position of unions & organised labour Flashcards
how far did the positions of unions & organised labour improve in the period 1865-1992?
what issues arose surrounding the positions of unions & labour rights during this period (1865-1992)
- right for unions to exist
- recognition of unions
- involvement of unions in negotiations over pay & working conditions
- establishment of systems for mediation
- freedom of workers to withdraw their labour without fear of punishment
which factors influenced the progress of union & labour rights
- economic change
- growth of capitalism
- amount of immigration etc.
what were the rights of unions/workers like in 1865
- completely dependent on what workers could negotiate with employers
- however, no requirement for employers to recognise unions (nor negotiate with them)
- meant workers had no representation/protection from employers & could therefore be exploited
what were the rights of unions/workers like in 1992
- won right to join a union
- some employers able to create workplaces where unions were forbidden (workers had to accept due to fall in wages & fear of losing jobs due to economic decline)
- unions secured right to collective bargaining (limited in practice)
- without union representation, workers were in weak position to improve rights as didn’t want to confront employers as feared losing their jobs
- unions secured rights for workers to withdraw labour & strike (limited as some employers brought no-strike clauses)
= position of workers had certainly improved since start of period, but the gains made in earlier parts of period weren’t always maintained
did position of unions improve 1865-1914
yes
what showed that the position of unions improved 1865-1914
increase in union membership
what were many of the improvements 1865-1914 limited to
white, male workers
what did the unions that existed in 1865 represent
- skilled workers in craft industries (eg. shoemakers)
- USA undergoing period of rapid industrialisation meaning many new, unskilled workers were excluded from unions = no representation or protection
- employers hired unskilled workers under contracts (not permanent employment) so could be laid off if less need for their work
position of workers 1865-1914
- employers hired unskilled workers under contracts (not permanent employment) so could be laid off if less need for their work
- worked long hours in factories with limited safety precautions = many accidents
- employers wouldn’t often introduce health/safety standards as it would reduce profits through greater supervision
- those who suffered industrial injuries received little/no support from employers & even courts considered industrial injuries was a risk they took
what did increasing industrialisation in the late 19th century cause
devlopment & growth of number of unions
most notable unions in late 19th century
- knights of labour (KOL)
- american federation of labour (AFL)
describe the knights of labour (KOL)
- founded in 1869
- developed after 1879 under leadership of terence powderly
- successful strike against wabash railroad in 1885 = more workers joined
- lost influence after haymarket affair 1886
what was the membership of KOL in 1886 compared to 1881
1886 = 700,000
1881 = 20,000
after the haymarket affair, what did the KOL membership fall to in 1890
100,000
what union was established in 1905
industrial workers of the world (‘wobblies’)
why was industrial workers of the world less effective
- disliked by employers due to militancy & violence
- 100,000 members by 1923 but declined after
what affected membership of unions in late 19th century
- voilence of haymarket affair
- divisions in workforce
why was the workforce divided in the late 19th century
african americans:
- arrival of AA workers after abolition of slavery/end of civil war = white workers couldn’t enjoy monopoly of labour market
- former slaves available for employment in growing industries & often accepted lower pay
- employers laid off white workers & replaced them with AA
immigrants:
- from europe & asia
- added to available pool of workers
= existing unions saw these arrivals as significant challenge so didn’t allow them to join unions = limited size of unions & ability to exert pressure on unions
what was the progress for obtaining workers rights further weakened by
- homestead strike of 1892
- pullman strike of 1894
effect of homestead strike 1892
- virtually bankrupted ‘amalgamated association of iron & steel workers’
- decline of membership from 24,000 (1891) to 6,300 (1909)
effect of pullman strike 1894
- developed from employer’s refusal to recognise right of workers to use collective bargaining to protect living/working conditions
- showed difficulties unions faced in trying to gain recognition
by WW1 how much progress had been achieved in advancing union & workers rights
little progress
what should the little progress for union/workers rights 1865-1914 be balanced against
- trade union membership in USA had grown to over 2 million
- unions begun to put pressure on candidates in elections to support workers rights
which factors suggest the position of organised labour was not stronger than 1865
- unions represented only 20% of agricultural workforce
- many industries (eg. steel) did not have unions
- often negotiations between employers & unions, but many unions not legally recognised so lacked real power over decisions
- workers divided by ethnicity, gender & skill level = exploited by employers
- gains made were often limited to white, male, skilled workers
define collective bargaining
workers’ representatives join together & negotiate over issues (eg. pay, conditions)
why did WW1, new deal & WW2 witness some progress
due to necessity than willingness on part of employers
how did the position of workers/unions improve during WW1 (1914-18)
- factory owners saw increased demand for products (eg. textiles for uniforms, steel for weapons) = more opportunity to increase profits so more appeasing to workers
- to ensure production was maintained, government recognised/negotiated with unions through ‘national war labour board’ (NWLB)
describe the national war labour board (NWLB)
- created by president wilson in 1918
- settled disputes between workers & employers = ensured production not interrupted by strikes
what was the result of the ‘national war labour board’ (NWLB) being set up
- length of working hours limited to 8
- in return, workers agreed to no-strike policy
what did the economic boom following the war allow (1920s)
- increase in real wages
- decline in unemployment
- employees often offered benefits (eg. reduced working hours, pensions, insurance etc.)
negatives of economic boom following the war (1920s)
- development of welfare capitalism usually in return for no-strike agreements & abandoning right to negotiate wages (employers feared workers would take advantage of low rates of unemployment to demand more money)
- in some industries, company unions set up (in practice workers lost independence & sometimes forced to sign ‘yellow-dog contract’
describe welfare capitalism
- policy followed by employers during 1920s economic boom to reduce industrial unrest
- included offering workers improved conditions & other benefits (eg. pensions) in return for establishment of unions under control/direction of employers
define yellow-dog contracts
contracts that workers signed where they agreed not to join a union
what did many employers refuse to do still during 1920s
refused to recognise unions
most notable example of employers refusing to recognise unions
= henry ford
- tight control over workforce
- took until 1941 for him to recognise any union for collective bargaining
where was the struggle for union recognition also seen
= pullman company
- railroad companies employed many AA as porters, who had few rights: poor conditions, relied on tips for much of income, promotion denied as job of conductor limited to white people & prevented efforts to organise unions (sacked leaders/sometimes assaulted)
- nearly half of porters joined BSCP but hadn’t gained recognition by 1928
who did the porters appoint to lead counter-campaign against pullman company & what did they set up
- appointed philip randolph
- set up ‘brotherhood of sleeping car porters’ (BSCP)
reaction of pullman company to porters setting up BSCP
- countered
- established own union
- banned meetings of BSCP
what divided the BSCP
some union leaders wanted to strike to force pullman company to negotiate
what meant the BSCP could claim right to represent porters
- passing of ‘railway labour act’ (1934) by roosevelt
- randolph able to demand that the ‘national mediation board’ officially declare the BSCP as the porters’ representative
- union defeated company union in elections to decide who should represent workers
when did the BSCP finally gain recognition & pullman began to negotiate with them
1935
by 1936, how many porters had the BSCP enrolled
51%
when were the improvements in living standards for some workers during 1920s ended
great depression (began with wall street crash)
why did union membership fall after the great depression in 1929
- due to high unemployment, labour/union rights suffered as employers exploited weak positions of workers who feared losing their jobs
- employers took tough action against strikers (often called police or own strike breakers)
= being unable to strike severely undermined workers’ position & union strength
define strike breakers
workers who worked while others were on strike = made strike ineffectual
why was the new deal (began 1933) a high point for labour rights
roosevelts administration introduced much legislation beneficial to labour movement (tackle economic problems & get people back to work)
first legislation passed during new deal
national industrial recovery act (NIRA) in 1933
- encouraged firms to agree to codes of practice that dealt with improving hours, wage rates & union rights
- enshrined in law the right of workers to organise unions & take part in collective bargaining
why were the effects of the national industrial recovery act (NIRA) limited
- not all employers signed code (eg. henry ford)
- supreme court declared act unconstitutional, so many gains of workers were reversed
how did the national labour relations act (wagner act) 1935 improve the position of workers
- established national labour relations board (NLRB) = negotiate on behalf of workers, prevent companies using own unions, looked into accusations of unfair labour practices & reached judgement on issues brought before it
- workers given right to elect own representatives to undertake collective bargaining
- act declared constitutional
- workers given right to join unions, whilst using spies against unions was banned
- recognised role of unions & resulted in rapid expansion of union membership
rapid expansion of union membership due to the national labour relations act (wagner act) 1935
1933 = 3.7 million
1938 = 9 million
what also increased the power of unions during the new deal
increasing number of unionised workers
what resulted in recognition of united automobile workers’ union
sit-in strike in 1936
when was the steel workers organizing committee recognised by US steel
1937
what gave workers a minimum wage
passing of ‘fair labour standards act’ 1939
benefits of new deal legislation reflected in growth of union membership during period
1930 = 3,401,000
1935 = 3,584,000
1940 = 8,717,000
how did the new deal legislation only benefit some workers
- many unskilled workers didn’t have rights = many in mass-production industries lacked gains which were made
- those at lower end of pay scales (in most need of protection) didn’t benefit = many ethnic minorities remained in vulnerable position & women (paid less than men)
- wagner act didn’t give agricultural workers right to join unions
why did the position of labour continue to improve during WW2
essential to war production
what was the improvement of the position of workers seen in
- reflected in wage increases (went up by roughly 70%)
- continued growth in union membership (9 million in 1938 to nearly 15 million by end of war)
what was caused by decreased unemployment
labour shortage
what do some historians see WW2 as
turning point for union movement
why could WW2 be regarded as a turning point for the union movement
- gained recognition
- laws also in place to ensure labour rights were recognised
- membership had increased significantly = workers had more influential voice in politics
- balance of power between workers/employers was favouring workers (although many employers unwilling to fully accept shift/see it as permanent)
what resulted in the decline of position of unions after WW2
- large number of strikes
- many people in politics believed unions had become too powerful under roosevelt
- taft-hartley act (1947) limited power of unions
describe the taft-hartley act (1947)
- prevented unions running closed shop
- regulated relationship between unions & employers
individual victories in post-WW2 period
in 1948, workers at general motors negotiated pay agreement linked to cost of living & pension package
what also threatened position of workers after WW2
- economic changes
- growth in number of white-collar workers & subsequent decline of blue-collar workers = fewer workers joining unions
when did union membership fall post-WW2 & why
- membership fell between 1945-50 due to many of new jobs in government posts & these workers signed no-strike contracts
- position/influence of unions hit as many workers better off than before (eg. paid holidays, healthcare, pensions & pay rises linked to cost of living) = less interested in union activity
gains made by workers in 1960s
- Kennedy’s administration passed equal pay act (1963) = men & women ‘equal pay for equal work’
- workers who lived in poverty (or close to) benefitted from Johnson’s ‘great society’ policy = primarily attack on poverty, but laws passed under it helped workers
- civil rights act (1964) outlawed discrimination on race, colour, religion, sex or national origin
- economic opportunity act (1964) increased training opportunities
- age discrimination act (1968) protected those over 40
- merging of american federation of labour & congress of industrial organisations in 1955 = brought together around 85% of union members & gave movement more power/influence with ~16 million members
what could more unions do in 1960s
- bargain over conditions & wages
- negotiate over contract conditions
- gain medical & dental insurance
- negotiate paid holidays
- gain pensions
- negotiate unemployment insurance
what did these gains in the 1960s provide membership of unions
- increased attraction
- especially as union workers’ pay often 20% higher than non-union members
why did the position of many AA workers see little improvement during the 1960s
- position worsened more due to changes in industry
- demand for more skilled/technically advanced workers disadvantaged many AA
- lacked education as many lived in poverty & were ill-educated from poor schools provided
how did the period from the 1950s to end of 1960s consolidate unions position
- right to join a union firmly established
- unions now collaborating with employers & confrontations were in decline
- workers gained many benefits (but some given to reduce likelihood of workers striking) = success (eg. 3,030,000 workers striking in 1950 vs. 1,545,200 in 1965)
what had farmworkers not gained from
benefits which organised labour in industry had
what did farm workers initially gain from
merging of 2 workers’ rights organisations:
- agricultural workers organising committee (AWOC)
- national farm workers association (NFWA)
= became united farmworkers organizing committee (1966)
who was the national farm workers association (NFWA) founded by
cesar chavez
what did the united farmworkers organizing committee (1966) become in 1972
united farm workers (UFW)
describe the united farm workers (UFW)
major union for farm labourers
what policy did chavez adopt
policy of non-violence & turned struggle of farmworkers into moral cause = won national sympathy
what did chavez’s tactics cause
- forced growers to recognise UFW as bargaining organisation for field workers in california & florida
actions of UFW (under chavez)
- organised strikes & boycotts in early 1970s (eg. salad bowl strike - largest farmworker strike in history & won higher wages for those working for lettuce/grape growers)
- chavez involved in struggle to limit immigration (believed it undermined position of workers born in USA & exploited immigrants)
example of protests by chavez
series of fasts to promote non-violence & in response to legislation passed in arizona which prohibited boycotts/strikes by farmworkers during harvest time
when did UFW eventually decline
1970s
victory secured by chavez (UFW) in 1975
secured victory in california:
= california agricultural labour relations act established california agricultural relations board to oversee collective bargaining for farm labourers
why did the late 1960s see a decline in union membership
technological changes which resulted in more skilled workforce which didn’t look to unions to protect position
when did the falling of union membership continue until
1992
union membership & percentage of workforce in 1970 compared to 1990
1970 = 19,381,000 (27.3% of workforce)
1990 = 16,740,000 (16.1% of workforce)
what was the decline in union membership by end of period a reflection of
- continuing change in structure of american workforce & economy
- events (eg. professional air traffic controllers organisation (PATCO) strike 1981)
- change in attitudes among government & public towards unions
why did the number of strikers & workers taking part in strikes decrease
- lack of public sympathy for air traffic controllers actions discouraged other strikes = further indication of decline in union power/influence
number of strikes/workers involved in 1970 compared to 1990
1970 = 381 strikes (2,468,000 workers involved)
1990 = 44 strikes (185,000 workers involved)
how were the unions under attack in 1980s & early 1990s
- government & employers had issues with unions
- divisions within union movement, with others unwilling to support PATCO air traffic controllers (saw as well paid), further weakened position of workers
- decline in size of factories/businesses = more difficult to organise workers & impacted on union recruitment
- decline in membership further encouraged by continued provision by employers of generous welfare packages (many workers no worse off than earlier periods & saw little reason to join unions)
- increasing numbers of female & white-collar workers who were less interested in joining unions
what did the 1980s & early 1990s also witness
- growth of non-unionised firms = employers could ignore law & deny workers rights
- NLRB (national labour relations board) less willing to defend union rights = employer interests took precedence over workers
- employer in stronger position than new deal & WW2
even though there was reduction in union power/influence, why was workers position not the same in 1992 as 1865
- right to join a union (although there were non-union firms)
- right to collective bargaining (but threat of unemployment weakened position)
- right to strike (although some government workers were forbidden & there were some firms where employees had signed non-strike contracts)
how had the position of female workers also improved by 1992
advances towards equal pay & opportunity
why did the changes by 1992 not benefit all groups of workers
- many AA & hispanic workers still in vulnerable positions & often low paid
how did the position of unions & workers improve 1865-1992
- right to exist
- recognition
- negotiate pay & conditions
- mediate
- strike
why did the position of unions & workers change 1865-1992
- economic changes
- growth of capitalism
- immigration
- impact of war
- role of government
