Post Midterm Flashcards
2 Paradigms for Conserving Populations
Focus on Small Populations:
Estimated Population over time
Measures effects of threats on population size
Use general models to estimate population viability or length of time to the potential extinction
Focus on Declining Populations:
Study populations to identify causes of decline
Try to fix it
Generalize to other populations and species
Small Population and Declining Population Paradigms Comparison
Small Population:
Extinction due to low numbers, developed in the 1980s, from genetics & population ecology, strong theory, weak link to actuality
Declining Population:
Extinction due to external factors, traditional, from wildlife management, weak theory (rooted in empiricism), a strong basis in problem-solving
Small population needs more practical observation and declining population needs more theory
How are populations measured? (3)
Conduct using repeatable methods
Establish variation over space or time
Methods are often taxon-specific
Birds: point counts, photography
Mammals: capture-recapture, hunter harvest
Fish: electrofishing, netting
Amphibians/Insects: drift fences, pitfall traps
Approaches to monitoring (3)
Repeated census
Surveys by biologists and citizens
Traditional and anecdotal knowledge
Why monitor populations (3)
Determine patterns and changes in distribution and abundance
Identify environmental correlates that might reveal: cause of population increase or decline, important and sensitive locations
Determine effects of population harvest, recovery plans or other management interventions
Demographic stochasticity
Variation in fecundity and survival
Occurs in small populations
Environmental Stochasticity
Variation in habitat quality
Occurs in all sizes populations
Natural catastrophes
Genetic Stochasticity
Occurs in small populations
Genetic drift, inbreeding depression
Species at Risk
Focus on biodiversity loss via extinction and hence protection
Tends to favour influential species: emotionally, politically and economically
Population Viability Analysis
What is the probability of a species not going extinct
Theoretical Model : main tool of small population paradigm
The core tool of Endangered Species Act
Determine MVP (99% chance of survival for 1000 years)
Sensitivity Analysis
Which life stage is the most sensitive to change
Uncertainty Delays Action: what should be done about it (5)
Include human motivation as part of the system being studied
Act before scientific consensus is reached
Rely on scientists to recognize problems, but not to remedy them
Distrust claims of sustainability
Confront Uncertainty
What does the acronym DUE mean?
Distinct, Useful and Endangered
How are species at risk identified and designated
Done by the IUCN
Membership union (1 300 member organizations and 15 000 experts)
Address environmental law, protected areas, policy, education, management, communication
Publishes Red List of Threatened Species
Red List Criteria (5)
A) Observable reduction in numbers of individuals
B) Total geographical area occupied by the species
C) Predicted decline in numbers of populations
D) Number of mature individuals currently alive
E) Probability the species will go extinct within a certain number of years or generations
How to quantify red list criteria (5)
A) Surveys (observe a decline in numbers)
B) Minimum Dynamic Area (MDA)
C) Population Viability Analysis (PVA) - Life Table
D) Effective Population Size (Ne)
E) Minimum Viable Population (MVP)
Living Planet Index
Published periodically by the World Wildlife Fund
Follows multiple populations >4000 vertebrate species
A simple count of individuals
Measures change from 1970
Supports use and contributions to monitoring by the public
Listing Process in Canada
Step 1: General reports on wild species determine which species attract a commissioned status report
Step 2: COSEWIC committee of taxonomic experts assesses risk and identify a risk status; posts on the registry and sends to Minister of Environment
Step 3: Minister posts response (within 90 days); followed by consultation and analysis
Step 4: Recovery actions begin in accordance with Canada’s Species at Risk Act (SARA)
What are the strategies to recover species ? (3)
SARA imposes mandatory recovery planning
1) Management Plan
2) Recovery Strategy
3) Action Plan
In-situ conservation
Inside the original habitat
Ex-situ conservation
Outside of the original habitat
Focal Species for conservation
Indicator, Flagship and Umbrella species
DUE criteria
Distinctiveness, Utility (culture, tourism), Endangered
Types and Purposes of Conservation Translocations (4)
Introduce Novel species to perform particular ecological functions in new habitats or ranges (assisted migration)
Reinforce declining populations with important ecological functions or aesthetic appeal (head-starting vulnerable species)
Reintroduce populations of species that were extirpated (wolves in Yellowstone)
Garner support for broader conservation efforts (golden lion tamarin in brazil)
What to avoid in translocations (4)
Ecological damage
Conflict with people
Introducing new diseases
Causing extinctions of other species
Swift Foxes
Extirpated in Canadian range Reintroductions from captive-reared foxes, and wild foxes from the US 942 released in 1983-1997 289 in 196-1997 656 in 2000
IUCN Guidelines for reintroduction programs (7)
Understand and manage threats
Understand the ecology of species
Understand genetics of both species and released individuals
Ensure there is enough viable habitat (minimum dynamic area required to support genetic exchange and adaptation)
Assess and account for ecological risks
Address human concerns
Characteristics of successful reintroductions (5)
Herbivores reintroduced to excellent habitat in the core of their historic range sourced from wild-born population Introduced in groups that know each other released with ongoing support
Connected populations are less likely to go extinct because? (4)
Rescue by other individuals
Less inbreeding depression
More capacity to adapt to change
Less stochasticity (demographic or environmental)
Four Areas of Biology: 4 Questions
Two Objects of Explanation: Developmental/Historical (a sequence that results in the trait) and Single Form (the trait one slice at a time)
Two Kinds of Explanations: Proximate (explains how organisms work by describing their mechanisms and ontogeny) and Evolutionary (explains how species came to its current state)
4 Questions:
Ontogeny (DP): How does the trait develop in individuals
Mechanism (SP): What is the structure of the trait and how does it work
Phylogeny (DE): What is the phylogenetic history of the trait
Adaptive Significance (SE): How have variations in the trait interacted with environments to influence fitness in ways that help to explain the traits form
Conservation Physiology
Using physiological factors to assess how animals are affected and how to best protect them
Conservation Behaviour (4)
Wildlife Management: reserve design, human-wildlife conflict, response to stress, introduced species
Species Decline: reduce bycatch, reestablish breeding populations, boost reproduction
Assess Biodiversity: census and monitoring
Reintroductions: mate choice, social structure and head-starting
Solutions for Human-Wildlife Conflict (6)
Remove problem animals Barriers - fences and guard dogs Improve Education- zoos, public campaigns Land Use - change crops, remove garbage Compensation Spatial Analysis
Reintroductions – things to keep in mind (3)
Genetics - small population problems
Ecology - fit to the environment
Behaviour - adaptation to captivity
IUCN Protected Area Designation (6)
Strictly Protected (I-IV): Strict Nature Reserves - I Wilderness Area - II National Park - III Natural Monument or Feature - IV
Multi-Use, Larger, Sustainable Use:
Protected Seascape/Landscape - V
Protected Area with sustainable use of resources - VI
Short History of Protected Areas (7)
1880s: John Muir’s Preservationist Ethic, First National Parks
1920s: Wise-use Movement, resource extraction expands, multi-use
1960s: Silent Spring, awareness of pollution of air, land, water
1970s: Island Biogeography promotes the theory of Reserve Design
1990s: Increasing awareness of functional connectivity
2000s: Increasing sophistication of measurement
2010s: Increasing emphasis on ecological functions
Five Steps for Preserving Ecosystems
Establish individual protected areas
Create networks of protected areas
Manage networks effectively
Implement conservation outside of protected areas
Restore biological communities in degraded habitats
Shafers 11 Rules of Reserve Design
Ecosystem completely protected Larger Reserve Unfragmented reserve More reserves Corridors maintained Stepping-stones facilitate movement Diverse habitats protected Reserve shape closer to round A mix of small and large reserves Reserves managed regionally Human integration buffer zones
Idealized Reserve Design (3)
Maintain large core areas
Enhance connectivity among them
Prevent population sub-division
Gap Analysis
One of the first uses of GIS in conservation biology
Overlay biological characteristics with protection status to identify gaps in coverage
Requires excellent census information
Common management problems in protected areas (5)
Displacement of people (social and economic problems)
Poaching (by displaced people) - resentment of protected area
Trophy Hunting - can encourage the removal of animals
Human-Wildlife conflict - shared space with carnivores, humans as predator shields
Degradation - via infrastructure, recreation
Types of non-protected conserved areas
Military land Unprotected: Public forests Public grasslands, grazing reserves Public waterways Undesirable areas Private Land
What is ecological integrity?
Retains ecological composition, structure and function
Natural Disturbance Model
Copy natural disturbance using landscape-level management
Patch size, disturbance frequency
Environmental impact
Assessment and mitigation
Countryside biogeography
Demonstrated lack of predictive capacity of reserve design rules; proposed alternative to island biogeography
Repeatedly find that isolated fragments in agricultural matrices can retain a surprisingly high # of species
Applications to many similar landscapes (urban areas, rangelands)
Reconciliation ecology
Promote human-dominated landscapes
Emphasize human domination of most landscapes
Look for new ways to increase biodiversity in them
Strive to generate benefits to people and other species
Accept limits of preservation and protected areas
Manage urban-exploiting, hyper-abundant species
Systematic Conservation Planning (6)
Compile data on the biodiversity of the planning region
Identify conservation goals
Review existing conservation areas
Select additional conservation areas
IMplement conservation actions
Maintain the required values of conservation areas
Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative
Began in 1992 by Canmore conservationist, Harvey Locke
Provide functional connectivity for grizzly bears between Yellowstone and Yukon
Identify and secure strategic locations for partnership
Inclusive, multi-use cooperative protection of landscapes
Restoration Ecology
Tends to occur after ecosystems are highly degraded
Typically cannot recover full ecological functions
Often promotes one, particular species, community or ecological function
Stages in Restoring a degraded habitat (3)
Step 1: Requires physical-chemical modification to restore abiotic conditions
Step 2: Requires biological modification to restore biotic conditions and prevent invasive species
Step 3: Requires improved management, taking into account fungal, soil bacteria and pollinators
Resilient Ecosystems
The capacity of an ecosystem to recover from disturbance
Ecosystem services meet the needs of the local people
What characteristics make ecosystems more resilient (4)
1) Latitude: how much can an ecosystem be impacted before it loses its ability to recover
2) Resistance: How difficult is it to change an ecosystem
3) Precariousness: How close is the ecosystem to its limit or threshold
4) Panarchy: How much is the level of an ecosystem influenced by other levels? How isolated are individuals in a community from the rest of the population
Environmental Mitigation in BC
Avoid impacts
minimize impacts
Restore ecological values and components
Offset residual impacts: like-for-like, trading up
Monitoring commitments - implementation, effectiveness, compliance
Sustainability (4)
Sustainable development at the local level
Conservation at the national level
International approaches
Funding
Economic Development (3)
Improved Efficiency, organization, distribution of resources
Not necessarily economic growth – increase in resource consumption
Assumption – infinite growth (but the planet is finite)
Sustainable development (5)
Economic development without loss of biodiversity
Resource use is voluntarily limited by the availability
Susceptible to greenwashing
Triple bottom line: Social + environmental + economic
Full-cost of accounting – direct and indirect costs
The social cost of externalities disproportionately paid by:
Less powerful individuals
Less powerful countries
Future generations
Social-Ecological Systems (4)
Systems of biophysical and social factors that interact in a resilient, sustained manner
Defined at several spatial, temporal and organizational scales
Natural, socio-economic and cultural resources regulated by ecological and social systems
Adaptable, dynamic and complex
Approaches to Sustainability (3)
Local/Regional: Regulations Protected areas with restricted use Incentives for conservation (leasing, concession, banking) Land trusts, easements, covenants
National:
Acts (SARA, Migratory Birds, EPA)
National Protected Areas
Nationally managed lands
International
Sustainability on the Local Scale
Land Trusts – land owned and managed by nonprofit organizations
Conservation easements/covenants – partnerships between landowners and the land trusts or governments
Limited development – incorporating natural areas in development planning
Conservation leasing – pay landowners to protect biodiversity
Conservation banking – credits to landowners/industry to preserve habitat
Payment for ecosystem services
Conservation concessions – outbidding industry for use of land
International conferences on sustainability
UN conference on the human environment (1972)
World Commission on Environment and Development (1987)
UN conference on environment and development (1992)
General assembly special session on the environment (1997)
World summit on sustainable development (2002)
UN conference on sustainable development (2012)
Paris climate accord (2015)
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio Summitt 1992)
Rio declaration – nations can use their own resources as long as other nations don’t suffer (polluter pays)
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change – reduce greenhouse gases
Convention on Biological Diversity – protect biodiversity, sustainable use, share benefits of genetic resources
Agenda 21 – Linked environmental problems to child welfare, poverty, gender issues, wealth inequality and mechanisms to implement plans
International Agreements that we should know (6)
Convention on Biological Diversity – promotes the conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use, and equitable sharing of benefits
Convention on International trade in Endangered Species (CITES) – Ensure that trade in animals and plants do not threaten their survival
Convention on the Migratory Species of Wild Animals – Provides guidelines for the conservation and sustainable use of migrating animals throughout their ranges
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (RCoW) – Promotes the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands and their resources that contribute to both biodiversity and human wellbeing
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture – Promotes the conservation of plant genetic resources and the equitable sharing of the benefits that arise from them
World Heritage Convention (WHC) – Mandates the identification and conservation of the world’s cultural and natural heritage by protecting a specific list of sites
How is conservation funded in developing countries (3)
Governments – World bank, global environment facility
Private donations:
INGO’s: World wildlife fund, the nature conservancy, etc
Environmental trust funds
Debt-for-nature swaps
Combinations: Forest Alliance + WWF + world bank
Four criteria for Conservation Programs
Concern: Donors and recipients both genuinely want to solve the problem
Contracts: fair contracts can be made and enforced, fund will not be lost to corruption
Capacity: Ther are enough facilities, people, skills, and equipment to achieve intended work
Causes: The original causes of the conservation problem have been addressed
Strategies for Sustainability (3)
Environmental Impact = Population + Affluence + Technology
Affluence – reduce consumption
Population – reduce fertility (educate women, birth control)
Technology – solutions (renewable energy, carbon capture)
2019,2021 Climate Emergency Declaration (6)
Energy: eliminate fossil fuels and shift to renewables
Short-lived air pollutants: greatly reduced black carbon, methane and hydrofluorocarbons
Nature: restore and permanently protect the earth’s ecosystem to store and accumulate carbon and restore biodiversity
Food: Switch to mostly plant-based diets, reduce food waste and improve cropping practices
Economy: Move from indefinite GDP growth and overconsumption by the wealthy to ecological economics and a circular economy, the price reflects the full environmental cost of goods and services
Human Population: Stabilize and gradually reduce the population by providing voluntary family planning and supporting education and rights for all girls and young women, which has been proven to lower fertility rates
Issues with Organic Farming (8)
Environmental impact and emission – sometimes higher
Nutrient Leaching – eutrophication, acidification
Land Use – more land needed
Pesticides – natural is sometimes more toxic
Food quality and safety – more variable
Soil conservation – more erosion, imported materials
Biodiversity – variable effects
Opposition to labour standards – sometimes
Problem 1: Describe and Monitor Biodiversity
Biodiversity is not even described, let alone monitored
Solution: Train more systematics and invest in monitoring programs
Problem 2: International Cooperation
Difficult to coordinate across international borders and impossible to enforce
Solution: Increase awareness of local people of problems and the need for action.
Problem 3: Developing countries trade-off biodiversity protection and needed resource development
Solution:
Provision of technical and financial support from the government and NGOs in developed counties via multiple mechanisms payments for ecosystem services
Problem 4: Economic analyses overlook or underestimate the negative effects of projects on biodiversity
Solution: Develop tools to apply full-cost accounting and track effects on the triple bottom line; increase use of polluter pays principle and end perverse subsidies
Problem 5: Disadvantaged people trying to survive are often blamed for destroying biodiversity
Solution:
Increase integration with humanitarian groups to support conservation goals that also provide economic gains for local people (fair trade systems)
Problem 6: Protected area designation and management may exclude and alienate local people
Solution:
Provide local people with information and involvement in the design and management of the protected area
Problem 7: Revenues associated with protected areas may not be shared with local people that are displaced by them
Solution:
Increase opportunities for training, employment and revenue sharing in association with protected areas
Use revenues to fund local needs
Problem 8: Protected areas in developing countries often lack sufficient budgets to protect areas effectively
Solution:
Increase admission rates to offset the real cost of maintenance, differential fees according to the type of visitor
Problem 9: Many species at risk occur on private land or land already designated for resource extraction
Solutions :
Change laws and expectations in developed countries to require better support from associated ecosystems, integrate biodiversity protection with resource extraction
Problem 10: In many countries, governments are inefficient and bound by excessive regulation
Solution
Leverage action by citizen groups and ENGOs which can often help implement new policies or directions
Problem 11: Businesses, banks and governments may be uninterested in conservation issues
Solution
Educate policymakers and others about the benefits of conservation, lobby governments directly, understand variation among cultures
Challenges for Conservation Biologists (3)
Incorporate biodiversity protection into economic policy
Increase the protection of the area and slow endangerment of species
Act with the greatest urgency for species with the greatest need
