocking flow of cerebrospinal fluid and causing hydrocephalus

Answer 64

The tumor initiating cells originate from the neural stem cells that make glia. They rapidly proliferate and are more resistant to chemotherapy and radiation than most tumor cells. The survival rate from malignant gliomas is very low

Answer 65

Meningioma

Answer 66

Encapsulated tumor It is composed of cells that constitute the meninges – the dura mater or arachnoid membrane – often right between the two cerebral hemispheres. Tumor of the cells of the meninges May be encapsulated but it is still very damaging. It can (i.e.) displaced the right side of the brain. The right ventricle is almost completely occluded.

Answer 67

Encephalitis Meningitis Polio Rabies Herpes simplex virus

Answer 68

Inflammation of the brain caused by infection (bacterial or viral), toxic chemicals, or allergic reaction The first symptoms are headache, fever, and nausea

Answer 69

Inflammation of meninges caused by viruses or bacteria The first symptoms are headache and stiff neck

Answer 70

Viral disease that destroys motor neurons of the brain and spinal cord Paralyzed if it gets to the brain

Answer 71

Fatal viral disease that causes brain damage; usually transmitted through the bite of an infected animal

Answer 72

Virus that normally causes cold sores near the lips or genitals. In rare cases, it instead enters the brain causing encephalitis and brain damage Rarely but possible to get to the brain

Answer 73

Caused by a blow to the head with a blunt object The brain comes into violent contact with the inside of the skull (coup) The brain then recoils in the opposite direction and smashes against the skull again (contrecoup)

Answer 74

Penetrating brain injuries (also called open head injuries) obviously cause damage to the portion of the brain that is damaged by the object or the bone In addition, damage to blood vessels can deprive parts of the brain of their normal blood supply Accumulation of blood within the brain can cause further damage by exerting pressure within the brain

Answer 75

A serious health problem Almost a third of deaths caused by injury involve TBI. In survivors, scarring often forms within the brain, around the sites of injury, which increases risk of developing seizures. Many people receive brain injuries but are not diagnosed. Even mild cases of TBI (mTBI) greatly increase a person's risk of developing brain problems down the road. For example, the likelihood of Alzheimer's disease is much higher in a person who has received blows to the head earlier in life

Answer 76

Preferred term for epilepsy Sometimes, if neurons that make up motor system are involved, a seizure can cause a convulsion, which is wild, uncontrollable activity of the muscles But not all seizures cause convulsions; in fact, most do not

Answer 77

Violent sequence of uncontrollable muscular movements caused by seizure

Answer 78

The most common cause is scarring, which may relate to an injury, a stroke, the irritating effect of a growing tumor, or a developmental abnormality in the brain Other causes are high fevers (especially in young children) and withdrawal from GABA agonists, such as alcohol and barbiturates. Many cases are idiopathic (of unknown causes).

Answer 79

The amount or function of different ion channels in the brain The reciprocal wiring of excitatory and inhibitory neurons The rules that govern synaptic plasticity

Answer 80

Seizure that begins at a focus and remains localized, not generalizing to rest of brain

Answer 81

Seizure that does not produce loss of consciousness.

Answer 82

Seizure that produces a loss of consciousness.

Answer 83

Seizure that involves most of the brain (nonlocalized seizure). Includes tonic-clonic seizures, atonic seizures, and absence seizures

Answer 84

Sensation that precedes a seizure. Its exact nature depends on the location of the seizure focus

Answer 85

A generalized, grand mal seizure that typically starts with an aura that is followed by a tonic phase and then a clonic phase. This type of seizure involves convulsions. Usually aware when it is happening – tingling in hand, blackout vision...

Answer 86

First phase of tonic-clonic seizure, in which all of patient's skeletal muscles are contracted

Answer 87

Second phase of a tonic-clonic seizure, in which patient shows rhythmic jerking movements

Answer 88

Babies born to alcoholic women are typically smaller than average and develop more slowly. A particularly serious condition associated with alcohol consumption during the 3rd and 4th week of pregnancy is fetal alcohol syndrome, which is associated with certain facial anomalies and severe intellectual disabilities

Answer 89

Several inherited “errors of metabolism” can cause brain damage or impair brain development

Answer 90

Genetic abnormalities in which recipe for a particular protein is in error. Typically, the cause is that an enzyme is not synthesized on account of mutations in both copies of the gene. (both = mom and dad) If the enzyme is a critical one, results can be very serious

Answer 91

Hereditary disorder caused by the absence of enzyme that converts the amino acid phenylalanine to tyrosine Accumulation of phenylalanine causes brain damage unless a special diet is implemented soon after birth

Answer 92

Heritable, fatal, metabolic storage disorder Lack of enzymes in lysosomes causes accumulation of waste produces and swelling of cells of brain

Answer 93

Caused not by inheritance of a faulty gene but by possession of extra twenty-first chromosome.

Answer 94

not necessarily mean hereditary; Congenital refers to a disorder that one is born with.

Answer 95

It is characterized by moderate to severe intellectual disability and often physical abnormalities After age 30, the brain of a person with Down syndrome begins to degenerate in a manner similar to Alzheimer's disease

Answer 96

Autoimmune demyelinating disease that usually occurs in people’s late twenties or thirties. At scattered locations within the central nervous system, myelin sheaths are attacked by the person’s own immune system, leaving behind hard patches of debris called sclerotic plaques

Answer 97

Go through cycles where they flare up and then decrease after varying periods of time In most cases, this pattern (remitting-relapsing MS) is followed by progressive MS later in course of disease. Progressive MS is characterized by a slow, continuous increase in symptoms.

Answer 98

interferon β - a protein that modulates immune system activity glatiramer acetate – peptides that mimic myelin (decoy approach)

Answer 99

It is likely that some disease contracted during childhood spent in region in which virus is prevalent causes person's immune system to attack his or her own myelin

Answer 100

Degeneration is typically the result of apoptosis

Answer 101

Apoptosis is typically triggered by collections (aggregates) of misfolded proteins that disrupt normal cellular function.

Answer 102

Contagious brain disease (includes mad cow and Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease) whose degenerative process gives the brain a sponge-like appearance Accumulation of misfolded prion protein is responsible for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies

Answer 103

Misfolded proteins with the ability to transmit their misfolded shape onto normal variants of the same protein. Accordingly, prion protein diseases spread from cell and cell and animal to animal by means of contact with misfolded prion protein

Answer 104

One dominant mutation in the Huntingtin gene. Over time, aggregates of huntingting protein form in the basal ganglia, causing neurodegeneration. It affects 1 in 10,000 people

Answer 105

Symptoms usually begin between 30 and 50 years of age and death follows 15-20 years later.

Answer 106

It is characterized by an increasingly severe lack of coordination, uncontrollable jerky limb movements, and eventually dementia followed by death. Movements in Huntington's disease look like fragments of purposeful movements but occur involuntarily.

Answer 107

Huntingtin protein is heavily expressed in the input nuclei of the basal ganglia (the striatum - caudate nucleus and putamen).

Answer 108

Mutated Huntington's protein tends to aggregate (clump) and overtime

Answer 109

Antisense DNA (or RNA) can be administered intrathecally (in the spinal cord). Researchers are hopeful that this approach (or viral-mediated gene delivery and gene editing technologies) will one day become a practical and effective approach to altering gene expression in the brains of living people

Answer 110

Another degenerative “movement” disorder.

Answer 111

It is associated with degeneration of dopamine neurons in the midbrain, specifically in the substantia nigra.

Answer 112

It affects 1% of the population. Symptoms usually appear after the age of 60.

Answer 113

It is characterized by shaking, muscular rigidity, slowness of movement, difficulty walking, and eventually dementia. Without treatment, people have increasing difficulty initiating purposeful movement.

Answer 114

unknown (partly genetic, partly environmental), however the death of midbrain dopamine neurons seems to relate to aggregation of the protein alpha-synuclein. The protein alpha-synuclein, which is heavily expressed in dopamine neurons, tends to aggregate (clump together) at some rate. Overtime these protein aggregates cause dopamine neurons to undergo apoptosis.

Answer 115

Disrupts movement

Answer 116

There is presently no cure, but there are many ways to somewhat successfully treat the motor problems.

Answer 117

Protein heavily express in midbrain dopamine neurons. Its function is not entirely clear. Abnormal accumulations are associated with dopamine neuron degeneration in Parkinson's disease.

Answer 118

Mutations in the alphasynuclein gene can promote alpha-synuclein aggregation and cause Parkinson’s disease. These mutations can be dominant, in that only one bad gene (from one parent) can cause the problem.

Answer 119

Aggregate of misfolded alpha-synuclein protein; found in the cytoplasm of midbrain dopamine neurons in people with Parkinson's disease

Answer 120

Protein that is put on faulty/old/ misfolded proteins, which targets them for degradation. Ubiquitinated proteins get brought to proteasomes, which breaks them into their constituent amino acids for recycling.

Answer 121

Protein that plays a critical role ubiquitination. Mutated parkin is a cause of familial Parkinson's disease. If parkin is defective, misfolded proteins accumulate, aggregate, and eventually kill the cell.

Answer 122

Organelle responsible for destroying ubiquitinated proteins within a cell. Dopaminergic neurons are especially sensitive to loss of parkin function and alpha-synuclein aggregation.

Answer 123

Genetic disorder caused by a dominant gene mutation that produces a protein with toxic effects e.g., mutations in the alpha-synuclein gene and huntingtin gene can produce proteins that create problems, causing Parkinson’s and Huntingtin’s disease, respectively.

Answer 124

Genetic disorder caused by a recessive gene mutation that fails to produce a protein that is necessary to avoid problems e.g., loss of or mutations in the parkin gene can cause misfolded alpha-synuclein protein to not be degraded

Answer 125

are the result of reduced dopamine signaling.

Answer 126

L-dopa treatments diminish the motor symptoms of PD. Brain lesions and deep brain stimulation (DBS) devices are also common treatments for PD.

Answer 127

Parts of the basal ganglia that become overactive in PD, the globus pallidus and subthalamic nucleus, respectively Damaging the globus pallidus or disrupting subthalamic nucleus activity seems to relieve symptoms of Parkinson's disease by removing one of the brakes on motor behavior.

Answer 128

Progressive impairments to memory, thinking, and behavior that affect the ability to perform everyday activities as a result of a neurological disorder Common causes are neurodegenerative disease, MS, multiple strokes, and repeated brain trauma (chronic traumatic encephalopathy).

Answer 129

Neurodegenerative disorder that causes progressive memory loss, motor deficits, and eventual death. Occurs in approximately 10 percent of the population above the age of 65 and almost 50 percent of people older than 85 years It is associated with aggregates of misfolded β-amyloid protein and severe degeneration within and around the hippocampus and neocortex.

Answer 130

Protein that is the precursor for β-amyloid protein. The gene for this protein is located on chromosome 21, which is the one duplicated (triplicated) in down syndrome.

Answer 131

Class of enzymes that cut the β-amyloid precursor protein into smaller fragments, including βamyloid

Answer 132

Protein that forms part of the secretases that cut APP. Mutations in presenilin can cause it to preferentially generate the abnormal long form β-amyloid, which causes early onset Alzheimer's disease.

Answer 133

Glycoprotein that transports cholesterol in the blood and plays a role in cellular repair Presence of the E4 allele of the apoE gene increases risk of late-onset Alzheimer's disease

Answer 134

Protein found in excessive amounts in brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease

Answer 135

Extracellular aggregation of β-amyloid protein surrounded by glial cells and degenerating neurons

Answer 136

Microtubule protein that becomes hyper-phosphorylated in Alzheimer's disease, disrupting intracellular transport.

Answer 137

Intracellular accumulation of twisted Tau protein in dying neurons

Answer 138

traumatic brain injury

Answer 139

Alzheimer's disease is less prevalent in well-educated people, especially those that keep their minds and body highly active Other risk factors include obesity, hypertension, high cholesterol levels, and diabetes.

Answer 140

Forms of Immunotherapy

Answer 141

To get antibodies to recognize and destroy Aβ protein (or Tau protein, or both), either by sensitizing the patient's own immune systems to these proteins or by directly injecting antibodies that are made elsewhere

Answer 142

Degenerative disorder that attacks spinal cord and cranial nerve motor neurons Also known as Lou Gehrig’s Disease or motor neuron disease Incidence of this disease is approximately 3 in 100,000. The disease typically starts after the age of 50.

Answer 143

Spasticity (Increased tension of muscles, causing stiff and awkward movements) Exaggerated stretch reflexes, progressive weakness and muscular atrophy, and paralysis

Answer 144

2-4 years, but some people live much longer than that For example, Stephan Hawking lived with the disease for over 50 years

Answer 145

Gene mutations that lower reproductive success tend to get eliminated from the gene pool fairly quickly. Very harmful gene variants are typically eliminated within a few generations, so they tend to be extremely rare and recent in origin.

Answer 146

Over evolutionary time, natural selection favors higher-fitness genes. Common gene variants Not increasing or decreasing in prevalence Means they must not have conferred an overall advantage or disadvantage on reproductive success in ancestral environments i.e., they must have been neutral on average in all past environments

Answer 147

Produce variations in human nature that are not associated with better or worse reproductive success (like different personality traits).

Answer 148

Our environment, culture, and life span have changed so dramatically in the last few hundred years, it is likely that some common gene variants that were completely neutral across all ancestral environments are now harmful.

Answer 149

- Late onset disorders, due to rapid increase in human life spans - Obesity and diabetes, due to the abundance and low price of unnaturally tasty food - Asthma, due to new types and unnaturally high levels of antigens and pollutants - Addictions to highly purified synthetic drugs, such as heroin and meth - Depression and anxiety – although the cause is unclear, prevalence rates have changed rapidly in recent history and vary enormously between cultures.

Answer 150

Some of the gene mutations associated with mental illness were neutral or advantageous in ancestral environments

Answer 151

They are either selected out (and should be extremely rare) or have gone to fixation (and everyone should have them).

Answer 152

Prevalence: about ~1% of the population, and this has been fairly consistent across cultures and recent history

Answer 153

certain combinations of them may be advantageous for reproductive success.

Answer 154

Generally not associated with one bad gene, one bad protein, or one dysregulated brain region. Rather, hundreds of relatively common gene variants each individually confer a very small statistical increase in the risk of developing schizophrenia.

Answer 155

The siblings of schizophrenics who don’t have the disease should have increased reproductive success on average, because they would be more likely to have the good combination of these schizophrenia genes in comparison to the general population. However, siblings of schizophrenics seem to have the same reproductive success as the general population.

Answer 156

It doesn’t seem like it. There is too much: - Heterogeneity within diagnostic categories - Comorbidity across categories - Continuity with normality - For mental disorders to qualify as discrete, unitary diseases

Answer 157

Mental disorder susceptibility genes are continually being selected out through evolution, but new mutations keep arising. All of us have gene mutations associated with a slight reduction in “fitness” that arose within the last 100 generations or so of our family tree. Most bad genes are a family legacy, old mutations that have yet to go extinct, rather than new mutations specific to the individual. These mutations will get eliminated over time, but new ones keep coming.

Answer 158

The human genome has evolved to buffer many insults environmental variation – can have a dramatic or healthy upbringing and the brain can adapt to any environment genetic variation – brain can compensate for 5-10 bad gene variations molecular noise – randomness of genes: slight probability that 2 genes together is NO GOOD This robustness allows genetic variation to accumulate in the population if the individual mutations are not too severe.

Answer 159

So much unavoidable randomness at a molecular level impacting brain development that even

Answer 160

The two sides of the body develop independently from the same set of genomic instructions. If the instructions are clear then the body should be symmetrical. If the instructions are a bit confusing or open to interpretation, however, then the person may be more asymmetric These gene variants are thought to be indicative of neurodevelopmental robustness (due to clear genetic instructions)

Answer 161

social withdrawal, disorganized thinking, abnormal speech, and an inability to understand reality. Affects approximately 1% of world's population.

Answer 162

Begin in young adulthood, and in many cases never resolve (although 20% of people eventually do quite well). 30-50% of people with schizophrenia do not believe they have an illness or comply with their recommended treatment.

Answer 163

Both at late adolescence/early adulthood because: Earlier in development there is a change in living situations and brain development (early 20s) Myelination occurs (frontal lobe is the last place to do so) ***Action potential goes as fast as ever before and optimizes itself: synapses eliminated and brain needs to adapt Males around 12-20 Females around 20-30 and again 44-49 (menopause) Menopause for females Women go through BIG hormonal changes and the brain needs to adapt "FREES" bad mutations.

Answer 164

Negative Cognitive Positive

Answer 165

Negative: the absence of behaviors Social withdrawal, reduced emotional expression, poverty of speech, and reduced motivation

Answer 166

Disorganized and irrational thinking, deficits in learning and memory, poor abstract thinking, and poor problem solving

Answer 167

Positive: the presence of delusions Typically delusions of persecution, grandeur, or control - beliefs that contradict reality Hallucinations (perception of stimuli that are not actually present) Superstisions

Answer 168

Negative symptoms typically emerge first, followed by cognitive symptoms and, years later, by positive symptoms.

Answer 169

Both of you parents have it (or an identical twin has it) is ~50% One of your parents has it is ~13% Your sibling has it is ~8% Around 5% of cases are attributed to rare gene copy number variations (duplicated or missing genes), which are frequently comorbid with autism and intellectual disabilities

Answer 170

Mother’s nutrition during pregnancy Mother’s stress during pregnancy Certain infections (particularly during pregnancy) Birth month Being raised in a city Childhood trauma Social isolation Perinatal hypoxia / brain damage

Answer 171

The number of schizophrenic births in late winter and early spring is especially high if the temperature was lower than normal during previous autumn This condition keeps people indoors and favors transmission of viral illnesses

Answer 172

Schizophrenia is also about three times more prevalent in people who live in the middle of large cities as compared to those who live in rural areas This result suggests transmission of infectious illnesses is facilitated by increased population density

Answer 173

Some evidence suggests that the concordance rate for schizophrenia is higher for monochorionic twins than for dichorionic twins, which suggests that the prenatal environment is an important factor

Answer 174

are not normally seen in childhood, but behavioural and anatomical evidence indicates that abnormal prenatal development is associated with schizophrenia

Answer 175

Behavioural Children who go on to develop schizophrenia display less sociability and deficient psychomotor functioning as kids. Anatomical Minor physical abnormalities are often seen in children who go on to develop schizophrenia, such as partial webbing of the two middle toes and a high-steepled palate

Answer 176

There is no cure for schizophrenia. The main treatment is medication, often in combination with psychological and social supports.

Answer 177

Many drugs have been developed that relieve the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. They typically block dopamine D2 receptors and are called antipsychotics or neuroleptics. In contrast, dopamine receptor agonists, like crystal meth and cocaine, tend to temporarily elicit certain aspects of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia in people who do not have the disorder.

Answer 178

Excessive dopamine D2 receptor activity, particularly in the nucleus accumbens (striatum), underlies the positive symptoms of schizophrenia Dopamine D2 receptor antagonists typically reduce the positive symptoms of schizophrenia but not the negative symptoms.

Answer 179

In general, the negative symptoms of schizophrenia may be caused by hypofrontality Decreased activity of the frontal lobes, particularly the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which may relate to hypoactivity of local dopamine D1 receptors.

Answer 180

Excess dopamine signaling in the striatum has been associated with the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, reduced dopamine signaling in the prefrontal cortex has been associated with the negative symptoms.

Answer 181

Recently developed medications which aim to reduce both the positive symptoms and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. They typically influence the activity of several neurotransmitter receptors (beyond blocking the dopamine D2 receptor).

Answer 182

First of the atypical antipsychotic medications. It blocks both dopamine D2 and serotonin 2A receptors.

Answer 183

An atypical antipsychotic Acts as partial agonist at the dopamine D2 and D3 receptors.

Answer 184

A partial agonist is a drug with very high affinity for a receptor, but it activates it less than the normal ligand does. A partial agonist can act as an agonist in regions of low concentration of normal ligand and as antagonist in regions of high concentrations Thought to reduce dopamine receptor activity in the striatum (nucleus accumbens) but boost it in the prefrontal cortex.

Answer 185

Autistic spectrum disorder describes a wide range of developmental disorders that are characterized by troubles with social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. The incidence of autism is around 1% of population In many cases there are clear cognitive impairments, intellectual disability, or reduced imaginative ability, but this is not always the case Parents usually notice signs during the first two or three years of their child's life.

Answer 186

Social impairments are often the first symptoms to emerge. Some infants with autistic disorder do not seem to care whether they are held. Some arch their backs when picked up, as if they do not want to be held

Answer 187

Combination of genetic and environmental factors that affect early brain development Estimates of the heritability of autism are around 70%, but as high as 90% for autism spectrum disorder. Many cases have been linked to spontaneous rare gene mutations that have severe effects. These include chromosomal abnormalities involving deletions, duplications or inversions of genetic material. Other cases are associated with rare multigene interactions involving common gene variants. Some cases have been linked to maternal viral infections during pregnancy

Answer 188

Often do not include a delay in language development or the presence of important cognitive deficits Often called Asperger’s syndrome – mostly just involve deficient or absent social interactions and repetitive and stereotyped behaviors along with obsessional interest in narrow subjects

Answer 189

Disorder is four times more common in males than in females If only cases of autism with intellectual disability are considered, the ratio falls to 2:1 (males:females) If only cases of high-functioning autism are considered (those with average or above-average intelligence and reasonably good communicative ability), the ratio rises to approximately 7:1 (males:females)

Answer 190

Kids who develop autism tend to have a slightly small brain at birth, but it grows abnormally fast and by 2–3 years of age is often about 10% larger than a normal brain Following this early spurt, growth of the autistic brain slows down, and by adolescence it is only about 1–2 percent larger than normal.

Answer 191

Altered neuronal migration during early gestation Abnormal formation of synapses and dendritic spines Overconnectivity in key brain regions Unbalanced excitatory / inhibitory neural networks fMRI studies Have revealed marked abnormalities in brain activity. For example, there is little or no activity in fusiform face area of autistic adults looking at pictures of human faces

Answer 192

The main goals when treating children with autism are to lessen the impact of the associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. Intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care, communication, and life skills, and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors. Medications generally do not address the core symptoms, but often help reduce the irritability, inattention, and repetitive behaviors.

Answer 193

All kinds of medications may be tried, including: anticonvulsants (↑ GABA receptor activity) antidepressants (↑ serotonin receptor activity) antipsychotics (↓ dopamine receptor activity) stimulants (↑ dopamine receptor activity)

Answer 194

As a noun, affect refers to feelings or emotions Just as the primary symptom of schizophrenia is disordered thoughts, affective disorders (mood disorders) are characterized by disordered feelings

Answer 195

Serious mood disorder There are two principal types of mood disorders: bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder

Answer 196

Are prevalent and dangerous A diagnosis of depression has a prevalence of approximately 7% in women and 3% in men. Severely depressed people usually feel unworthy, hopeless, and have strong feelings of guilt People with mood disorders have a very risk of self-harm and suicide

Answer 197

Bipolar disorder and Major Depressive Disorder

Answer 198

traumatic/abusive childhood experiences.

Answer 199

Serious mood disorder characterized by cyclical periods of mania and depression. It affects ~1% of the population. ~80% of the risk is attributed to genetics

Answer 200

Episodes of mania are characterized by sense of euphoria that does not seem to be justified by circumstances People with mania usually exhibit nonstop speech and motor activity Diagnosis of mania is partly a matter of degree; one would not call exuberance and a zest for life pathological

Answer 201

Lithiutm Chemical element Lithium salts (and anticonvulsants) are commonly prescribed for bipolar disorder Most effective for treating the manic phase of bipolar disorder Once mania is eliminated, depression usually does not follow Therapeutic effect of lithium is very rapid. The mechanism of action is unknown

Answer 202

Serious mood disorder that consists of unremitting depression or periods of depression (that do not alternate with periods of mania). ~40% of the risk is attributed to genetics.

Answer 203

Drugs that increase serotonin and/or norepinephrine signaling by inhibiting their enzymatic breakdown (e.g., monoamine oxidase inhibitors, MAOi) or by blocking their reuptake (e.g., tricyclics and serotonin specific reuptake inhibitors, SSRIs) Ketamine (NMDA glutamate receptor blocker) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) Deep brain stimulation Transcranial magnetic stimulation Vagus nerve stimulation Bright-light therapy (phototherapy) Sleep deprivation Tricyclic antidepressant Serotonin specific reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) Serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI)

Answer 204

Inhibits reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine but also affects other neurotransmitters; Named for the molecular structure

Answer 205

A class of drugs that specifically inhibit the reuptake of serotonin without affecting the reuptake of other neurotransmitters. The most common one is Prozac (fluoxetine). Similar drugs are Celexa, Paxil, Zoloft, etc…

Answer 206

Antidepressant drug that specifically inhibits reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin without affecting reuptake of other neurotransmitters.

Answer 207

Based largely on the success tricyclic and SSRI treatments, the monoamine hypothesis of depression was developed. The idea is that depression is caused by insufficient monoamine receptor activity (the monoamines are serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine) Because symptoms of depression are generally not relieved by potent dopamine receptor agonists such as amphetamine or cocaine, most investigators have focused their research efforts on the other two monoamines: norepinephrine and serotonin.

Answer 208

Giving people a low-tryptophan diet and then a tryptophan-free amino acid “cocktail” lowers brain tryptophan levels and consequently decreases their synthesis of serotonin (5-HT). This tryptophan/serotonin depletion procedure can elicit a depressive episode in people susceptible to depression.

Answer 209

Although SSRIs and SNRIs increase the levels of 5-HT and norepinephrine in the brain very rapidly, the drugs do not relieve symptoms of depression until they have been taken for several weeks

Answer 210

There are few (if any) correlations. However, the argument has been made that one area of the anterior cingulate cortex (the subgenual region known as area 25) becomes less active after successful treatments.

Answer 211

Deep Brain stimulation Other promising approaches involve transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) directed to areas of the PFC or vagal nerve stimulation (VNS).

Answer 212

Used therapeutically to alleviate severe depression and bipolar disorder. Seizures are electrically induced by applying brief electrical shocks to the head In contrast to the delayed therapeutic effects seen with monoamine related treatments, the effects of other treatments (including ECT, lithium, DBS, VNS, and sleep deprivation) are more rapid. The seizures induced by ECT often reduce symptoms within days.

Answer 213

One of the most prominent symptoms of depression is disordered sleep. People with depression often have shallow, fragmented sleep. They tend to awaken frequently, especially toward morning. In general, they spend more time in stage 1 sleep and less time in deep, slow-wave sleep (stages 3 and 4). They also enter REM sleep soon after falling asleep, much earlier in the night in comparison to other people.

Answer 214

One of most effective antidepressant treatments is total sleep deprivation. Total sleep deprivation has immediate antidepressant effects in some people Typically, depression is lifted by staying up overnight, but it returns after a normal night's sleep This suggests that a chemical builds up during waking hours that has some antidepressant effect, and it gets cleared away during sleep. REM sleep deprivation also works, although more slowly, over the course of several weeks (similar to SSRIs).

Answer 215

Stress refers to the physiological reaction caused by the perception of aversive or threatening situations. These physiological responses prepare people for fight or flight situations and include autonomic and endocrine responses that help to mobilize the body's energy resources and support vigorous activity. Stress-related autonomic and endocrine responses can cause adverse effects on health over time

Answer 216

- Stress activates the sympathetic branch of autonomic nervous system, causing the adrenal gland to release epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood. - Stress also activates the HPA axis (Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal gland), which increases glucocorticoid signaling in the blood. a) Stress initially triggers the hypothalamus to release CRH/CRF (corticotropin-releasing hormone/factor). b) CRH causes the pituitary to secrete ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone). c) ACTH causes the adrenal gland to release glucocorticoids, primarily cortisol.

Answer 217

Overall, these autonomic and hormone responses work together to increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood flow to muscles

Answer 218

A group of hormones (including cortisol) that help make glucose and fat available for immediate use, increase blood flow, suppress secretion of sex hormones, and stimulate behavioral responsiveness. Many of the actions of glucocorticoids are not well understood.

Answer 219

Almost every cell in the body expresses glucocorticoid receptors, which suggests that every organ is affected by these hormones.

Answer 220

While the short-term effects of glucocorticoids are essential for survival, persistent glucocorticoid signaling can increase blood pressure, damage muscle tissue, inhibit body growth, suppress the immune system, and cause infertility and steroid diabetes.

Answer 221

Stress can slow the healing of (flesh) wounds and predispose people to infections. In one study, people were found to have experienced more undesirable, stressful events 3-5 days before developing an upper respiratory infection.

Answer 222

Monkeys near bottom of their social hierarchy are often stressed, and they more often die from stress-related issues. Post-mortem examinations reveal signs of chronic stress, such as gastric ulcers, enlarged adrenal glands, and damaged hippocampi. Episodes of emotional maltreatment during childhood has been associated with a small reduction in volume of dorsomedial prefrontal cortex

Answer 223

PTSD is a mental disorder that can develop after a person is exposed to a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, warfare, traffic collisions, or other threats on a person's life. It is no longer classified as an anxiety disorder since it entails multiple emotions (e.g., guilt, shame, anger) outside the fear/anxiety spectrum.

Answer 224

disturbing thoughts, feelings, or dreams related to the events mental or physical distress to trauma-related cues and efforts to avoid them Increased fight-or-flight response. The symptoms can interfere with social activities, cause feelings of hopelessness and increase risk for suicide.

Answer 225

Most people who experience trauma do not develop PTSD, but the likelihood of developing it increases with the number of traumatic events. About 30% of the variance in PTSD relates to genetics.

Answer 226

cognitive behavioural therapy, group therapy, and medication. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the first-line medications and benefit about half of people.

Answer 227

in the HPA axis which coordinates hormonal responses to stress Increased amygdala activity may contribute to the emotional reactions of people with PTSD.

Answer 228

A variety of psychological disorders characterized by unrealistic and unfounded fear and anxiety. Includes muscle tension, over activity of the autonomic nervous system, expectation of an impending disaster, and continuous vigilance for danger.

Answer 229

Disorder characterized by excessive anxiety and worry serious enough to disrupt daily life

Answer 230

Characterized by excessive fear of being exposed to the scrutiny of other people, leading to avoidance of social situations in which they may be called on to perform

Answer 231

Characterized by episodic periods of severe and unremitting terror. Includes symptoms such as shortness of breath, irregularities in heartbeat, and other autonomic symptoms, accompanied by intense fear

Answer 232

Fear of having a panic attack promotes anticipatory anxiety that sometimes leads to the development of agoraphobia

Answer 233

Fear of being away from home or other protected places

Answer 234

In any given year, about 12% of people are affected by an anxiety disorder, but it is twice as common in females than males. Symptoms generally start before the age of 25. 12% of people develop a specific phobia at some point in their life. About 10% develop social anxiety disorder at some point in their life

Answer 235

Environmental risk factors include a history of child abuse and poverty. Anxiety disorders often occur with other mental disorders, particularly major depressive disorder, personality disorder, and substance use disorder. Older people who have dementia often have problems with anxiety.

Answer 236

studies suggest that the amygdala and prefrontal cortex are involved Adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder showed increased activation of the amygdala and decreased activation of the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex while looking at angry faces College students with a high level of anxiety showed increased activation of the amygdala, which positively correlates with students’ anxiety measures

Answer 237

Treatment options include lifestyle changes, behavioural therapy, and medications. Lifestyle changes may include exercise, regularizing sleep patterns, and reducing caffeine intake and smoking. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is often effective and is a first line treatment. When medication is called for - Benzodiazepines are sometimes used, particularly in emergency settings because of their rapid onset - Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are frequently used as a first line treatment for anxiety disorders

Answer 238

OCD (less than 2% of population) is characterized by repeatedly having certain thoughts ("obsessions") and a need to repeatedly check things or repeatedly perform certain routines ("rituals“ or “compulsions”) to an extent that it causes distress & impairs general functioning.

Answer 239

1 - Symmetry 2 - Cleaning the “cleaning” cluster is associated with germs, bodily fluids, and contamination 3 - Hoarding 4 - Forbidden thoughts The "forbidden thoughts" cluster is associated with intrusive and distressing thoughts of a violent, religious, or sexual nature

Answer 240

The compulsions are often performed to seek relief from obsession-related anxiety, driven by a fear that something bad will happen if the ritualistic behaviour is not done properly or a belief that life cannot proceed as normal while the imbalance remains.

Answer 241

Most adults with OCD realize that their behaviors do not make sense, they understand that their notions do not correspond with reality; however, they feel that they must act as though their notions are correct, and they are typically unable to control their obsessions or compulsions for more than a short period of time

Answer 242

Incidence of OCD is less than 2 percent. Lifetime prevalence rates are slightly higher in women than men, but diagnosis typically occurs later in women (after age 18) than men (during adolescence). Symptoms usually start before age 25 in both sexes. The cause of OCD is a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors account for ~50% of the variability. Environmental risk factors include a history of child abuse or other adverse events. Some cases have been documented following infections.

Answer 243

Treatment always involves counseling, often a version of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) known as exposure and response prevention, which involves increasing exposure to what causes the problems while not allowing the repetitive behavior to occur. Treatment sometimes includes antidepressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) Without treatment, the condition often lasts decades. Treatment for severe cases can include a brain lesion, specifically a cingulotomy, which is the cutting of a fiber bundle between PFC and anterior cingulate

Answer 244

Sometimes OCD symptoms appear after brain damage, particularly to the basal ganglia, cingulate gyrus, or prefrontal cortex

Answer 245

The big players are alcohol, opiates, cocaine and meth, nicotine, barbiturates and benzos. Problems with alcohol abuse: automobile accidents fetal alcohol syndrome cirrhosis of the liver Korsakoff's syndrome increased rate of heart disease increased rate of intracerebral hemorrhage pancreatitis, diabetes, etc., etc.

Answer 246

Reinforcement is most effective when the consequences of an action are immediate (versus delayed). The speed by which the brain perceives reinforcement is thought to explain the relative addictive potential of different drugs, such as heroin versus morphine All reinforcers, natural or otherwise, elicit dopamine release in the striatum, particularly in the nucleus accumbens, and the most addictive drugs rapidly increase dopamine signaling

Answer 247

Epidemiological studies estimate that genetic factors account for 40–60% of the risk factors for alcoholism. Alcohol consumption is not distributed equally across the population; in the United States, 10 percent of the people drink 50 percent of the alcohol

Answer 248

Some gene variants predispose people to becoming addicted to a specific drug. Other gene variants increase the risk of developing addiction in general.

Answer 249

When a behaviour is reinforced by the removal (or reduction) of an aversive stimulus. People have argued that addiction is partially maintained by negative reinforcement, since after tolerance develops people sometimes continue to take drugs simply to prevent or reduce withdrawal symptoms. However, drug cravings and addictive behaviours far outlast any withdrawal symptoms. To some extent, getting through withdrawal is the easy part.

Answer 250

When a drug effect gets smaller with repeated administration, increasingly larger doses are needed to achieve the desired effect. Caused by compensatory mechanisms that oppose the effect of the drug. Not all addictive drugs produce tolerance and withdrawal

Answer 251

Appearance of symptoms opposite to those produced by drug when the drug is suddenly no longer taken Caused by presence of compensatory mechanisms (that relate to drug tolerance)

Answer 252

Some people with a history of drug use show deficits on tasks that involved the PFC, similar to people that have damage in this brain region. When addicts (who are not currently high) perform lab tests that normally activate the prefrontal cortex, they show less activity in this brain region and perform more poorly on these tests than other people do. In one study, the overall amount of cocaine taken by addicts in their lifetime correlated with reductions in PFC activity.

Answer 253

Studies have shown a high level of comorbidity of schizophrenia, ADHD, and substance abuse 70-90% of schizophrenics smoke cigarettes and almost half are addicted to drugs other than nicotine. One study from 2004 estimated that 7% of the population had some form of mental illness, yet a third of all cigarettes were smoked by this group Abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex and its interactions with the striatum and dopamine neurons may be a common factor in these disorders

Answer 254

The binding site blocker approach Maintenance approach Partial agonist approach Brain Stimulation approach

Answer 255

Naltrexone and Naloxone (Narcan)

Answer 256

A somewhat long-acting, slow onset, high affinity opioid receptor antagonist that is prescribed to alcoholics and opiate addicts for daily use It reduces the high produced by opiates (because it outcompetes opiates for the receptor binding site). It also seems to reduce cravings for food, alcohol, and other drugs in some people

Answer 257

Extremely rapid (and short lived) opioid receptor antagonist that reverses the effects of an opiate overdose. During an opiate overdose, people can lose consciousness and stop breathing. A naloxone injection can immediately reverse these effects and even elicit withdrawal symptoms (but naloxone is short-lived and cleared in 20-80 minutes).

Answer 258

Methadone maintenance

Answer 259

Buprenorphine and Varenicline

Answer 260

DBS and TMS

Answer 261

Potent opiate, similar to morphine or heroin but with a slower onset and offset. Methadone maintenance programs administer the drug to their patients in liquid form, which they must drink in the presence of supervising personnel Similar maintenance treatments are used with nicotine addiction (nicotine patches, gum, vaping, etc.)

Answer 262

Buprenorphine is a high affinity partial opioid receptor agonist. It strongly binds to opioid receptors but produces only a weak effect while blocking the effect of other opiates. It is a relatively new treatment for opiate addiction. To reduce the potential for abuse, it is commonly mixed with a little naloxone (a short-lived opiate receptor antagonist).

Answer 263

Approved to treat nicotine addiction It is a partial agonist at nicotinic (acetylcholine) receptors, just as buprenorphine is a partial agonist at opioid receptors

Answer 264

Researchers have tried deep brain stimulation (DBS) in many areas of the brain, including the basal ganglia and PFC. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the PFC is also currently being tested

Answer 265

ADHD is a mental disorder characterized by problems paying attention, difficulty controlling (inhibiting) behavior in an age-appropriate manner, and hyperactivity. More than 5% of children in North America are now being treated for ADHD. The symptoms generally appear before the age of 12, are present for more than six months and cause problems in school, home, or elsewhere. ADHD is usually first identified in the classroom, where children are expected to sit quietly and pay attention to a teacher or work steadily on project

Answer 266

No because many children with ADHD have a good attention span for tasks they find interesting, and some hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity are within the range of normative behaviors.

Answer 267

ADHD is often associated with learning disabilities, depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, aggression, and conduct disorder

Answer 268

Prevalence rates vary widely across different communities, ranging from 1 to 10% of children. Boys are diagnosed three times more often than girls. The causes of ADHD include environmental and genetic factors. Estimated heritability of ADHD ranges from 75 to 90%. Certain cases are related to previous infection of or trauma to the brain. Drug and alcohol use and infections during pregnancy are associated with increased risk for the child, as is low birth weight.

Answer 269

Typically involves counseling and medications, often stimulants that raise dopamine levels by blocking or reversing the dopamine reuptake transporter (e.g., Ritalin and Adderall). Antidepressants may also be helpful.