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Geography 1st year > Population and Society > Flashcards

Population and Society Flashcards

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1
Q

What is demography?

A

Demography is the study of human populations. It studies the size, composition and structure which make up the general components.

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2
Q

What is the crude death rate?

A

Crude birth rate indicates the number of live births occurring during the year, per 1,000 population estimated at midyear.

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3
Q

What are the 4 factors that influence fertility?

A
  1. Proportion of women who are permanently or temporarily unable to conceive (infecund).
  2. Proportion of women either married or in a sexual union.
  3. Percentage of women using contraception.
  4. Level of induced abortion
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4
Q

What proportion of women do South Korea have using contraception?

A

82% (2019) use contraception

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5
Q

In 2018, what did the USA TFR drop too?

A

1.7, it was the lowest ever recorded

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6
Q

What are the features of stage 1 DTM?

A

Stage 1: Young population with high births and mortality rates. Minimal population change (>0.5%).

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7
Q

What are the features of stage 2 DTM?

A

Stage 2: Mortality rate decreases but birth still high. Population growth occurs.

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8
Q

What are the features of stage 3 DTM?

A

Stage 3: Decline in both birth and mortality rates, so continues population growth

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9
Q

What are the features of the stage 4 DTM?

A

Stage 4: Low fertility and mortality causes stable population size but with a high proportion of older.

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10
Q

What are the 4 stages of the DTM called?

A
  1. Pre-modern
  2. Urban/Industrialising
  3. Mature Industrial
  4. Post industrial
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11
Q

What are 4 reasons for the declining fertility rates?

A
  1. Child centredness
  2. Economic Impacts
  3. Psycological Impact
  4. Decline in infant mortality
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12
Q

What are 4 critiques of the DTM?

A
  1. It’s a description rather than a theory.
  2. Assumes population changes due to modernisation and industrialisation.
  3. Doesn’t acknowledge variations in timing or speed of the stages.
  4. Doesn’t acknowledge level of application over time.
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13
Q

What was life expectancy in 1800?

A

29

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14
Q

What was life expectancy in 1950?

A

60 in Western nations, 29-41 in African and Asian nations

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15
Q

What are the 5 main factors influencing life expectancy?

A
  1. Medical care/technology
  2. Life style (smoking, diet, alcohol and risky behaviour).
  3. Social networks (the risk of loneliness).
  4. Genes
  5. Stressors/disadvantages (socio-economic disadvantage).
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16
Q

What is it called when deaths increase in the middle age?

A

Deaths of despair
1. Soviet Union collapse led to men dying.
2. UK/USA have high male suicide rates.

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17
Q

What are 4 reasons which influence variation between male and female death rates?

A
  1. Anatomical and physiological reasons.
  2. The extra X chromosome.
  3. Oestrogens (which cause anti-inflammatory, Vaso-protective and enhance immune defences, where as progesterone has immunosuppressive effects an increases the mortality risk for certain diseases)
  4. Male excess mortality exists in most animal species.
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18
Q

What are 4 behavioural and social factors which may influence variation in death rates between men and women?

A
  1. More smoking and alcohol consumption among men.
  2. Men are more risk taking.
  3. Men subjected to greater health risks at work due to gendered occupations, And are generally more susceptible to stress.
  4. Women are more likely consult a doctor when noticing symptoms.
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19
Q

What proportion of babies born in 2015 will live to 100?

A

1/3

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20
Q

How many centurions live in the UK as of 2016?

A

14,910 people aged 100+ (centenarians) in the UK in 2016

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21
Q

How many oldest-olds (85+) live in England Wales as of 2011?

A

1.25million

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22
Q

What proportion of the UK population do 90+ make up?

A

1%

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23
Q

What is the epidemiological transition?

A

The epidemiology transition is the characteristic shift in the disease pattern of a population as mortality falls during the demographic transition. Infectious diseases decline while chronic degenerative disease increases in commonality, which causes gradual shift in age pattern.

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24
Q

Why were more men impacted by the Spanish flu?

A

War and work.

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25
Q

Who came up with the epidemiological transition?

A

Omran (1971)

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26
Q

What is the 1st epidemiological proposition in the transition?

A
  1. Proposition 1: Mortality is a fundamental factor in explaining the dynamics of population growth. It includes changes such as:
  • less frequent and sizeable fluctuations in mortality
  • Longer-term decline in mortality
  • But mortality could have more of an extreme impact on populations (e.g. through famines and war)
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27
Q

What is the 2nd epidemiological proposition in the transition?

A
  1. Proposition 2: During the epidemiological transition, a long-term shift occurs in mortality and disease patterns whereby pandemics of infection are gradually replaced by degenerative and man-made disease. There are 3 stages which lead to this point:

Stage 1: Age of pestilence & famine (high & fluctuating mortality rates, very low life expectancy fluctuating between 20 & 40 years).
Stage 2: Age of receding pandemics (progressive declines in mortality and epidemics become less frequent or disappear; life expectancy at birth increases steadily from 30 to 50 years.
Stage 3: Age of degenerative and man-made diseases. (continuing decline in mortality rates to stability levels, life expectancy exceeding 50 years

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28
Q

What are the 3 stages within proposition 2 of the epidemiological transition?

A

Stage 1: Age of pestilence & famine (high & fluctuating mortality rates, very low life expectancy fluctuating between 20 & 40 years).
Stage 2: Age of receding pandemics (progressive declines in mortality and epidemics become less frequent or disappear; life expectancy at birth increases steadily from 30 to 50 years.
Stage 3: Age of degenerative and man-made diseases. (continuing decline in mortality rates to stability levels, life expectancy exceeding 50 years

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29
Q

What is the 3rd epidemiological proposition in the transition?

A
  1. Proposition 3: During the epidemiological transition, the most profound changes in health and disease patterns benefit children & young women.
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30
Q

What is the 4th epidemiological proposition in the transition?

A
  1. Proposition 4: The shifts in health & disease patterns, and reduction on mortality, that characterise the epidemiological transition are closely associated with other demographic changes (eg: population growth, age structure change)
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31
Q

What is the 5th epidemiological proposition in the transition?

A
  1. Proposition 5: Peculiar variations in the pattern, the pace, the determinants & the consequences of population change differentiate 3 basic models of the epidemiological transition:
  2. CLASSICAL / WESTERN MODEL (UK)
  3. ACCELERATED / SEMI-WESTERN MODEL (Japan)
  4. SLOW / DELAYED MODEL (African nations)
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32
Q

What are the 3 categories that Omran provides to explain decline in mortality?

A
  1. ‘Ecobiologic’ – balance between biology and the environment (recession of certain diseases).
  2. Socioeconomic/political/cultural – improved standards of living, nutrition, hygiene.
  3. Medical and public health.
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33
Q

What stage do Olshanky and Ault (1986) provide for the new stages of the DTM?

A

Stage 4: Age of delayed degenerative diseases Olshansky and Ault (1986). This is the idea that personal behaviour changes – such as reduction in smoking and increase in exercise helps health.

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34
Q

What stage does Gaziano (2010) provide for the New DTM stage?

A

Stage 5: Age of Obesity and Inactivity (Gaziano, 2010). (2 others)

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35
Q

What stage do Case and Deaton (2017) provide for the New DTM stage?

A

Stage 5: deaths of despair (2 others)

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36
Q

What stage do Olshanky et al (1997) provide for the New DTM stage?

A

Stage 5: Age of emergent and re-emergent infections (2 others)

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37
Q

How has travel impacted disease and the epidemiological transition?

A

A reversal of epidemiological transition. In some nations, there has been a rise in the communicable disease – including Ebola, SARS, Cholera etc. This has been enhanced by travel.

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38
Q

What is neonatal mortality?

A
  1. Neonatal Mortality: The probability of dying within the first 28 days of life.
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39
Q

What is infant mortality?

A
  1. Infant mortality: The probability of dying between birth and the first birthday.
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40
Q

What is the average infant mortality rate in developed countries?

A

1/20 children dying before their 5th birthday rather than 1/3 children.

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41
Q

How do Libya and UK vary in regard to infant under 5 mortality rate?

A

It took the UK 148 years (1800-1950) compared to Libya 31 years (1960-1990) to cut U5MR to 1/20.

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42
Q

What does Gakidou et al (2010) argue about child mortality between nations?

A

Some nation with similar levels of income have varying levels of child mortality because:
This is due to greater investments in health, investment in social services or education, quality of governance, in-country equity or epidemiological or environmental factors.

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43
Q

How does Feng et al (2012) categorise 4 the determinants in U5MR?

A

Socio-economic, biodemographic, environmental and biological.

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44
Q

What is a socio-economic U5MR determinate?

A

Education: Parents with higher rates of education have lower rates of child mortality. This is more important in maternal education rather than paternal education.

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45
Q

What are the biodemographic factors influencing U5MR?

A
  1. Birth order: First order bus have increased mortality within the neonatal period. Increased risk from a higher order births (after six births and above) continues throughout childhood (Mahy 2003).
  2. Maternal age: U-shaped curve with children of both younger and older mothers experiencing higher mortality. Again, risks associated with both older and younger mothers are most marked in the neonatal period (Mahy 2003).
  3. Birth spacing: A preceding birth interval of less than two years is associated with markedly higher mortality. A birth spacing between 3-5 years is optimal.
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46
Q

How would birth spacing impact births in Nigeria?

A

In Nigeria, if women spaced births by 3 years+ then mortality would reduce by 28%.

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47
Q

What are the environmental factors influencing U5MR?

A
  1. Water and sanitation.
  2. Indoor air pollution: linked to the use of coal and biomass fuels for heating and cooking. There is a clear link between indoor air pollution and acute respiratory tract infection, which is one of the major causes of death in under 5s.
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48
Q

What biological determinants impact U5MR?

A
  1. Multiple births: Increased risk factor.
  2. Sex: Mortality is naturally higher in males than females, particularly in the neonatal period. However, this is reversed in some regions because of differential care practises.
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49
Q

What 6 factors have driven decline in child mortality?

A
  1. Improved women’s education and literacy.
  2. Falling fertility and increased birth intervals.
  3. Improved real average capita household income.
  4. Improved nutritional stats.
  5. Improved environmental conditions such as safe water supply, sanitation and housing.
  6. Increasing coverage of some health services, particularly preventive care (immunisation, Insecticide treated bed Nets, Vitamin A supplementation.
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50
Q

What are 8 global challenges in reducing child mortality?

A
  1. Progress is uneven.
  2. Conflict or fragile states.
  3. Increased inequality between countries.
  4. Continuing inequality between countries.
  5. Poor access in some countries to preventative services.
  6. Less progress due to the slow easy wins becoming less available.
  7. COVID-19 derailed child health activities.
  8. Poor progress in neonatal deaths.
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51
Q

Who was Malthus?

A

Thomas Malthus was an English Demographer and Economist who was around from 1766-1834. He was famous for the essay “Essay on the Principle of Population (1798)”.

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52
Q

What did the “Essay on the Principle of Population (1798)” suggest about populayion?

A
  1. Human populations grow geometrically (2,4,8 etc.) while food production grows at an arithmetic (1,2,3,4) rate.
    This means that population will outstrip resources.
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53
Q

What is the carrying capacity?

A

A term from Malthus to describe the eventual maximum of the population based on resources. In the end, population is reduced to its subsistence capacity.

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54
Q

What are some features of the carrying capacity being reached?

A

When population reaches carrying load there would be war, famine or disease causing a population crash.

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55
Q

What did Malthus argue would reverse the population crash?

A

Malthus argues that the population crash could be prevented by preventative checks, moral restraint, marry later and only when able to support a family. He did not support birth control.

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56
Q

What did Malthus argue about poverty?

A

He opposed the poor laws and instead saw migration as a better response to poverty than charity.

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57
Q

What are 4 critiques of Malthus?

A
  1. Predictions of increasing misery and recurrent “positive checks” were not born out in Europe. As population increased, increased standard of living with famines declined.
  2. Underestimated increase in food production as a result of the industrial revolution and new farming methods
  3. Did not consider food imports (made possible by industrial exports) including the use of refrigeration
  4. Under-estimated voluntary attempts to check fertility / use of contraception – birth rate naturally falls as standard of living rises.
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58
Q

What are neo-Malthusians?

A

The 1940s saw rise in these Malthusian ideas due to increasing population in LIC, this is causing food shortages so people argued preventative measures should be taken.

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59
Q

Who is Ehrlich and what does he stand for?

A

A neo-Malthusian who came up with the population bomb.

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60
Q

What does the Population Bomb argue?

A

Ehrlich argues that overpopulation will result in hugely increased mortality in many countries as a result of food shortage in the coming decades. He argued “The battle … is over. In the 1970s hundreds of millions of people are going to starve to death”(Ehrlich, 1968).

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61
Q

What did Ehrlich argue as an alternative to manage the population bomb? 3 things.

A
  1. Need to combine agricultural production and population control (ideally voluntary but if that isn’t successful, forced).
  2. The birth rate must be brought into balance with the death rate or mankind will breed itself to oblivion.
  3. Suggests some quite draconian solutions – heavy taxation of infant goods like nappies, call for research into mass sterilisation agents.
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62
Q

How does Sen counter Ehrlich argument about the population bomb?

A

There has never been a famine in a functioning democracy - so perhaps the ‘famines’ and wars occur as a result of poor leadership.

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63
Q

What do Cornucopians argue?

A

Cornucopians argue that population growth is both good for the economy and for the environment. They argues that advances in technology can take care of society’s needs. It is the concept that more people, more likely to have people who will invent things and identify technological solutions and advances. Furthermore, you need people who will work in industry, and those people contribute to markets and taxes, helping the economy.

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64
Q

Who is Ester Boserup?

A

Danish economist with an interest in agricultural development

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65
Q

What did Boserup argue about population?

A
  1. Wrote “The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change Under Population Pressure” in 1964 – mostly based on her experience in India.
  2. Theory of agricultural intensification -increased population will increase food production – ‘necessity is the mother of invention’ .
  3. Innovations happen when population density causes strain on food supply.
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66
Q

What is the Green Revolution?

A
  1. The Green revolution – since 1930s technological changes in farming led to high yield crops, chemical fertilisers, pesticides, mechanised farming methods, and irrigation systems.
  2. Transformed food production in many developing countries particularly India and other parts of Asia.
  3. Africa lagging behind in terms of agricultural advances, but beginning to catch up.
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67
Q

How has cereal signalled the Green revolution?

A

Production of cereal crops tripled in last 50 years, with only a 30% increase in land area cultivated.

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68
Q

Who is Julian Simon?

A

Julian Lincoln Simon (1932 –1998)[1] was an American professor of business administration who wrote 1981 The Ultimate Resource. He is a cornucopan.

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69
Q

What does Simon argue about resources?

A
  1. Argues that resource are not naturally limited - as natural resources become scarce demand rises meaning that people look at other ways of obtaining or substituting them – new methods of extraction, recycling, more economic use, development of alternatives etc.
  2. He suggests that the ever-decreasing price of commodities (when wage adjusted) demonstrates there is no shortage.
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70
Q

What is the modern neo-Malthusian argument?

A

That they are right due to the issues about environmental sustainablity.

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71
Q

What is the Simon-Ehrlich wager and who won?

A

It was a bed hat 5 key natural resources would either increase in price due to scarcity, or become abundant as more ways were discovered to extract etc.
By 1990, Simon won as they has decreased in price in respect to wages.

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72
Q

What does Lam (2011) argue about global warming and population?

A

Global warming is one of the main challenges the world will face in the coming decades. Becker (2013) agreed but argued it should be seen as climate change to encompass all change.

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73
Q

How much has sea level risen by since 1900?

A

20cm, 3.3mm a yeat

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74
Q

By how much has the ice sheets shrunk by?

A

4% by 1970s

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75
Q

How much more vulnerable are less developed countries than industrialised countries?

A

20-30x

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76
Q

When was the hottest summer since 1540?

A

2003

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77
Q

How was France impacted by the 2003 heatwave?

A

Many excess deaths. Older people are often more susceptible to extreme temperatures due to limited ability to thermoregulate.

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78
Q

Why did heat related deaths decline from 1900-2000 in the USA?

A

Technological advances such as A/C. However, heat related deaths did increase from 2002/2016.

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79
Q

How is the heath of new-borns (birthweight and length) related to heat (3 reason)?

A
  1. Household food insecurity
  2. Increased heat stress
  3. Altered disease environment

These could cause an increase in the birth rate due to replacement of children if they die.

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80
Q

What 4 ways can climate change impact fertility?

A
  1. Crop yields and income, whereby favourable socio-economic resources promote childbearing.
  2. In areas where climate change disrupts agricultural livelihoods, climate extremes may lead to disruption in contraceptive usage if financial resources necessary for access are diminished.
  3. Reductions in maternal nutritional status, increases in physically demanding activities, and reductions in household resources, factors which in turn contribute to reducing fertility.
  4. Concerns about climate issues may suppress fertility intentions.
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81
Q

What is fecundity?

A

The ability of a woman to reproduce (number of possible children).

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82
Q

What is cohort birth rate?

A

The number of children that a specific age cohort of women have had. This is historical and is only worked out after the women reach a certain age – such as 40.

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83
Q

Why did early fertility decline occur in France?

A

Decline in 1th century due to poorness.

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84
Q

Why did early fertility decline occur in UK?

A

Industrial revolution

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85
Q

How do Notestein (1945) and Davis (1955) argue about rationalisation and modernisation in regard to childrearing?

A

Modernization (in the form of education, urbanization etc) brought about rationalization to traditional society. This causes reduced birth rate.

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86
Q

What does Becker (1960, 1981 and 1991) argue contributes to the decline in fertility?

A

Supply and demand theory. This suggests that children are consumer durables and require extensive material cost. This caused a change to the quality over quantity and the idea of child-centeredness.

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87
Q

What do Cleland and Wilson (1987) argue contributed to the decline in fertility?

A

Socio-economic conditions such as secularization and individualization.

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88
Q

What does Caldwell (1980) argue contributed to the later fertility decline in developing countries?

A

Caldwell (1980) argues that there was a change to the nuclear family following the move from agriculture. This saw children as an economic liability rather than an economic asset which was linked to the Westernization of the world. This has led to decline in family size.

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89
Q

What did Joshi/Schultz (2013) find about family planning in Bangladesh?

A

1977: Saw those in family planning programs decrease their fertility by 17% in Bangladesh.

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90
Q

What 3 things have contributed to family planning success?

A
  1. Oral contraceptives approved in US in 1960
  2. Spread of IUDs, condoms
  3. Government Programs.

These began following WW2 with pressure from the USA leading to sterilization etc.

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91
Q

What effect did the 1994 Cairo conference have on family planning?

A

It moved away from coercion and government control, with a focus on individual desire.

92
Q

What impacts did family planning have in Africa?

A

Programs implemented late 60s/early 1970s, slow fertility decline, slow increases in contraceptive use in 1980s

93
Q

What is an unmet need for contraception?

A

This is the number of fecund women who wish to delay children for 2+ years, or do not want to have children who are not currently using contraception. Linked to lack of need, fears about side effects etc.

94
Q

How did schooling impact fertility decline?

A
  1. Women’s Schooling:
    Women’s schooling decreases the number of children she has due to opening more opportunities, the idea of autonomy, and ideological change.
  2. Children’s Schooling:
    Children’s schooling decreases the number of children that parents have due to the cost of schooling in some countries, the lack of them being able to work and therefore are dependent.
95
Q

What is lowest-low fertility according to Kohler et al (2002)?

A

“Lowest low fertility” is when TFR is below 1.3. This occurring now in many nations (following Germany in 1980) which is causing the population to be below replacement level (2.1)

96
Q

Which countries population pyramid is undercut?

A

Korea.

97
Q

What can impact the TFR?

A

Timing and quantum of children (quantity). Often, when groups reach a certain age the TFR recovers, it just happens later each year.

98
Q

What impact did the fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) have on fertility?

A

Drop in fertility

99
Q

What impact did the year of the Dragon (2012) have on fertility?

A

Fertility rose as it is perceived to be a lucky year.

100
Q

Who argues that economic uncertainty leads to fertility postponement?

A

Bulani et al (2002).

However, at the moment there appears to be less evidence of recuperation.

101
Q

Can you give 4 reasons for the decline in fertility?

A
  1. Social, historical and cultural factors.
  2. Women’s employment and work/family balance.
  3. Gender equity.
  4. Economic uncertainty and recession.
102
Q

What do Brewster and Rindfuss (2000) argue about the women’s revolution and childbearing? (3 things)

A
  1. Female labor force participation and childbearing are inherently difficult to do simultaneously
  2. Women (usually the caregivers) must either limit fertility, find alternative arrangements for childcare, or drop out of the labor force
  3. Institutions matter in helping families balance work and family!
103
Q

What does Macdonald argue about gender equity and fertility rates?

A

Equity was in the public sphere but not in the private sphere. This causes a low fertility rate due to lack of support in the household. Therefore, if countries want high fertility then they need to received government help.

104
Q

How did cohabitation rates change between 80s and 2010s?

A

They tripled.

105
Q

What is the mean age of marriage in the UK and Sweden?

A

31 for women in the UK, and 34 for women in Sweden.

106
Q

Why has there been an increase in divorce?

A

1/3 marriages end in divorce now.
This increase in divorce and separation is linked to legalization of divorce – and introduction of “irrecoverable differences” and secularization. In addition, independence of women financially.

Some eastern European countries have low divorce due to religious beliefs.

107
Q

What reasons may people have for cohabiting?

A

◦ Alternative to marriage
◦ Prelude to marriage (engagement period)
◦ Alternative to single (testing period)

Marriage is required to solidify legal status.

108
Q

What are 3 issues with studying cohabitation?

A
  1. Often unavailable in census (marriage registers); need surveys
  2. Undefined starting-date, some couples just “slide” into cohabitation
  3. Different definitions and length of partnership across surveys (e.g. “intimate relationship lasting longer than 3-months
109
Q

What do Van de Kaa and Lesthaeghe (1986) suggest the 5 behaviours are which occur in the second demographic transition?

A
  1. Postponement of marriage
  2. Postponement of childbearing
  3. Increasing cohabitation
  4. Disconnect between marriage and childbearing
  5. Increasing diversity in the sequence of life-events
110
Q

What is the reason for the 5 SDT actions?

A
  1. Growing importance of individualism, autonomy, self-actualization and fulfilment, psychological well-being and personal freedom of expression.
  2. Ideational and value change affect lifestyle choices, including family and fertility decisions.
  3. Consequence of realisation of higher-order needs in developed societies
111
Q

What are 4 critiques of the 2nd demographic transition?

A
  1. Does SDT represent a ‘Second’ transition? Or is it just a continuation of the First DT?
  2. Is the SDT really a ‘Demographic’ transition? Or is it more about changing values and living arrangements?
  3. Does not address migration/pop growth/mortality
  4. Is it a ‘Transition’? If so, it should be universal, permanent and irreversible (like FDT)
112
Q

Are cohabiting couples with children more socially disadvantaged than married couples?

A

Arguably, yes.

113
Q

What does Perelli-Harris et al (2010) argue about cohabiting couples (their characteristics and reasoning)?

A

Globalization in the 1980-90s led to changing labor market conditions (such as outsourcing, unemployment, job turnover, temporary jobs).
Cohabiting unions, especially at the time of birth, are less stable than marital unions. Therefore, the least educated are more likely to cohabit, and not marry, before having a child

114
Q

What can be used to estimate migration into the UK for work related reasons?

A

National insurance number

115
Q

What are population registers?

A

population registers are accounts of residents within a country. They are typically maintained via the legal requirement that both nationals and foreigners residing in the country must register with the local authorities.
They are often present in Nordic countries.

116
Q

What 4 factors may influence a migration decision?

A

These are origin (push factors), destination (pull factors), obstacles between the two, and personal factors.

117
Q

What is chain migration?

A

The subsequent migration of individuals following someone else (friends or family)

118
Q

Within neo-classical economics, what is the micro theory in relation to migration?

A

Individuals are rational actors
* Migration as a consequence of cost/benefit
calculations
* Migration to maximise individual income

119
Q

Within neoclassical economics, what is the macro theory in regard to migration?

A

More a greater overall impact - not individual.
* Focused on labour migration
* Geographical differences in the supply and demand
for labour

120
Q

What do Stark and Bloom (1985) argue about migratory decisions?

A

They argue families make up a decision making unit and the migrate to minimise risk to household income or to finance capital investment.

121
Q

What does Piore (1979) argue about the dual labour market theory? What are the 2 sectors in a country?

A

Piore argues that there is a pull factor in the receiving countries - known as economic dualism.
* Capital‐intensive primary (good) sector; attractive to natives
* Labour‐intensive secondary (bad) sector; not attractive to natives; low wage, insecure conditions

122
Q

What does the world systems theory argue about migration?

A

Structure of world market encourages migration:
1. Migration is a natural outgrowth of disruptions and dislocations caused by capitalist development in LDCs.
2. Non‐capitalist societies produce a mobile population ready to migrate abroad.

123
Q

Can you give 4 of Ravensteins laws of migration (1885/1889)

A
  1. Majority of migrants only travel a short distance.
  2. Major direction of migration is from agricultural areas to centres of industry and commerce.
  3. Most migrants are adults; families rarely migrate out of the country of their birth.
  4. Females are Moe migratory than males within the Kingdom of their birth, but more males frequently venture abroad.
124
Q

What % of population in the UK is migrants?

A

3%

125
Q

Is Ravenstein’s 1. Majority of migrants only travel a short distance rule true?

A

Ravenstein suggested that migrants only travelled a short distance. This is now not necessarily true, due to globalisation and the shrinking world where travel is easy. However, in some countries, such as Africa, people travel more between neighbouring nations than regions. Furthermore, in the case of refugees, they also move locally to neighbouring countries.

126
Q

Is Ravenstein’s rule: “Females are Moe migratory than males within the Kingdom of their birth, but more males frequently venture abroad.” true now?

A

Ravenstein argues that there has been a feminist feminization of migration. For example, women now make up 1/2 of migrators, and this increases with their age. Men are more likely to migrate in the younger years, such as the 30s or 40s. However, overall women’s number of MIGRATORS have increased overtime.

127
Q

Is Ravenstein’s rule: “Major direction of migration is from agricultural areas to centres of industry and commerce.” true now?

A

Ravenstein argues that more moves are from rural to urban, from the agricultural industry to industrial hubs. This is argued to be true by the rise of economic migrants looking for work in these industrial hubs. However, the USA is becoming increasingly deindustrialized, but is currently the highest host country.

128
Q

Is Ravenstein’s rule: “Most migrants are adults; families rarely migrate out of the country of their birth.” true now?

A

While most migrants are younger, which supports the idea, there has been a rise in the number of children who are migrating. For example, the conflict in Ukraine has increased the number of women and children who are migrating.

129
Q

What are the 5 types of mobility?

A
  1. Temporary
  2. Short distance
  3. Within a country
  4. INternational
  5. Linear/circular
130
Q

What proportion of all internally displaced migrants were so as a result of disasters?

A

23.7 million out of 38 million

131
Q

What does migration ability depend on?

A
  1. Type of climatic event
  2. Gender
  3. Age
  4. Economic wealth
132
Q

What types of climatic event may impact migration?

A
  1. Short, on-set events such as cyclones can prevent pre-warning migration.
  2. Slow, on-set events such as flood can enable migration to occur.
133
Q

How many people migrated from NIger in 1985 as a result of the drought?

A

1 million

134
Q

Why can climatic shocks reduce migration? 4 reasons

A
  1. Technical
  2. Socio-economic
  3. Psycological
  4. Cultural (eg self imposed limitations on behaviour)
135
Q

How can climatic shocks impact economic security?

A

Climatic shocks reduce economic liquidity of assets - may not have insurance or mortgages.

136
Q

What are the two ways to calculate gender/sex ratio?

A
  1. Number of women is divided by the share of total population and then x100. If it was 52.7% it would be female bias.
  2. Number of males per 100 females ratio. So if 102/100 there are more males.
137
Q

What has the sex ratio been from 1950?

A

There has always been more boys than girls

138
Q

What are 3 reasons to explain why the sex ratio varies across the globe?

A
  1. Variation in mortality rates (eg: Eastern Europe has deaths of despair).
  2. Migration can impact ration (eg: Oman and the UAE).
  3. Sex ratio at birth is not equal - there are more males than females which is linked to sex policy.
139
Q

Why are there more boys than girls?

A

THere is no difference in the probality of conception but there is a higher mortality of girls during pregancy than males (in miscarriage)

140
Q

Why are there more boys than girls? (naturally)

A

THere is no difference in the probality of conception but there is a higher mortality of girls during pregancy than males (in miscarriage)

141
Q

What countries are involved in son preference?

A

China, India, Pakistan and Vietnam have higher son preference.

142
Q

What is a by-product of son preference and how is it maintained? there are 2 ways.

A
  1. Sex selection practices (pre-natal): such as sex selective abortion. These services and tech are more readily available in certain countries.
  2. Parents trying for a son until they get one (many children they have).
143
Q

How does the position of women in society encourage women to want boys? There are 3 reasons

A
  1. Women’s economic dependence on men (they work and get the inheritance).
  2. Sons are supposed to look after parents when they age - as they have financial power.
  3. Organisational logic of linage - such as the family name.
144
Q

Why do boys die more often under 5?

A

Boys are more likely to be born prematurely which could mean they have complications or birth defects. They also have weaker immune systems so are at risk of more infectious disease.

145
Q

What evidence suggests that the sex ratio decreases with age?

A

In people over 100, 25/100 were men (2021). IN every country, women live longer.

146
Q

What is postnatal discrimination?

A

This is the discrimination of a child which can result in death.

147
Q

In what 2 ways does post natal discrimination occur?

A
  1. Female selective infanticide.
  2. Neglect such as worse food and reduced access to healthcare for girls.
148
Q

Which country can be evidenced for post-natal discrimination?

A

India, it has a higher mortality for girls.

149
Q

What does Sen mean when saying “women are missing?”

A

How sex discrimination for girls leads to fewer girls being born.

150
Q

How many women does Sen argue are “missing”

A

Roughly 100 million

151
Q

How has the number of missing women varied through time?

A

60 million (Coale (1991) to 111million (Guillmoto (2012).

152
Q

What was the estimation of missing women in 2015?

A

135 million (Bongarts et al (2015))

153
Q

What proportion of missing women are missing from China?

A

80%. The number of missing women increased following introduction of contraception and technology.

154
Q

How many people over the age of 100 are estimated to be on Earth by 2100?

A

4 million globally.

155
Q

What was Japans overall dependency ratio as of 2021?

A

50:100

156
Q

Why do populations grow old?

A

It is about the size of the generation rather than the quality of care.

157
Q

Which has a greater impact on population levels?

A

Reduction of mortality rates has a lesser impact than fertility level changes.

158
Q

How long did it take for Japans population to become aging by 7% to 14% in relation to France?

A

It took Japan 25 years whereas France took 115. LEDC have made this transition faster.

159
Q

For anything about population change, who do you cite?

A

Transitions in world population (2004)

160
Q

What proportion of the worlds population live in countries whereby the number was less than 2.1?

A

40% (2004)

161
Q

In 2003, what was the IMR in sub-Saharan Africa?

A

It was still above 90 and 70 in South-Central Asia (2004)

162
Q

In 2003, what percentage of the 3million HIV/AIDS related deaths were from Sub-Saharan Africa and other less developed regions?

A

98% (2004)

163
Q

How do Brazil and Mali vary in the TFR and contraception rates?

A

Brazil: 2.5 TFR and 76% use contraception.

Mali: 6.8 TFR and 9% use contraception.

164
Q

What does Bongaarts (1980s) argue about 4 variables which impact fertility?

A
  1. the proportion of women of childbearing age who are married or in a sexual union;
  2. the percent of women using contraception;
  3. the proportion of women of childbearing age who currently are unable to conceive a child (usually because of postpartum infecundity from breastfeeding) ;
  4. and the level of abortion
165
Q

In 2015, what % of the refugees were from violence?

A

80% (Mackenzie 2015)

166
Q

What are the 2 reasons that countries avoid letting migrants in?

A
  1. It will encourage more
  2. They will be an economic burden

These have not been proven to be true. (Mackenzie 2015)

167
Q

What did Germany say in 2015 about migrants?

A

They could take 800,000 and they rely on migrants to support the aging population. (MAckensie 2015)

168
Q

IN the UK, were migrants more or less likely to be living on state welfare or in a social house?

A

Less likely than the native population (mAckenzie 2015)

169
Q

Who do you cite for anything related to migration reasons?

A

Champion (1996)

170
Q

What 3 things did Drever (1996) find out about male mortality by social class?

A
  1. Mortality is almost 3x higher in the lowest social class than the highest social class between 1991-1993.
  2. The lowest social classes have higher rates of suicide and disease than the higher social class in regard to mortality.
  3. Ignoring the lowest social class, all other classes have had a decline in mortality levels from 1970 to 1993.
171
Q

According to McKeown (2001), what has decreased mortality for airborne and transmissible disease (excluding water)?`

A

Vaccination and more effective treatments
-Chemotherapy and vaccination in the case of TB

172
Q

What does McKeown (2001) argue is the cause for decline of mortality in regard to waterborne disease?

A

Better infrastructure and hygiene measures.

173
Q

According to Millar (1992) how many lone mothers live in poverty, and how many are black/white mothers?

A

2/3 lone mothers live in poverty.

17% are black and 15% are white

174
Q

According to Millar (1992) what % of lone mothers have spent time on income support payment?

A

85%

175
Q

According to Millar (1992) what % of lone mothers have spent time on income support payment?

A

85%

176
Q

According to Millar (1992), what % of women received child maintained payment?

A

24%.

177
Q

What is a negative of child maintenance payment?

A
  1. By getting maintenance payments, mothers may not be able to get benefits such as FSM making them worse ‘well’ off.
  2. Women have to give names for maintenance which means the relationship may be broken down further.
178
Q

Who should you cite for anything related to lone parents?

A

Millar (1992)

179
Q

What does Marriot (1996) argue about Malian women’s position in society?

A

They are subordinate to men because they have 2 responsibilities - domestic labour and childcare. When they do have jobs, it is dependant on men.

180
Q

What did Marriot (1996) find out about breastfeeding women and non-breast feeding women in regard to their time?

A

They spend equal amounts of time on housework - those breastfeeding spend less time earning money, making them more reliant on men.

181
Q

According to Mackenzie (2015) what % of migrants cam from violence?

A

80%

182
Q

Why does Mackenzie (2015) attribute to the reason that countries don’t want to accept migrants?

A

It will encourage more, or that they will become an economic burden. This is not true.

183
Q

In 2015, according to Mackenzie (2015), how many migrants could Germany take and why did they want them?

A

They could take 800,000 and they wanted them to help with the issue of the aging population.

184
Q

What did Mackenzie (2015) find about migrants and benefits?

A

Migrants from 2000-2011 were less likely to be on state benefits than native population and no more likely to live in social housing.

185
Q

What % of the worlds population live in a country where the fertility rate is below replacement level - according to Transitions in World Population (2004)?

A

40% as of 2004

186
Q

In 2003, according to Transitions in World Population (2004), what was the IMR in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia?

A

Africa - 90
Asia - 70

187
Q

What was the U5MR in 2022 according to the UN (2022)

A

43 deaths per 1000

188
Q

According to Liu et al (2017) how many U5 deaths occurred during the neo-natal period?

A

2.7 million

189
Q

According to UN (2022), how many children were impacted by stunting in 2015?

A

24.4% and 22% in 2020

190
Q

Accodring to Lancet Public Health (2020), how many people globally were without safe drinking water?

A

2.2billion people.

191
Q

What was Kenyas IMR in 1960?

A

118:1000

192
Q

What was Kenyas IMR in 2021?

A

28:1000

193
Q

What was Kenyas life expectancy in 1960?

A

49

194
Q

What was Kenyas life expectancy in 2020?

A

63

195
Q

What was Kenyas male mortality rate in 1960?

A

392:1000

196
Q

What was Kenyas female mortality rate in 1960?

A

333:1000

197
Q

What was Kenyas male mortality rate in 2020?

A

390:1000

198
Q

What was Kenyas female mortality rate in 2020?

A

299:1000

199
Q

What was Kenyas male mortality rate in 2001 and why was it impacted?

A

456:1000, large scale violence and resource shortages

200
Q

What was kenyas female mortality rate in 2001 and why was it impacted?

A

423:1000, large-scale ethnic violence and resource shortages

201
Q

What was Kenyas fertility rate in 1960?

A

7.6 births

202
Q

What was Kenyas fertility rate in 2020?

A

3.4 births

203
Q

What was Kenyas contraceptive prevalence in 1978?

A

7% married women used

204
Q

What was Kenyas contraceptive prevalence in 2020?

A

65% married women used contraception

205
Q

Give 3 facts about Kenya according to UNICEF?

A
  1. Minimal family policies, with 53% of children being multi-dimensionally poor.
  2. County governments spend 41% of their resources on social services.
  3. Kenya was the first sub-Saharan African country to establish family planning policy.
206
Q

What was Swedens IMR in 1960?

A

16:1000

207
Q

What was Swedens IMR in 2020?

A

2:1000

208
Q

What was Swedens life expectancy in 1960?

A

73:1000

209
Q

What was Swedens life expectancy in 2020?

A

82:1000

210
Q

What was Swedens male mortality rate in 1960?

A

141:1000

211
Q

What was Swedens female mortality rate in 1960?

A

95:1000

212
Q

What was Swedens male mortality rate in 2020?

A

61:1000

213
Q

What was Swedens female mortality rate in 2020?

A

37:1000

214
Q

What was Swedens fertility rate in 1960?

A

2.2 births

215
Q

What was Swedens fertility rate in 2020?

A

1.7 births

216
Q

What happened to Swedish fertility rate in the 1990s and why?

A

From 1990 (2.1) it dropped as a result of the economic crises - leading to unemployment etc.

217
Q

What do you cite for all Kenya and Sweden data?

A

World Bank 2023

218
Q

According to Wells et al (2014), in what ways are Swedish childcare policies good? Give 2 examples

A

They subsidize childcare and have generous parental leave policies.
1. Both parents have equal leave and can use it at any time until the child is 1, even using it part-time.

  1. Swedish fathers use 23% of the parental leave days.
219
Q

Give 3 facts about Sweden according to Wells et al (2014). (Hint: 2 are related to equality).

A
  1. Swedish families cohabit for longer, often have a child and then subsequently marry.
  2. Wage gap between men and women is among the lowest in the world.
  3. ½ all Government seats held by women.
220
Q

Who came up witht he demographic transition model?

A

Notestein and David (1944/1945)

221
Q

What is the UN (2020) estimated population number by 2100

A

Just under 11 billion by 2100

222
Q

According to the UN (2020), what is the annual rate of population change as of 2020?

A

1.1%, estimated to be 0% by 2100

223
Q

According to the UN (2017), what % of the worlds population will be concentrated in 9 countries?

A

50% (countries include India, Nigeria and Pakistan)

224
Q

When did Lutz (2001) argue that the population will stop growing?

A

He argued global population growth would peak this century (low fertility rate) contrasts UN which argued all fertility would increase

225
Q

What did Gerland et al (2014) argue about the growth of the worlds population?

A

Argued that the population will be unlikely to stop growing this century (contrasted Lutz (2001)). Lutz (2014) then argued it would still continue to grow

Geography 1st year (4 decks)

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