Positivism Flashcards
Definition
Positivism is the methodological perspective that social phenomena ought to be studied using the methods of the natural sciences.
Deductive approach
Positivism is widely regarded as a deductive approach to research. Deductive approaches aim to test a theory and usually begin with a hypothesis.
Positvist methodology
Sociologists sympathetic to the use of traditional scientific methods tend to follow a series of steps to generate accurate, scientific knowledge. These steps are known as: ‘The Hypothetico Deductive method’
The seven steps of the Hypothetico deductive method…
- BACKGROUND READING AND PERSONAL EXPERIENCE: through study and everyday observation, the sociologist uncovers an area of interest
- HYPOTHESIS FORMATION: a causal link between two events is formulated
- DEVISING APPROPRIATE METHODS: usually some form of questionnaire or interview
- COLLECTING THE DATA: strict rules governing the way questionnaires and interviews are carried out to ensure validity and reliability
- ANALYSING THE DATA: statistical models often used such as the test of confidence to demonstrate the likelihood of their research producing accurate results
6: CONFIRMING/MODIFYING/REJECTING THE HYPOTHESIS: done by searching for weaknesses as suggested by Popper - THEORY FORMATION OR CONFIRMATION: However, no positivists claim their results are proved by their research, merely that they produce the best explanation until others can improve on it.
Theoretical perspectives
Positivists support a theoretical model of society that is based on the idea that there is some form of structure that exists independently of individuals. The functionalist, Durkheim claimed that ‘society is a reality Sui Generis’. This explains why positivists prefer to study society scientifically.
There are two main theoretical perspectives that are most closely linked to positivism:
1. Functionalism
Functionalism is a consensus theory. It argues that institutions exist in society in the form they do because they contribute to the continuing functioning of society. Underpinning this theoretical model is the acceptance of a social structure that actively guides our actions/beliefs. Durkheim believes social facts exist in society which was demonstrated in his study of suicide.
- Marxism
This theory was based on the belief that economic and social laws exist that govern human behaviour. Marx hoped that by uncovering these laws he would demonstrate that a communist society was the inevitable future. Although people’s consciousness and actions play an important part, ultimately the laws are dominant.
Criticised by social action theories
Those adopting the alternative theoretical perspective on the nature of society reject structural theories:
Social action theories stress the way that individuals make sense of the world around them. They argue society is created by the activities of people and not the other way around. Positivist methods are therefore inappropriate with their assumption of an objective reality. Instead, interpretivists advocate an inductive approach that builds up from observations
The favoured methods of Positivists (Quantitative)
Positivists believe that the social world is relatively independent of individuals and therefore it requires objective study. The positivist approach strongly favours using quantitative methods, such as survey and experimental methods.
What is a social survey?
A social survey involves obtaining information in a standardised manner from a large number of people. This is done to maximise reliability and generalizability. The two types often used by positivists include ‘cross sectional/snapshot’ surveys and ‘longitudinal surveys’
Cross sectional/snapshot surveys
- Gather information at one particular time
- Often called opinion polls, found in newspapers and textbooks
- Useful for finding information at a specific moment and are quick to carry out if organised quickly. They findings are also likely to be highly generalisable due to large sample
- However, the two main difficulties are that the questions chosen to measure a form of attitude must be accurate, and the surveys do not provide information over a period of time so changes in views cannot be measured.
Longitudinal surveys
- these are surveys that take place over a period of time
- used when sociologists are particularly interested in a change
- an example is the British Household Panel Survey which studied over 10000 people living in 5500 households
- provides a clear ongoing image of changes in attitudes and actions over time
- high drop our rate, tracking people can be expensive and difficult
Sampling: What are the three sampling techniques used by positivists?
- RANDOM: where a representative sample of the population is chosen by entirely random methods.
- SYSTEMATIC: where the nth name (e.g. every 10th name) is chosen from a list
- STRATIFIED: where the population under study is divided according to known criteria in order to make the sample more representative
Strengths of sampling
Representative and generalisable- involves processes to ensure the people in the study are representative of the whole population. If this is the case, results can be generalised.
Problems with sampling
A sampling frame is used in the sampling, since the costs of devising research when studying large numbers of people is too high. However, it is often difficult to obtain a sampling frame, particularly in the last few years since laws restricting access to information on computers has been introduced.
