Population and the environment Flashcards
What is population distribution?
Pattern of where people live
What is population density?
Number of people per km^2
Key physical factors affecting population density-Climate and farming
Rainfall, temperature, levels of solar radiation etc determine food productivity.
Many crops need temperatures of at least 5 degrees to grow whereas many livestock require crops in below 5 degrees.
Climate can also affect the level and nature of diseases, tropical diseases such as malaria and yellow fever will impact death rates and life expectancy.
Key physical factors affecting population density-soil quality
Soil fertility depends on texture, organic matter, pH and nutrients.
These determine agricultural output and type of farming system.
Fertility can be maintained with fertilisers leading to high population density however this can lead to consequences such as:
water pollution, eutrophication, increased greenhouse gas emissions
Areas with fertile soils often associated with densely populated areas however some soils such as volcanic or alluvial soils are prone to hazards
Key physical factors affecting population density-water
Key use is irrigation for food production but also used for hygeine and sanitation
Example - Egypt where 95% of its 80 million people live within 12 miles of the River Nile.
Key physical factors affecting population density-resources
High concentrations of resources such as fossil fuels = densely populated areas due to industrialisation
Even when these resources become depleted, industry leaves a legacy in these areas allowing other tertiary industries to flourish.
Impact of development processes on population size and distribution-Neolithic Revolution
Marked the transition from nomadic hunter gathers to agricultural settlements and civilisation.
Radical and important period of change in which humans began cultivating plants, breeding animals for food and forming permanent settlements.
Causes of the neolithic revolution
Earth entered a warming trend 14000 years ago
In the fertile crescent wild wheat and barely began to grow as it got warmer
Impact of development processes on population size and distribution-Industrial revolution
1760-1850 rapid rise in use of machinery and factories
Coincided with major population growth (Britain’s population doubled between these years)
Fertility rate case study-Niger
Worlds fastest growing population, at 6.6 children per women
Income per capita of just $600 per year
98% of population muslim - large families seen as prestigious
77% of girls are married before the age of 18
However teenage pregnancies are falling and many religious leaders are advocating for contraception use.
Fertility rate case study-Korea
On average a korean woman gives birth to her first child at 32.6 years old, which has increased from 30.2 years old a decade ago.
By 2100 korea’s population is estimated to fall by 54%
Post the 1950-53 Korean War the population doubled and in an effort to reverse this the government started encouraging couples to only have one child.
The demographic transition model
Stage 1: High fluctuating birth and death rates, total population low and stable
Stage 2: High birth rates - increase then decrease and level, Death rates have reduced significantly, total population is seeing natural increase
Stage 3: Birth rates declining significantly, death rates declining steadily, total population rising quite significantly
Stage 4: Both birth and death rates fluctuating slowly, total population still slowly increasing but starting to stabilise and level off
Stage 5: Death rate slightly higher than birth rates, population declining
Advantages/disadvantages of the DTM
Advantages:
Helps us to predict populations
Can be adjusted in the future
Can consider whether polices may be needed
Disadvantages:
No timescale - countries change at different rates
Based on research in Europe/North America
Assumes all countries will follow the same pattern
Does not offer reasons for the changes
Does not include the influence of migration, wars and pandemics
Assumes countries cannot move backwards
DTM - Niger
Physical links to DTM
Does not really match stage 2 or 3- surprisingly low DR due to young population and aid.
Physical factors affecting DTM:
Sahel reigon. South Niger has a tropical climate. The niger basin has been impacted by desertification due to climate change
This means an inability to grow crops which means low GNI (600$), leading to a high infant mortality rate therefore high BR
DTM - Niger human links to DTM
Sparsely populated in north due to sahel, lots of people in south, economy based on primary sector, subsistence farming, nomadic lifestyle
Conflict lead to high DR
98% muslim population and a culture of child marriage lead to high BR
DTM - Canada physical links to DTM
Physical - Arctic, Tundra and temperate climate zones
Central canada - rolling fertile plains, rich in mineral resources, largest coastline in the world
Ability to farm crops and trade meant earlier development- more investment in healthcare and education so low BR and DR
DTM - Canada human links to DTM
Tertiary economy, oil industry, multicultural society, welcoming to immigrants
Ageing populations- risk of high death rates and potentially natural decrease
Therefore Canada is allowing controlled migration to counteract this problem
Problems of a youthful population
Children tend to be working eg in farms and therefore not in education
Much more costly for the economically active through taxes
Government have to spend a significant proportion of their budget on the youthful population
Benefits of a youthful population
Can be seen as a potential asset for the country - do skilled jobs in the future, increased income in the future
Benefits of an ageing population
Grandparents play a huge role in childcare
Skillset to pass on
Enable the younger generation to work by providing childcare
Define demographic dividend
The demographic dividend is the economic boost a country gets when it’s working population outnumbers its dependants
There are more people who are economically active than dependents giving the country an economic boost.
Define migration
Migration is the movement of people across a specified boundary in order to establish a new permanent or semi permanent residence
It can take place locally, nationally or globally
Whats the difference between an asylum seeker and a refugee
Asylum seeker - Fled country due to fear of death/persecution. Seeking international protection but claim for refugee status not yet determined.
Refugee - An asylum seeker whose claim for asylum has been successful under the 1951 UN refugee convention and they are granted refugee status in a new country to live there permanently
Migration statistics
2/3 of all international migrants living in just 20 countries
1/3 originated from only 10 countries
Forced migration rising considerably in the last 10 years
Women and girls account for 48% of migrants
Few governments are seeking to lower the number of immigrants
Demographic implications on host country
Migrants in reproductive age groups means an increase in BR - balances population structure if previously ageing
Increase in economically active
Social implications on host country
Cultural advantages of new food, music, fashion
Pressure on maternal, infant healthcare and schools
Can give rise to ethnic and racial tensions
Migrants may settle in concentrated areas and become segregated
Political implications on host country
Some governments of overpopulated countries may encourage emigration to gain socioeconomic advantages or as an anti natal strategy
Processes to control immigration
Growth of RW racist organisations
Rise of anti immigration political parties
Resentment towards migrants
Economic implications on host country
Overcomes any labour/skill shortages
May provide a more competitive workforce in times of recession
Working migrants pay taxes
Increased size of workforce and reduced dependency
Pressure on jobs - may lead to unemployment
Environmental implications on host country
Pressure on land for development- roads, housing
Increased demand for energy, water and food puts pressure on natural
resources
Health implications at host country
Spread of communicable diseases being transmitted may become more likely - migrants move from areas of higher disease prevalence
Increased pressure on health services due to a rise in infectious diseases
Many developing countries lose doctors and other medically trained staff to countries that can afford to pay higher wages
Demographic implications on home country
lower birth rates - people of child bearing age leave
population structure - ageing population remain
loss of economically active
Social implications on home country
Loss of traditional culture
Breakup of families/communities
Economic implications of home country
Reduced pressure on food/energy/water
Less unemployment as fewer in workforce
Remittances sent home from migrants
Migrants develop new skills which they can bring home
Lose most educated/skilled from workforce
May create a dependency on remittances
Less agricultural/industrial production
Political implications on the home country
Pressure to redevelop an area in decline
May introduce pro natal polices or incentives to retain skilled workers
Environmental implications of home country
Farmland, buildings and sometimes whole villages may be left abandoned
Less environmental managment
Health implications of home country
Less pressure on health services however the most vulnerable may be left behind and remain at risk
Agricultural productivity
Measure of the economic performance of agriculture
Measured in terms of yield
Why has agricultural productivity increased
Past 55 year’s productivity has increased at an average of 2.5%-3% each year due to
Extensification - particularly in LICs where land is still available
Intensification - additional inputs such as machinery, fertilisers and pesticides have increased productivity
TFP - better/more precise use of inputs, based on scientific research and development
Total Factor Productivity (TFP)
ratio of agricultural outputs to inputs
How could TFP improve for crops?
Higher yielding crops
Drought/flood tolerant crops
More efficient and timely cultivation and harvesting practices
Disease resistance crops
Using technology that indicate precisely when and how much water and fertilisers to apply
How could TFP improve for raising livestock?
Using better animal care
Using better disasase management practises
Using higher quality animal feed
Breeding animals for favourable genetic qualities and behaviour
How has agricultural productivity changed
TFP increased from 0.2% in 1961 to 1.98% in 2001, and then decreased again to 1.28% in 2011
Input use has decreased from 2.2% in 1961 to 0.3% in 2011
Limiting factors of climate
Temperature - frost-free days
Wind storm - frequency
Precipitation - Water supply and evaporation
Limiting factors of soil
Water retention or leaching
Depth
Aeration
pH
Mineral content
Structure
Texture
Optima and limits model
The optimum conditions are the ideal growing conditions which maximise productivity.
Outside of the optimum, costs increase and yields decrease
Many crop types have been hybridised or modified by scientists to be tolerant to a wider range of climatic and soil conditions
Characteristics of polar climates
Winter temperatures often below -40 degrees
Summer temperatures range from -10 degrees to 10 degrees
Precipitation is generally less than 100mm per year
Ice caps
Tundra - permanently frozen permafrost
Distribution of polar climates
Above 66 degree latitude in the Northern and Southern hemispheres
Arctic - Greenland, Northern Canada and Russia
Antarctica
Population of polar climates
Occupied by 13.1m people spread between 8 countries
Population density of less than four people per square km.
Human activity in polar climates
Number of people living there has increased due to improved healthcare for indigenous populations and discoveries of vast natural resources (oil and gas)
This led to a large influx of immigrants
2/3 of the population in large settlements, however indigenous people still spread out
Characteristics of an arid climate
Usually less than 250mm of rainfall per year
Hot deserts - temps over 40 degrees
Temperate deserts - Temps range from 0 to 30 degrees
Distribution of arid climates
Hot deserts around 30 degrees north and south of the equator
Such as the sahara desert in northern africa
Population of arid climates
Low. sahara desert - around 2.5m
Population density - 0.4 per square km
Population distribution is uneven as majority of people live around water sources
Human activity - arid climates
Water drawn from oases, irrigation for crops
Native people are nomadic
Motorised pumps make groundwater more accessible
Major cities have still managed to develop if they have had money for water obtainment (Las vegas)
Effects of climate change on food security
70m more people predicted to be at risk of hunger by 2030
Crop dependant countries in the tropics will be hardest hit, ie Malwai who’s gdp is expected to decrease by 38%
Climate change will reduce nutrionial quality, with wheat containing 6-12% less protein and 7% less iron
Effects of climate change on flooding
Asia-pacific likely to be hardest hit
Agriculture likely to be most impacted sector - dependance on climate and weather
Almost 60% of the population in the Asia-pacific region living in rural areas. Almost a million people will have their livelihoods affected
3 reasons why food production may not meet the demands of the growing population
Crop yields levelling off in many parts of world
Ocean health declining
Decline in natural resources
How much more food needs to be produced by 2050 to feed 9 billion people
70% more
Suggest three ways climate change is affecting agriculture
Shifting agroecosystem boundaries
More frequent extreme weather events
Increasing temperatures
What percentage of greenhouse gas emissions are affected by agriculture
19-29%
Summarise the three main outcomes of CSA
Increased productivity - Increased nutrition and incomes
Less vulnerable to pests and can withstand shorter seasons and more extreme weather
Less emissions for each calorie or kilo producted
Summarise the impact of CSA in china
Better water use efficiency - 44000 hectares of land
Production of rice has increassd by 12% and maize by 9%
29000 farmers on higher incomes
Summarise the impact of CSA in Niger
Improved drought tolerant seeds, more efficient irrigation, expanded use of forestry
Helped 34000 farmers more sustainably manage their land
Brought 79000 hectares under more sustainable farming
Summarise the impact of CSA in pakistan
11900 watercourses have been improved
Half a million farm families directly benefitting
More than 15000 full time jobs created
Large impacts of climate change on agricultural productivity
Tropics or equatorial reigons - crop yields decrease by about 50% in places such as Egypt with a 3 celsuis increase
50% decrease on average Indonesian coastline and other asia-pacific reigons threatened by increased sea levels
Most countries will experience a negative change
Excessive heat reducing water availability and leading to desertification - Sahel
Population increase expected to be 10b in 2050.
Small impacts of climate change on agricultural productivity
Richer countries have money and technology to mitigate the impacts, eg modifying crops
Colder winters can be managed by using greenhouses to grow crops
Some countries will still be experiencing crop yield increase’s particularly Scandinavian countries, due to increased temperatures
CSA eg in Pakistan, Kenya and China to increase productivity and reduce vulnerability
Soil Horizons - Organic Layer
Upper most layer
Rich in organic matter - remains of plants/dead animals
Typically black/dark brown
Soil horizons- Topsoil
Maximum organic matter of the soil - humus, most nutrients, insects, worms, centipedes, bacteria, fungi
Humus makes the topsoil highly porous, allows it to hold air + moisture necessary for seed germination
Roots stretch down holding soil together
Soil horizons- Eluviation
Nutrients which have been leached from above layer
Leaching of clay, minerals and organic matter = high conc of sand, silt, quartz and other resistant materials
Soil Horizons - Subsoil
Less organic content but still rich in minerals
Reigon of deposition of metals ie iron oxides and calcium cabron
Farmers mix subsoil and topsoil when ploughing fields
Soil Horizons - Parent Rock
All other layers developed from this
Doesn’t have organic matter, broken up bed rock
Plant roots cannot penetrate
Soil Horzions - Bedrock
Consists of unweathered igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary rock
Compact
Characteristics of latosols
Under tropical rainforests
O horizons thick but when leaf litter decomposes the nutrients are absorbed so the A horizon is thin
Silicate minerals leached from B, iron and aluminium left behind
Latosols and people
Low nutrient content however humans have adapted via slash and burn
Large areas of land cleared for agriculture leading to soil degradation
Laterite horizon useful for building
Characteristics of podzols
Acidic, occur in cool temperate climates
Water able to dissolve iron + aluminium
Leaching forms E horizon - quartz and silt
Minerals accumulate- red/brown layer
Hard pan - layer of deposited iron
Podzols and people
Arable farming difficult as acidity/poor nutrients
Soil vulnerable to waterlogging and makes ploughing difficult
Extensive artificial fertilisation
Forestry common human activity
What is soil erosion
The wearing away of the topsoil by wind and water
Causes of soil erosion
Ploughing - loosens soil making it more vulnerable
Climate - heavy rainfall leads to water erosion
also if soil is drier more susceptible to wind erosion
Topography - soil more likely to be washed down a slope
Deforestation - roots cant hold soil in place
Impacts of soil erosion on agriculture
Removes nutrients and reduces soil moisture
In the past 40 years nearly 1/3 of the worlds arable land has become unproductive
36b tonnes of topsoil lost each year
5-7m hectares of productive land lost through erosion and degradation each year
Soil erosion - management strategies
Cover crops
Contour ploughing
Terracing - steps cut into hillsides
Mulching - covering soil with plant material
What is waterlogging
when the spaces between soil particles fill with water
Causes of waterlogging
Few airspaces ie in clay
Hard pans hinder drainage eg podzols
Precipitation exceeding evapotranspiration
Too much irrigation
Impacts of waterlogging on agriculture
Plant roots can rot
Water reduces soil temperature so reduced plant growth
Weeds often cope better with waterlogged conditions than crops
Land is harder to plough
Waterlogging - management strategies
Avoid overwatering through irrigation
Drain the soil using underground pipes
Add sand to clay soils
Causes of salinisation
Dry climates and low precipitation - excessive salts aren’t flushed away
High evaporation rate - adds salts to ground surface
Sea level rise when sea salts seep into lower lands
Impacts of salinisation on agriculture
Affects over 100 countries
Affects 10% of all arable land and can rise to 25% when irrigation is used
If there is more salt then soil in a plant crops can’t grow
Salinisation - management strategies
Flush soil with lots of water, however this can have a knock on effect and lead to salinisation of rivers or groundwater instead, eg lower colardo river valley
Use drip irrigation
Example of a salinisation management strategy - Mexico
Mexican farmers could no longer use the river water so forced the USA to build a desalination plant near the border
Causes of structural deterioration
Heavy machinery
Trampling by livestock or people
Deforestation- plant roots hell maintain soil structure
Salinisation of clay soils cause particles to clump together
Structural deterioration - management strategies
Plant trees (agro-forestry) - trees replenish organic material on the surface
Rotate crops to allow weakened soils to recover
Use tractors over the same pathways rather than a wide area
Avoid working with soils when they are wet as they are more likely to become compact
What is food security?
Availability - a country produces and imports a sufficient amount of food
Access - People must be able to regularly obtain food whether it is through buying or producing
Utilisation- food that people consume must be nutritious and stored in a safe and hygienic way
Stability - Availability access and utilisation remains sustainable for future generations
What is environmental resistance
A group of environmental limiting factors that prevent survival
Climate, soil, geology, topography
Global causes of death
Worlds biggest killer - Ischaemic Heart disease - 16% of total world deaths. Rising from 2 million in 2000 to 8.9m deaths in 2019
Respiratory infections worlds most deadly communicable disease however decreased to 2.6m deaths in 2019, 46000 fewer than in 2020
One of the largest declines in the no of deaths is diarrhoeal diseases - global deaths decreased from 2.6m in 2000 to 1.5m in 2019
Epidemiological Transition model
1) Age of infection and famine (LE:20-40), poor sanitation and unreliable food leading to nutritional deficiencies
2) Age of receding pandemics (LE:30-50), Improved sanitation, better diet, discovery of penicillin in 1928 reducing death from infections
3) Age of degenerative and man made diseases (LE:50-60), addictions, poor diet and exercise, high blood pressure, diabetes, smoking related cancers
4) Age of delayed degenerative disease - (LE:70+), reduced risk behaviours, health promotion, disease prevention, heart disease and cancers remain but life expectancy increases
5a)Age of inactivity and obesity (potential reversal of LE): alarming rate of obesity, diabetes and chronic heart disease
5b) Emergence of new or reemergence of known communicable diseases (Reversal in LE) - Globalisation increases disease diffusion by travel, increases pop density and poverty, may cause pandemics due to diseases spreading rapidly and may see known diseases such as tb and scarlet fever again
Diseases likely to be caused by precipitation
Flood events can cause sewage systems to overflow which increases water borne diseases such as cholera and typhoid
Diseases likely to be caused by relief
High altitudes - skin cancer (increased exposure to UV rays)
High altitudes reduce the prevalence of some diseases such as malaria which needs minimum temps of 20 degrees
Diseases caused by sunlight
Lack of sunlight - Vitamin D deficiency
Can lead to bone loss, kidney disease and intestinal problems
Very little sunlight can affect mental health - Arctic countries have a higher rate of seasonal affective disorder
Diseases causes by temperature
Higher temps - higher incidence of pollen - hay fever
Airborne respiratory diseases - influenza thrives in temperate climates
Warmer temperatures increase likelihood of food borne diseases as harder to keep food stored properly ie salmonella
Zico virus only found in warm, tropical, wet climates ie Brazil 2016 outbreak
Successes of Doctors without borders
Funding from individual donors (in 2019 96.2% was from 6.5m individuals) allowing independence - Does NOT allow funding from companies which do not allign with its views ie tobacco companies
In 2021;
Treated 2.681m malaria cases
Limitations of doctors without borders
They sometimes struggle to keep up with the intensity of conflict such as in Sudan where many of the team were trapped due to violence
In north dafur all hospitals were forced to shut - nowhere to refer patients
Successes of Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
Contributed more than 2 billion US dollars to “The Global Fund” to fight aids, Tb and malaria which is a partnership between private and public sectors for global health financing
Worked with patients to pull together scientists and CEOs to test drugs for covid vaccine
Failures of Bel & Melinda Gates foundation
Does not fund:
Direct donations of grants to individuals
Projects addressing health problems in developed countries
Successes of British Heart Foundation
Pressured government to introduce a sugar levy on soft drink industry - help tackle obesity
Campaigned for the introduction of standardised cigarette packaging so the products seem less attractive and deter people
Failures of British Heart Foundation
Affiliated with government may be a bias on what they do and dont campaign for
Successes of World Health Organization
1970s led to the eradication of smallpox
1988 - Launched a global polio eradication initiative and reduced cases by 99% by 2006
Successes of UNAIDS
In Eastern and Southern Africa HIV infections reduced by 38% since 2010
Character, scale and patterns of population change in Japan
3rd largest economy in world. GNI per capita is $41900
Estimated that by 2050 Japan’s economy will decrease by 20% to around 100 million
Over 60s comprise 28% of population
Birth rates 7 per 1000
Death rates 11 per 1000
Stage 5 DTM
Environmental factors - Japan
92% urban population - tokyo and osaka
Hazardous as several continental playes meet
Fertile soils and temperate climate so intensive agricultural production
Agriculture is highly subsidised (rice main crop)
Meat imported to ensure food security
Socio-economic factors - Japan
Excellent healthcare, sanitation and high living standards
Low fat diets so few obesity or heart problems
Cleaner air - public transport is popular and fewer fossil fuels
Later marriage reduces child bearing window
Contraception accessible and widely used - no religious taboos
Cost of education rising but wages staying still. Costs around $100,000 to fund one child through high school (low BR)
Positive implications of population change - Japan
Globalisation - manufacturing industry is very successful. Income from large TNCs such as Toyota and Sony bring in income to support domestic economy
Growth in a number of private hospitals for the elderly creating jobs and income
Embracing new AI tech to build robot carers to help the elderly helping to fill some shortfalls in healthcare workers and carers - worth $2b to economy
Population growth dynamics- density independent and density dependent factors
Density independent - natural hazards etc will increase the death rate regardless of population size
Density dependent - Food supply and disease become more prevalent in limiting growth as population size and density increases
Population growth dynamics - what is biotic potential
Number of births is controllved by natural reproductive potential of species related to survival rate of the young of the species
Population growth dynamics - what is environmental resistance
The number of deaths is controlled by natural env. factors which prevent survival
General AO1 - Malaria
2020 nearly half of the worlds population in 90 countries were at risk
WHO - African reigon was home to 95% of cases in 2020
There was an estimated 247m cases of malaria in 2021
Malaria - Links to physical environment and seasonal incidence
Mosquitos breed in stagnant water - Transmission greatest after Rainy Season
Fewer cases at too high and low altitudes
Need temps of between 16 and 32 degrees to develop
Malaria - socioeconomic factors
Occupation - Agricultural workers are more exposed to mosquitos especially those who live near to irrigation water, or may sleep outside. In Ethipoia highland farmers who seasonally migrant to lowlands are more prone to infection
Nearly 2/3 of the DALY’s are concentrated amongst the poorest 20% of the population
Due to lack of investment in frugs and vaccines and programmes
Education - In malawi net ownership was largely absent in homes where the head of the household had not completed primary education
Malaria - impact on health and well being
Kills a child every two minutes
Infection during pregnancy associated with severe anemia and contributes to low birth rates - infant mortality
Malaria - impact on health and well being
Kills a child every two minutes
Infection during pregnancy associated with severe anemia and contributes to low birth rates - infant mortality
Malaria - Impact on economy
Costs to individuals - Travel to/treatment at clinics, Purchasing drugs, Loss of income from missed work, Purchase of nets
Costs to government - Maintaining healthcare facilities, Purchasing public equipment, Loss of revenue from taxes during absences
In many parts of Africa malaria accounts for up to 40% of public health spending
Managing malaria - Vector control
Draining swamplands with stagnant water
Insecticide treated mosquito nets (ITN), sleeping under this is a low cost strategy and physical barrier. Can reduce transmission by 90% when implemented efficiently
Repellent sprays although they are developing increasing resistance
Malaria - Medicine
Anti malarial drugs reccomended to pregnant woman by the WHO as they can surprass the blood stage of the infection however parasite is becoming resistant to this
Vaccines - recent discovery, shown some success, approx 4 in 10 cases have been prevented over 4 year period
Coronary heart disease (CHD) - General AO1
Leading cause of death worldwide - 9.5 m deaths annually
3/4 are in low and middle income countries
Highest mortality in eastern europe, northern and central asia and parts of north africa - very widespread
CHD - links to physical environment
Air quality - PM2.5 from industry and transport systems increases risk of CHD. Airborne pollutants from industrialisation in general.
Climate - Extreme cold puts additional strain on cardiovascular system
Overall Links between CHD and physical environmental and linited. Lifestyle choices more important
CHD - Links to socio economic factors
Estimated that 75-85% of people dying from CHD have one or more major risk factors that are influenced by negative lifestyles (poor diet, smoking, physical inactivity)
Tobacco use - 20,000 deaths each year from CVD can be attributed to smoking, lowers good cholesterol, blood more likely to clot reducing flow to the heart and brain.
Infrequent exercise - Estimated that 35% of CHD mortality in the US is due to physical inactivity
CHD - management
Introduce polies ie indoor smoking ban in UK in 2007
Education - Health campaigns ie world heart day , blood pressure testing, encouraging exercise and promoting healthy eating
Blood thinning medicines ie aspirin to thin blod clots
Statins to reduce cholesterol levels
