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BIOL 370 > Post Midterm > Flashcards

Post Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

2 Paradigms for Conserving Populations

A

Focus on Small Populations:
Estimated Population over time
Measures effects of threats on population size
Use general models to estimate population viability or length of time to the potential extinction

Focus on Declining Populations:
Study populations to identify causes of decline
Try to fix it
Generalize to other populations and species

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2
Q

Small Population and Declining Population Paradigms Comparison

A

Small Population:
Extinction due to low numbers, developed in the 1980s, from genetics & population ecology, strong theory, weak link to actuality

Declining Population:
Extinction due to external factors, traditional, from wildlife management, weak theory (rooted in empiricism), a strong basis in problem-solving

Small population needs more practical observation and declining population needs more theory

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3
Q

How are populations measured? (3)

A

Conduct using repeatable methods
Establish variation over space or time
Methods are often taxon-specific
Birds: point counts, photography
Mammals: capture-recapture, hunter harvest
Fish: electrofishing, netting
Amphibians/Insects: drift fences, pitfall traps

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4
Q

Approaches to monitoring (3)

A

Repeated census
Surveys by biologists and citizens
Traditional and anecdotal knowledge

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5
Q

Why monitor populations (3)

A

Determine patterns and changes in distribution and abundance

Identify environmental correlates that might reveal: cause of population increase or decline, important and sensitive locations

Determine effects of population harvest, recovery plans or other management interventions

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6
Q

Demographic stochasticity

A

Variation in fecundity and survival

Occurs in small populations

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7
Q

Environmental Stochasticity

A

Variation in habitat quality
Occurs in all sizes populations
Natural catastrophes

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8
Q

Genetic Stochasticity

A

Occurs in small populations

Genetic drift, inbreeding depression

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9
Q

Species at Risk

A

Focus on biodiversity loss via extinction and hence protection
Tends to favour influential species: emotionally, politically and economically

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10
Q

Population Viability Analysis

A

What is the probability of a species not going extinct
Theoretical Model : main tool of small population paradigm
The core tool of Endangered Species Act
Determine MVP (99% chance of survival for 1000 years)

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11
Q

Sensitivity Analysis

A

Which life stage is the most sensitive to change

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12
Q

Uncertainty Delays Action: what should be done about it (5)

A

Include human motivation as part of the system being studied

Act before scientific consensus is reached

Rely on scientists to recognize problems, but not to remedy them

Distrust claims of sustainability

Confront Uncertainty

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13
Q

What does the acronym DUE mean?

A

Distinct, Useful and Endangered

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14
Q

How are species at risk identified and designated

A

Done by the IUCN
Membership union (1 300 member organizations and 15 000 experts)
Address environmental law, protected areas, policy, education, management, communication
Publishes Red List of Threatened Species

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15
Q

Red List Criteria (5)

A

A) Observable reduction in numbers of individuals
B) Total geographical area occupied by the species
C) Predicted decline in numbers of populations
D) Number of mature individuals currently alive
E) Probability the species will go extinct within a certain number of years or generations

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16
Q

How to quantify red list criteria (5)

A

A) Surveys (observe a decline in numbers)
B) Minimum Dynamic Area (MDA)
C) Population Viability Analysis (PVA) - Life Table
D) Effective Population Size (Ne)
E) Minimum Viable Population (MVP)

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17
Q

Living Planet Index

A

Published periodically by the World Wildlife Fund
Follows multiple populations >4000 vertebrate species
A simple count of individuals
Measures change from 1970
Supports use and contributions to monitoring by the public

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18
Q

Listing Process in Canada

A

Step 1: General reports on wild species determine which species attract a commissioned status report

Step 2: COSEWIC committee of taxonomic experts assesses risk and identify a risk status; posts on the registry and sends to Minister of Environment

Step 3: Minister posts response (within 90 days); followed by consultation and analysis

Step 4: Recovery actions begin in accordance with Canada’s Species at Risk Act (SARA)

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19
Q

What are the strategies to recover species ? (3)

A

SARA imposes mandatory recovery planning

1) Management Plan
2) Recovery Strategy
3) Action Plan

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20
Q

In-situ conservation

A

Inside the original habitat

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21
Q

Ex-situ conservation

A

Outside of the original habitat

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22
Q

Focal Species for conservation

A

Indicator, Flagship and Umbrella species

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23
Q

DUE criteria

A

Distinctiveness, Utility (culture, tourism), Endangered

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24
Q

Types and Purposes of Conservation Translocations (4)

A

Introduce Novel species to perform particular ecological functions in new habitats or ranges (assisted migration)

Reinforce declining populations with important ecological functions or aesthetic appeal (head-starting vulnerable species)

Reintroduce populations of species that were extirpated (wolves in Yellowstone)

Garner support for broader conservation efforts (golden lion tamarin in brazil)

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25
Q

What to avoid in translocations (4)

A

Ecological damage
Conflict with people
Introducing new diseases
Causing extinctions of other species

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26
Q

Swift Foxes

A 
Extirpated in Canadian range 
Reintroductions from captive-reared foxes, and wild foxes from the US
942 released in 1983-1997
289 in 196-1997
656 in 2000
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27
Q

IUCN Guidelines for reintroduction programs (7)

A

Understand and manage threats
Understand the ecology of species
Understand genetics of both species and released individuals
Ensure there is enough viable habitat (minimum dynamic area required to support genetic exchange and adaptation)
Assess and account for ecological risks
Address human concerns

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28
Q

Characteristics of successful reintroductions (5)

A 
Herbivores 
reintroduced to excellent habitat 
in the core of their historic range 
sourced from wild-born population
Introduced in groups that know each other 
released with ongoing support
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29
Q

Connected populations are less likely to go extinct because? (4)

A

Rescue by other individuals
Less inbreeding depression
More capacity to adapt to change
Less stochasticity (demographic or environmental)

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30
Q

Four Areas of Biology: 4 Questions

A

Two Objects of Explanation: Developmental/Historical (a sequence that results in the trait) and Single Form (the trait one slice at a time)

Two Kinds of Explanations: Proximate (explains how organisms work by describing their mechanisms and ontogeny) and Evolutionary (explains how species came to its current state)

4 Questions:

Ontogeny (DP): How does the trait develop in individuals

Mechanism (SP): What is the structure of the trait and how does it work

Phylogeny (DE): What is the phylogenetic history of the trait

Adaptive Significance (SE): How have variations in the trait interacted with environments to influence fitness in ways that help to explain the traits form

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31
Q

Conservation Physiology

A

Using physiological factors to assess how animals are affected and how to best protect them

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32
Q

Conservation Behaviour (4)

A

Wildlife Management: reserve design, human-wildlife conflict, response to stress, introduced species

Species Decline: reduce bycatch, reestablish breeding populations, boost reproduction

Assess Biodiversity: census and monitoring

Reintroductions: mate choice, social structure and head-starting

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33
Q

Solutions for Human-Wildlife Conflict (6)

A 
Remove problem animals 
Barriers - fences and guard dogs 
Improve Education- zoos, public campaigns 
Land Use - change crops, remove garbage 
Compensation
Spatial Analysis
34
Q

Reintroductions – things to keep in mind (3)

A

Genetics - small population problems
Ecology - fit to the environment
Behaviour - adaptation to captivity

35
Q

IUCN Protected Area Designation (6)

A 
Strictly Protected (I-IV):
Strict Nature Reserves - I
Wilderness Area - II
National Park - III
Natural Monument or Feature - IV

Multi-Use, Larger, Sustainable Use:
Protected Seascape/Landscape - V
Protected Area with sustainable use of resources - VI

36
Q

Short History of Protected Areas (7)

A

1880s: John Muir’s Preservationist Ethic, First National Parks
1920s: Wise-use Movement, resource extraction expands, multi-use
1960s: Silent Spring, awareness of pollution of air, land, water
1970s: Island Biogeography promotes the theory of Reserve Design
1990s: Increasing awareness of functional connectivity
2000s: Increasing sophistication of measurement
2010s: Increasing emphasis on ecological functions

37
Q

Five Steps for Preserving Ecosystems

A

Establish individual protected areas
Create networks of protected areas
Manage networks effectively
Implement conservation outside of protected areas
Restore biological communities in degraded habitats

38
Q

Shafers 11 Rules of Reserve Design

A 
Ecosystem completely protected 
Larger Reserve 
Unfragmented reserve 
More reserves
Corridors maintained 
Stepping-stones facilitate movement
Diverse habitats protected 
Reserve shape closer to round 
A mix of small and large reserves 
Reserves managed regionally 
Human integration buffer zones
39
Q

Idealized Reserve Design (3)

A

Maintain large core areas
Enhance connectivity among them
Prevent population sub-division

40
Q

Gap Analysis

A

One of the first uses of GIS in conservation biology
Overlay biological characteristics with protection status to identify gaps in coverage
Requires excellent census information

41
Q

Common management problems in protected areas (5)

A

Displacement of people (social and economic problems)
Poaching (by displaced people) - resentment of protected area
Trophy Hunting - can encourage the removal of animals
Human-Wildlife conflict - shared space with carnivores, humans as predator shields
Degradation - via infrastructure, recreation

42
Q

Types of non-protected conserved areas

A 
Military land 
Unprotected:
Public forests
Public grasslands, grazing reserves 
Public waterways 
Undesirable areas 
Private Land
43
Q

What is ecological integrity?

A

Retains ecological composition, structure and function

44
Q

Natural Disturbance Model

A

Copy natural disturbance using landscape-level management
Patch size, disturbance frequency
Environmental impact
Assessment and mitigation

45
Q

Countryside biogeography

A

Demonstrated lack of predictive capacity of reserve design rules; proposed alternative to island biogeography

Repeatedly find that isolated fragments in agricultural matrices can retain a surprisingly high # of species

Applications to many similar landscapes (urban areas, rangelands)

46
Q

Reconciliation ecology

A

Promote human-dominated landscapes

Emphasize human domination of most landscapes

Look for new ways to increase biodiversity in them

Strive to generate benefits to people and other species

Accept limits of preservation and protected areas

Manage urban-exploiting, hyper-abundant species

47
Q

Systematic Conservation Planning (6)

A

Compile data on the biodiversity of the planning region
Identify conservation goals
Review existing conservation areas
Select additional conservation areas
IMplement conservation actions
Maintain the required values of conservation areas

48
Q

Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative

A

Began in 1992 by Canmore conservationist, Harvey Locke

Provide functional connectivity for grizzly bears between Yellowstone and Yukon

Identify and secure strategic locations for partnership

Inclusive, multi-use cooperative protection of landscapes

49
Q

Restoration Ecology

A

Tends to occur after ecosystems are highly degraded
Typically cannot recover full ecological functions
Often promotes one, particular species, community or ecological function

50
Q

Stages in Restoring a degraded habitat (3)

A

Step 1: Requires physical-chemical modification to restore abiotic conditions

Step 2: Requires biological modification to restore biotic conditions and prevent invasive species

Step 3: Requires improved management, taking into account fungal, soil bacteria and pollinators

51
Q

Resilient Ecosystems

A

The capacity of an ecosystem to recover from disturbance

Ecosystem services meet the needs of the local people

52
Q

What characteristics make ecosystems more resilient (4)

A

1) Latitude: how much can an ecosystem be impacted before it loses its ability to recover
2) Resistance: How difficult is it to change an ecosystem
3) Precariousness: How close is the ecosystem to its limit or threshold
4) Panarchy: How much is the level of an ecosystem influenced by other levels? How isolated are individuals in a community from the rest of the population

53
Q

Environmental Mitigation in BC

A

Avoid impacts
minimize impacts
Restore ecological values and components
Offset residual impacts: like-for-like, trading up
Monitoring commitments - implementation, effectiveness, compliance

54
Q

Sustainability (4)

A

Sustainable development at the local level
Conservation at the national level
International approaches
Funding

55
Q

Economic Development (3)

A

Improved Efficiency, organization, distribution of resources

Not necessarily economic growth – increase in resource consumption

Assumption – infinite growth (but the planet is finite)

56
Q

Sustainable development (5)

A

Economic development without loss of biodiversity

Resource use is voluntarily limited by the availability

Susceptible to greenwashing

Triple bottom line: Social + environmental + economic

Full-cost of accounting – direct and indirect costs

57
Q

The social cost of externalities disproportionately paid by:

A

Less powerful individuals
Less powerful countries
Future generations

58
Q

Social-Ecological Systems (4)

A

Systems of biophysical and social factors that interact in a resilient, sustained manner

Defined at several spatial, temporal and organizational scales

Natural, socio-economic and cultural resources regulated by ecological and social systems

Adaptable, dynamic and complex

59
Q

Approaches to Sustainability (3)

A 
Local/Regional:
Regulations
Protected areas with restricted use
Incentives for conservation (leasing, concession, banking)
Land trusts, easements, covenants

National:
Acts (SARA, Migratory Birds, EPA)
National Protected Areas
Nationally managed lands

International

60
Q

Sustainability on the Local Scale

A

Land Trusts – land owned and managed by nonprofit organizations

Conservation easements/covenants – partnerships between landowners and the land trusts or governments

Limited development – incorporating natural areas in development planning

Conservation leasing – pay landowners to protect biodiversity

Conservation banking – credits to landowners/industry to preserve habitat

Payment for ecosystem services

Conservation concessions – outbidding industry for use of land

61
Q

International conferences on sustainability

A

UN conference on the human environment (1972)

World Commission on Environment and Development (1987)

UN conference on environment and development (1992)

General assembly special session on the environment (1997)

World summit on sustainable development (2002)

UN conference on sustainable development (2012)

Paris climate accord (2015)

62
Q

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio Summitt 1992)

A

Rio declaration – nations can use their own resources as long as other nations don’t suffer (polluter pays)

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change – reduce greenhouse gases

Convention on Biological Diversity – protect biodiversity, sustainable use, share benefits of genetic resources

Agenda 21 – Linked environmental problems to child welfare, poverty, gender issues, wealth inequality and mechanisms to implement plans

63
Q

International Agreements that we should know (6)

A

Convention on Biological Diversity – promotes the conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use, and equitable sharing of benefits

Convention on International trade in Endangered Species (CITES) – Ensure that trade in animals and plants do not threaten their survival

Convention on the Migratory Species of Wild Animals – Provides guidelines for the conservation and sustainable use of migrating animals throughout their ranges

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (RCoW) – Promotes the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands and their resources that contribute to both biodiversity and human wellbeing

International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture – Promotes the conservation of plant genetic resources and the equitable sharing of the benefits that arise from them

World Heritage Convention (WHC) – Mandates the identification and conservation of the world’s cultural and natural heritage by protecting a specific list of sites

64
Q

How is conservation funded in developing countries (3)

A

Governments – World bank, global environment facility

Private donations:
INGO’s: World wildlife fund, the nature conservancy, etc
Environmental trust funds
Debt-for-nature swaps

Combinations: Forest Alliance + WWF + world bank

65
Q

Four criteria for Conservation Programs

A

Concern: Donors and recipients both genuinely want to solve the problem

Contracts: fair contracts can be made and enforced, fund will not be lost to corruption

Capacity: Ther are enough facilities, people, skills, and equipment to achieve intended work

Causes: The original causes of the conservation problem have been addressed

66
Q

Strategies for Sustainability (3)

A

Environmental Impact = Population + Affluence + Technology

Affluence – reduce consumption
Population – reduce fertility (educate women, birth control)
Technology – solutions (renewable energy, carbon capture)

67
Q

2019,2021 Climate Emergency Declaration (6)

A

Energy: eliminate fossil fuels and shift to renewables

Short-lived air pollutants: greatly reduced black carbon, methane and hydrofluorocarbons

Nature: restore and permanently protect the earth’s ecosystem to store and accumulate carbon and restore biodiversity

Food: Switch to mostly plant-based diets, reduce food waste and improve cropping practices

Economy: Move from indefinite GDP growth and overconsumption by the wealthy to ecological economics and a circular economy, the price reflects the full environmental cost of goods and services

Human Population: Stabilize and gradually reduce the population by providing voluntary family planning and supporting education and rights for all girls and young women, which has been proven to lower fertility rates

68
Q

Issues with Organic Farming (8)

A

Environmental impact and emission – sometimes higher

Nutrient Leaching – eutrophication, acidification

Land Use – more land needed

Pesticides – natural is sometimes more toxic

Food quality and safety – more variable

Soil conservation – more erosion, imported materials

Biodiversity – variable effects

Opposition to labour standards – sometimes

69
Q

Problem 1: Describe and Monitor Biodiversity

A

Biodiversity is not even described, let alone monitored

Solution: Train more systematics and invest in monitoring programs

70
Q

Problem 2: International Cooperation

A

Difficult to coordinate across international borders and impossible to enforce

Solution: Increase awareness of local people of problems and the need for action.

71
Q

Problem 3: Developing countries trade-off biodiversity protection and needed resource development

A

Solution:
Provision of technical and financial support from the government and NGOs in developed counties via multiple mechanisms payments for ecosystem services

72
Q

Problem 4: Economic analyses overlook or underestimate the negative effects of projects on biodiversity

A

Solution: Develop tools to apply full-cost accounting and track effects on the triple bottom line; increase use of polluter pays principle and end perverse subsidies

73
Q

Problem 5: Disadvantaged people trying to survive are often blamed for destroying biodiversity

A

Solution:
Increase integration with humanitarian groups to support conservation goals that also provide economic gains for local people (fair trade systems)

74
Q

Problem 6: Protected area designation and management may exclude and alienate local people

A

Solution:

Provide local people with information and involvement in the design and management of the protected area

75
Q

Problem 7: Revenues associated with protected areas may not be shared with local people that are displaced by them

A

Solution:
Increase opportunities for training, employment and revenue sharing in association with protected areas
Use revenues to fund local needs

76
Q

Problem 8: Protected areas in developing countries often lack sufficient budgets to protect areas effectively

A

Solution:

Increase admission rates to offset the real cost of maintenance, differential fees according to the type of visitor

77
Q

Problem 9: Many species at risk occur on private land or land already designated for resource extraction

A

Solutions :
Change laws and expectations in developed countries to require better support from associated ecosystems, integrate biodiversity protection with resource extraction

78
Q

Problem 10: In many countries, governments are inefficient and bound by excessive regulation

A

Solution

Leverage action by citizen groups and ENGOs which can often help implement new policies or directions

79
Q

Problem 11: Businesses, banks and governments may be uninterested in conservation issues

A

Solution
Educate policymakers and others about the benefits of conservation, lobby governments directly, understand variation among cultures

80
Q

Challenges for Conservation Biologists (3)

A

Incorporate biodiversity protection into economic policy

Increase the protection of the area and slow endangerment of species

Act with the greatest urgency for species with the greatest need

BIOL 370 (2 decks)

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