Population And Settlement Flashcards
1
Q
Population density :
A
per unit of land area;
that is the number of people per square mile or people per km2
2
Q
Population density formula
A
Population / area
3
Q
High density and sparsely populated countries (examples )
A
Bangladesh and Singapore have a high density
Greenland, Australia and Mongolia are sparsely populated
4
Q
Densely populated
A
A big amount of people in a km2
5
Q
Sparsely populated
A
Low amount of people in a km2
6
Q
Human and physical factors that effect population distribution
A
human factors; Economic: Large rich markets Good infrastructure Access to import and export Skilled Labor Education Social: Some groups of people prefer to live next to each-other for security and companionship Political: Stable government Democratic system Physical factors; Relief: low land area which is flat or gentle Climate: enough rain and warm temperature to allow crops growth Accessibility: Costal areas with easy access Resources: Water timber Essentials such as coal, oil, copper etc
7
Q
Why are countries overpopulated
A
Very low caring capacity
Can’t feed/ don’t have enough resources
No technology
8
Q
Emigration
A
Out going (exited country)
9
Q
Immigration
A
In going (inside that country)
10
Q
Threshold population
A
The minimum number of people required to run an economic activity
11
Q
Underpopulation
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Lack of people in a giving carrying capacity
Low amount of people for a large amount of resources
12
Q
Dependent population
A
is when they depend on the work/money of the working class
13
Q
Population structure
A
The composition of a population
The most important element which are sex and age
14
Q
Population pyramid
A
A bar chart arranged vertically that shows distribution of a population by age and sex
15
Q
High elderly population (pros and cons)
A
Pros Contribution of knowledge and experiences Train young generation Squared skills Willing to to contribute to tax revenue Aid of childcare support for families Help built up social capital Lower crime rates Active in community clubs Attend classical music at concerts Pass on traditional skills
Cons Pressure on working class Higher taxes Pension Retirement Medical benefits More money spent on (old care homes etc) Hospitals Other specialised services Lack of innovation
16
Q
High youthful population (pros and cons)
A
Pros: Chance to build an manpower for future Engine of growth for whole economy Young population will be future working population Target group of the large MNGs selling consumer Culture spreads more Will develop good health care systems Large tax base Innovation Revolutionary ideas Cons: Demand for more food Overgrazing and over cultivation Creates pressure on existing working class Not enough (school, teachers, sports facilities,good public transport system, resources, food supply, health services, education, accommodation) Overcrowding in town and cities Poverty,lower standard of living Need of more physical space Economic stress young dependent More taxation Lack of employment in future Political instability Higher crime rates like vandalism, robbery,graffiti
17
Q
Types of migration
A
Long distance
Short distance
International
Internal
18
Q
Migration
A
Are broadly classified as
- involuntary or forced and voluntary migration
- Long and short distance migration
- international and internal migration
19
Q
Pro-natal and Anti-natal policies
A
Pro-natal
Policies that encourage more births (larger familes)
Example (Canada and Germany )
Anti-natal
Polices that aim to reduce population growth
Example (china and India )
20
Q
Depopulation
A
The state of population decline
21
Q
Urbanisation
A
Is the growth in the proportion of a population living in urban areas
22
Q
Pronatalis policy
A
A government, society or social group that encourages to increase population growth by attempting to raise no. Of births
23
Q
Overpopulation
A
To high amount of people in a giving caring capacity
High amount of people for the small amount of resources
24
Q
Dependent and working class
A
Youthful 0-14
Working 15-65
Elderly 65+
25
Dependency ratio
Elderly and youthful population / working class
26
Demographic transition model
Refers to the transition from high birth rate to death rates as a country develops from a pre industrial to an industrial one
27
Migration
The movement of people involving a change of residence. It can be internal displacement or international, voluntary and or forced
28
Emigration
The process of leaving one country to take up permanent or semi permanent residence in another country
29
Remittances
Transfer of money or goods by foreign workers to their home country
30
Asylum seekers
People who seek refuge statues in another country
31
Illegal immigrants
People who enter a country without permission
32
Refugee
A person fleeing their own home country in order to escape danger
33
Internally displaced people
Those who have fled their homes but continue to live in their own country
34
Population policy
Polices that are framed by the government to influence north rates of a country
35
Sex ratio
Number of males per 100 females
36
Death rate
The number of deaths per 1000 people in a population of a giving year
37
Birth rate
The number of births per 1000 people in a population in a given year
38
Natural growth
Difference of birth and death rate in a population in a giving year
39
Growth rate
The number of people plus or minus from a population in a given year due to natural increase and not migration expressed as percentage of population
40
Morbidity
The frequency of deceases,illnesses,injures and disabilities in a population
41
Infant mortality rate
The number of deaths of infants under the age of 1 per 1000 live births in a given year
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Child mortality rate
Number of deaths of children under the age of 5per 1000 children in a given yea r
43
What is a rural and urban settlement
Rural settlements refer to countryside and they are involved in primary activities such as farming and mining
Urban settlements refer to towns and cities which are engaging in secondary and tertiary activities such as construction , food processing and banking
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Settlements
Settlements is a place where people live and interact through several activities (e.g. agriculture , trading, or services)
45
Conurbation
1 network of cites surrounding Majore cities
| 2 a big urban area composed of many cites
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Mega city
City that consists of more than 10,000,000 citizen like Moscow for example
47
Settlements hierarchy is usually measured by
Population size of a settlement
Range and number of services
Sphere of influence or market area
48
Range
The maximum distance pople are willing to travel to obtain goods and services
49
Sphere of influence
The area around a settlement that comes under its economic , social and political influence
50
Comparison shops
High order shops with large range and threshold population
51
Hierarchy settlement
A list of settlements in order of population size and the number and range of services provided
52
High oder settlements
Larger fewer in number spaces further apart and which a wider range of servies
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Low oder settlements
Smaller more in number more closely spaced and which a small range of services
54
Trading point
Often settlements develop where natural trading points meet such as along the river networks or along the transportation routes converging into a major transportation hub
55
Rural urban fringe of economic development (pros)
```
Cheap land
Plenty of car parking space
Workers available close by
Room for expansion
Attractive environment with little pollution
Good accessibility
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56
Counter urbanisation
The movement of population from towns back to rural areas mainly in MEDCs
57
Site
Land the settlement is built on
58
Situation
The position of the settlement in relation to the surrounding area
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Settlement pattern
The shape that a settlement forms on the map and how clustered or scattered the settlement is
60
Nucleated settlement
Settlement have houses clustered together as villages with fewer isolated dwellings
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Dispersed
Settlements are scattered isolated dwellings and small hamlets with few villages
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Linear
Settlements are in a long thin row Ortern along roads or tracks
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What is a plate tectonic
A rigid lithospheric slab of the fracture crustal surface of the earth floating on the semi molten atmosphere
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What makes plates move
Mantel Convention current
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Hotspot
Are not related to plate movement, the magma comes direct from the mantle
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Conservative
Are boundaries which slide against each other in the opposite direction or the same
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What comes out of volcanoes
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Water vapour
Carbon monoxide
Lava
Ash
Rocks
Sulphur
Gases
Pyroclastic materials
Any solid material
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Convergent boundaries
Oceanic to oceanic
Continental to continental
Continental to oceanic
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Why do people live near volcanoes
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Geothermal energy
Family and friends
Can’t afford to move
Much cheaper to stay
Tourism
Jobs
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70
Process of destructive plates (convergent)
The boundaries are continental to oceanic plate that collide in eachother, as the continental plate is stronger the oceanic plate(higher density) goes under and so subduction occurs
Subducting oceanic plate is melted under high temperature and pressure as it subducts into mantle (mantel convection current)
It creates magma and rises up which turns to lava which then creates the volcanoes
71
Why do plates move
Deep within the earths heat is being produced by radioactivity. At the hotter areas the plastic rocks in the earths mantle become lighter and rise, causing convection currents.
These convection currents drag the rigid plates above them causing them to move
72
Fold mountains
They have been formed where powerful compression has squeezed the layers of rocks
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Active
They have erupted in the last 80 years
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Dormant
Resting but may erupt in the future
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Extinct
Dead will not erupt again
76
How are they caused/formed
They are causes by plate movement either towards each other away from each other or sliding against each other. The plates do not always move at a constant rate. They are often “struck ” in one position. Stress builds up as the plates try to move. There is then a sudden movement (along a crack in the earth called a fault). Energy is released and vibrations travel through the earth as an earthquake wave or seismic wave.
77
Isoseismal lines
Are lines of equal intensity drawn on a map around the epicentre of an earthquake
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Aftershock
Represents redistribution of stress on the fault star
79
Focus
Is the pint within the earth where the earthquake originates
80
Epicentre
The point on the earths surface directly above the focus
81
Mer alle scale
The effect of an earthquake intensity which is described on a 12 point scale m
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Richter scale
Magnitude which measures the total amount of energy released by an earthquake
83
Pacific ring of fire
Major area in the basin of the Pacific Ocean where many earthquakes / volcanoes occur
84
Collision margin
Continental to continental crust e.g. Indo-Australian plate collides with the Eurasian plate
85
Volcanism Icelandic eruption
In 2010 a constructive margin separated the Eurasian plate from the north America in plate,
The plates move apart, magma rises to form severe active volcanoes
Magma Broke through the crust beneath eyjafjallajoekull glacier
Representing little threat to the local communities
Huge quantities of ash into atmosphere
Heavier volcano ash particles fell on the ground forcing people to evacuate, from farms and villages
Major flooding accrued due to melting of glaciers
86
Crater
The depression at the top of a volcanoes
87
Lahar
A mudflow which contains material from volcanic eruption
88
Lateral blast
When volcanoes erupt sideways with great force producing gas and pyroclastic material
89
Conservative boundary (best known)
Between pacific and North American along the coast of California
San Andreas
90
Mantle convection and Hotspots volcanism
Heat constantly flows out of the earths core at the base of the mantle causing the semi molten mantle to circulate slowly and carrying the heat outwards by convection
91
Himalayas formation
The Himalayas mountain range and Tibetan plateau have formed as a result of the collision between Indian plate and the Eurasian plate which began 50 mil years ago. The Eurasian plate was partly crumpled above the Indian plate but because of their low density or high buoyancy neither could be subducted. This caused them to harden due to the folding and faulting by compressional forces pushing up the two mountains. This convergence of two plate of continental crust is also called a collision margin
92
How tsunamis form
They are usually triggered by earthquakes. The crust shifting is the primary effect; a knock on (secondary) effect of this is the displacement of the water above the moving crust. This is the start of a tsunami. Tsunamis move at speed of around 800 kph rapidly approaching the coast almost unnoticed. As they near land they slowly reduce in length and gain in height
93
How do fold mountains form through collision
When two tectonic plates move towards each other at a convergent plate boundary. When plates and the continents riding on them collide the accumulated layers of rock may crumple and fold particularly if them is a mechanically weak layer such as salt
94
Describe the impacts of an earthquake (case study)
Haiti
On January the 12th 2010 an Caribbean island known as Haiti was affected by an powerful 7.0 magnitude earthquake and the reason for this was caused by stress building up along the conservative plate margin, which was released by a sudden slippage along the fault. Therefore the island was resulted by an enormous amount of deaths (230,000) and a number of 180,000 homes that were destroyed. Around 5000 schools, services, like electricity, water .etc. as-well as communication were sadly destructed. This unpleasant movement shaking created an total amount of 19 mil cubic metres of debris in the capital of Haiti. An other effect that has taken lots of lives in the aftershock was cholera. The massive impact of this quake has brought short term responses for example the search and rescue helps and long term responses like repairing of destroyed buildings
95
Drainage basin
Is any area of land where precipitation collects and chains off into a common outlet such as an river, bay or other body of water
96
Urban sprawl
Uncontrolled physical expansion or outward growth of an urban area into the surrounding country
97
Source
Begin of rivers
98
Confluence
Two rivers meet
99
Watershed
A area of high land between two drainages
100
Mouth
Where rivers flows into lake or sea
101
Tributary
Small river or stream that flows into larger ones
102
Distributaries
Stream that branches off and flows away from main stream channel
103
Wave length
The distance between two successive crest to trough
104
Wave frequency
Number of waves per min
105
Still water line
The level of the sea surface if it were perfectly calm and flat
106
Crest
Highest point on a wave below the still water line
107
Trough
The lowest point on the wave below the still water line
108
Wave heights
Is the vertical distance between the trough and the crest
109
Amplitude
One half the wave height or the distance from either the crest or the trough to the still water line
110
Fetch
Is the amount of open water over which a wave has passed
111
Velocity
The speed at which wave travels
112
Swash
The movement of the water up the beach is swash
113
Backswash
The movement of water down the beach under the force of gravity
114
Hydraulic action
Occurs due to the force of air and water acting in joints and cracks. It’s occurs as the waves break onto cliffs any air trapped in cracks of the cliff will be under great pressure
115
Corrosion or abrasion
Whereby a breaking waves hurls pebbles and shingles against a coast and erodes it
116
Attrition
Wearing away of the load itself which gradually reduces in size of the loads as it crashes with other particles
117
Solution
Chemical erosion in chalk and lime stone rocks where acidic water dissolves the rock
118
Xerophytes
Conditions on the foreshore is harsh saline windig and aired due to presence of the permeable sand
119
Halophytes
Have a number of ways to cope with the daily changes in the levels of sanity, submergence by water and the rapidity shifting sediments. Able to tolerate the water logging situation two times a day during high tides
120
Traction
Large boulders and pebbles are carried along the sea bed
121
Saltation
Small pebbles and stone are bounced or roll along the bed
122
Suspension
Fine light materials are suspended in the sea water
123
Solution
Fine light materials are dissolved in the sea water, involves chemical change
124
Features of coasts
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Sand
Wave cut platform
Beach
Cliff
Notch
Rocks
Grass
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125
Mangrove vegetation (characteristics )
Salt torerant evergreen halophytes
Grow only in area with temps more than 20 degrees
Seasonal temps range should not exceed 5 degrees
Mangrove needs dam water and not grow in areas of strong tidal currents
Ideal location are tropical salt marshes and sheltered bays
Have unique ecosystem with diverse number of species
126
Hard engineering
Building artificial structure such as sea wall,groynes ,rock,armour aimed at controlling natural processes. Trying to win over the force of nature. Immediate solution to protect high value properties. Very costly and may have adverse environmental impact
127
Soft engineering
A suitable approach to manage the coast without using artificial structure. For example beach nourishment. Try to fit in and work with the natural processes often low maintenance cost. Both economically and environmentally managed retreat or costal realignment.
128
Tropical rainforest trees
Emergents - these are the tallest trees up to 60 m tall
Canopy - its the thickest layer where most of the animals live
Under canopy - it has young trees shorter trees and bushes
Shrub layer - you find ferns and other plants that grow close to the ground
Butters roots - the tallest tress have these which help them from falling over
129
Distribution of the tropical rainforest
-One of the largest terrestrial biomes
-Diverse ecosystem on land
-Contains 50 percent of world species in just 7 percent of land
-over 200 mil live in rain forest
- largest rainforest is in South America the Amazon Which covers the Amazons river basin
- Africa Congo’s basin central Africa holds the second largest rainforest in Cameroon
-
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Why are forests important
Sink of carbon dioxide
Habitats for biodiversity conservation
Provides of important environmental services
Sustaining livelihood and economic opportunities
131
Climate zone and bionomes
Polar - coldest with temp almost below freezing
Artic tundra - extremely cold with per frost soil
During very short summer the temp rises above freezing point
It’s is almost a treeless landscape
Over last 20 years due to climate change in southern part, parts of permafrost have melted
Taiga- word biggest biome
Nearly covers 1/5 of the earths land surface and stretches across northern canada and northern Eurasia
Temperate - contains most of the earths land masses with moderate temp and rainfall year round
132
Temperate deciduous forest
Region has 4 distinct seasons and forest changes dramatically with the seasons
133
Temperate grassland
Include the prairie in North America and the stepped of resin Europe and Asia , pampas in Argentina .etc.
134
Mediterranean
One of the Smallest biomes
135
Tropical
Warmest average temps and gets the most rain
136
Tropical rainforest
Is marked by high average annual 26-27 degrees, seasonal temp ranges are low 1-2 degrees but greater ranges 10-15 degrees.
High intense convection sl rainfall due to high evaporation and evapo transpiration
137
Tropical savanna
Are vast grasslands collected with trees that spread across Africa, northern au trails and parts of South America and India.
Savannas are home to large group of plants eating animals and their predators
138
Hot desserts
Driest biome
Get less than an inch rainfall anuallly like Sahara dessert
To conserve water desert plants have less leaves or none at all to reduce transpiration
139
Formation of tropical desert
Wind blows from high pressure system to low pressure. Rising air leads to precipitation in equatorial region eventually descends as 30 degress north and 30 degrees south. Sinking air creates high pressure and do not contain much moisture. The combination for high pressure, sinking air mass and love precipitation lead to the formation of the tropical desert
140
Hadley cell circulation
Rising air generates convectional rainfall as it condense and leads to cumulus clouds formation
Descending air become warm and water holding capacity increases it does not cause much rainfall
141
What is weather
The state of atmosphere at any particular time
142
Atmosphere
Is the blanket of gases and suspended solid and liquids that are held near to the earth ,singly up to the height of 100 km from the sea level
143
Meant by climate
The average weather conditions of a particular part of the world at different times of the year
144
Famine
When demand for food exceeds the supply of food leading to undernourishment
145
Drought
When the demand for water exceeds the supply for water leading to water stress
146
Soil degradation
Reduction in the quality of soil making it harder to grow crops
147
Soil exhaustion
Leads to low crop yield
148
Desertification
The process of soil becoming degraded
149
Soil erosion
Emovial of topsoil usually by wind or water
150
Organic farming
Practiced without factory made chemical such as pesticides and herbicides
151
How do headlands form
Differential erosion on the alternative bands of hard and soft rock leads to the formation as soft rock gets easily eroded and forms bays while hard rock resists erosion and forms headlands
152
Small islands (tourism)
Here heavily rely in tourism as a lever to economic development as limited land area and narrow resources base restrict manufacturing on large scale
153
Resort
A settlement where the primary function is tourism including hotel complex
154
Mass tourism
Involves large numbers of tourism flocking into certain popular destinations
155
Factors determining the quality of life
Economic
Income
Standard of living
156
Development meaning
About improving people lives to ensures better quality of living
157
Globalization
The growing interdependence of countries world wide though increasing t eh volume and variety of cross border transaction in goods and services and of international capital flows
158
NICs
```
Newley industrialised countries
Taiwan
Singapore
Hong Kong
South Korea
```
159
BRICS nation
Emerging market economics
Brazil/ Russia /India /China /South Korea
Have a large demographic power ensuring large domestic market and skilled work force, high economic growth rate of more than 5 percent that confirms rising disposable
160
Transition economy
An economy which is chasing from a centrally planned economy to a market economy
161
Sustainable tourism
- Sustainable use of resources by meeting the needs of the present without harming the prospect of the future
- supporting and involving local communities and creation of local multiplier
- reduce reuse recycle
- use efficient environmental alternatives
- maintaining biodiversity
- research and training, to provide better information
- promoting respect for the natural social and cultural environment
- integration tourism into planing for development
162
Life expectancy
Average age that a person is expected to live from birth
163
Literacy
Percentage of adults who can read and write with understanding
164
GDP
Gross domestic product is the total economic output of a country in a given year
165
GDP per capita
Understand hoe the wealth is disrupted within the population
Calculation - Output/population
166
GNP
Gross national product is the total value of goods and services production
167
Agriculture
Is farming
| Involves artificial cultivation of plants (crops) rearing of animals for food and other products
168
Arable farming
Crop farming like wheat
169
Pastoral farming
Rearing of farming like raising animals such as cows and sheeps
170
Mixed farming
Both rearing and crop farming
171
Yield
The amount of output
172
Sedentary farming
Farming that takes place in a permanent location
173
Subsistence farming
Involves growing crops and rearing of animals for self consumption little surplus is produced which can then be sold
For example shifting farming or nomading herding
174
Commercial farming
Done to make profit from the output
| Called crash crops
175
Intensive farming
High inputs of capital, fertilisers , labour ,pesticides, produced high yield
176
Extensive farming
Involves low input for materials and labour, large farm size, low yield
177
Slash and burn farming
The process of cutting down areas of forest and then burning stubble roots in order to farm
178
Ranching
The practice of raising herds of animals on large tracts of land
Ranchers commonly raise gazing
179
Monoculture (pros and cons)
```
Pros -
specialised harvesting techniques
highly selected strains
Minerals/water requirement
Cons -
Poor wildlife foods
Spread of disease
Loss of genetic variety
Damage to soil
```
180
Natural capital
These goods and services that are not manufactured but have values to humans e.g. soil,water,trees,living orgs
181
Replenish-able resources
Are middle ground between renewable and non renewable resources
182
Tourism
Means to travel away from home mainly for the purpose of leisure or atleast one night but no more than a consecutive year
183
Multiplier effect
When an initial amount of spending usually by the government leads to increase spending by the tourists and results in an increased national income greater than the initial amount spend
184
Case study - Kenya - a country with a high rate of population
- Kenya has a high rate of population growth due to high fertility and falling death rates, particularly in infant mortality
- Although Kenya’s total fertility rate is falling, the population is forecast to grow to 65.9 mil by 2030. Rapid population increase puts heavy pressure on a country resources
- Kenya has very high youth dependency ratio with over 42 per cent of the population under 15
- a rapidly growing population results in a lower amount of land per capita available to farmers and their children
- Young people who cannot find word on the land often migrate to urban areas
- youth unemployment is a considerable problem as the rate of population increase is greater than the rate of job creation.
- Although the poverty rate fell from 47 per cent in 2005 to 38 per cent in 2012. Kenya remains among the most equal countries in Africa
- While progress has been made in health, education , infrastructure and other aspects of society, a significant proportion of the population continue to live in fragile conditions with substandard access to water, sanitation and energy.
185
Case study - Russia - population decline
● In 2016, Russia's birth and death rates were equal, at 13/1000. Such stagnant population change or natural decrease is common in Eastern Europe.
● Russia's population reached its highest level of almost 148.7 million in 1991 (Figure 1.6). Since then it has been mainly in decline
* Population decline/very slow growth has been due to: low birth rates; high death rates, particularly among men; emigration.
* Unemployment and poverty are major concerns for many people. The cost of raising children is perceived to be high when both parents need to ork to make ends meet
* Education standards for women in Russia are high and thus women in general have a major say in decisions about family size. The use of contraception is high. In 2016 life expectancy for women was 77 years, but only 66 for men
- Population decline has had its greatest impact in rural areas, with 8500 villages said to have been abandoned since 2002. The cold northern regions of Russia have experienced the highest levels of depopulation
186
Case study - Bangladesh - an over-populated country
● At 1128 people per km² Bangladesh's population density is about 20 times the global average. In 1971 the population was about 75 million. By 2016, it had reached 163 million.
The paucity of natural resources is a major factor in over-population, as is rapid population growth.
Almost four-fifths of the population live in rural areas. The very small amount of cultivable land per person has resulted in a very high level of rural poverty.
About 40 per cent of the population is underemployed, working a limited number of hours a week on low wages.
• The regular threat of cyclones and flooding hugely exacerbates this problem. Eighty per cent of the country is situated on floodplains
Much of the country is close to sea level and about 40 per cent gets flooded during the monsoon season.
Major floods increase the level of rural to urban migration, with the majority of migrants heading for the capital city Dhaka.
Living conditions in Dhaka and the other main urban areas are in a very poor state. Many people lack basic amenities. Dhaka has become one of the most crowded cities in the world.
● Poor governance and corruption have hindered development in Bangladesh. However, the number of people in poverty in Bangladesh fell from 63 million in 2000 to 47 million in 2010.
187
Case study - Austalia- a under populated country
Australia is generally regarded as an example of an under-populated country.
The country has a well-developed, highly skilled population and generally high incomes. It attracts potential migrants from many countries.
With a population of only 24 million in 2016, the population density is only 3 per km².
● Australia scores highly for most measures of the quality of life, including health and education.
● Australia is a resource-rich nation, exporting raw materials all over the world. . Although Australia's population is highly concentrated in certain areas, there are more opportunities for population increase here than in most other parts of the world.
● Australia also has great potential for renewable energy, particularly in terms of wind and solar power
188
Case study - Mexico - international migration from Mexico to the USA
One of the largest labour migrations in the world has been from Mexico to the USA (Figure 1.13). This is the largest immigrant community in the world. Most migration has taken place in the last four decades. This migration has largely been the result of:
- much higher average incomes in the USA
- lower unemployment rates in the USA
- the faster growth of the labour force in Mexico
- the much better quality of life in the USA.
In the USA the Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR) has opposed large-
scale immigration from Mexico arguing that it:
● undermines the employment opportunities of low-skilled US workers
- has negative environmental effects because of the increased population
● threatens established US cultural values.
Those opposed to FAIR see its actions as uncharitable and arguably racist. Such individuals and groups highlight the advantages that Mexican and other migrant groups have brought to the country.
The impact of this migration on Mexico includes:
- the high value of remittances, which totalled over $24 billion in 2014
● reduced unemployment pressure as migrants tend to leave areas where unemployment is particularly high
● lower pressure on housing stock and public services
- changes in population structure with
emigration. of young adults, particularly males
● loss of skilled and enterprising people
● migrants returning to Mexico with changed values and attitudes.
189
The impact of international migration
| impact on countries of origin
Positive
• Remittances are a major source of income in some countries.
Emigration can ease the levels of unemployment and underemployment.
• Reduces pressure on health and education services and on housing.
Negative
Loss of young adult workers who may have vital skills, e.g. doctors, nurses, teachers, engineers (the 'brain-drain' effect).
An ageing population in communities with a large outflow of (young) migrants.
Agricultural output may suffer if the labour force falls below a certain level.
190
Impact on countries of destination
Pros
* Increase in the pool of available labour may reduce the cost of labour to businesses and help reduce inflation.
* Increasing cultural diversity can enrich receiving communities.
-An influx of young migrants can reduce the rate of population ageing.
Cons
* Migrants may be perceived as taking jobs from people in the long-established population.
* Increased pressure on housing stock and on services such as health and education.
-A significant change in the ethnic balance of a country or region may cause tension.
191
Impact on migrants themselves
pros
• Wages are higher than in the country of origin.
• There is a wider choice of job opportunities.
- They have the ability to support family members in the country of origin through remittances.
Cons
• The financial cost of migration can be high.
- Migration means separation from family and friends in the country of origin.
. There may be problems settling into a new culture (assimilation).
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Case study - Gambia - a country with a high dependent population
● The Gambia has a young and fast-growing population. This has placed big demands on the resources of the country.
• 95 per cent of the country's population are Muslim. Until recently religious leaders were against the use of contraception. In addition, cultural tradition meant that women had little influence on family size.
. Children were viewed as an economic asset because of their help with farming. One in three children aged 10-14 is working.
In 2016 the infant mortality rate was 45/1000. With 46 per cent of the population classed as young dependents and only 2 per cent elderly dependents, the dependency ratio is 92.
* Many parents in the Gambia struggle to provide basic housing for their families. There is huge overcrowding and lack of sanitation, with children sharing the same bed. many
* Rates of unemployment and underemployment are high and wages are low, with parents struggling to provide even the basics for large families.
* Many schools operate a two-shift system with one group of pupils attending in the morning and a different group attending in the afternoon.
. Another sign of population pressure is the large number of trees being chopped down for firewood. As a result desertification is increasing at a rapid rate.
• In recent years the government has introduced a family planning campaign that has been accepted by religious leaders.
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Case study - North America - sparsely and densely populated areas
North America has a low population density compared with most other parts of the world. The USA has an average of 35 people per km², while Canada has only 4 per km². In both countries population is highly concentrated in some areas while large expanses of land elsewhere are very sparsely settled.
The northeast of the USA: a densely populated region
In the USA the most densely populated region is in the northeast.
The region stretches inland from Boston and Washington to Chicago and St Louis.
The other main cities in this region are New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore.
New York is a 'global city'. The population of the larger Metropolitan Area of New York is 18.9 million.
The Canadian Northlands: a sparsely populated region
The Canadian Northlands is one of the most sparsely populated regions in the world. Table 1.5 summarises the region's most important characteristics.
The region also contains many smaller urban areas. Much of the area has an average density over 100 per km².
The rural parts of the region are generally fertile and intensively farmed. The climate and soils at this latitude are conducive to agriculture. Many people living in the rural communities commute to work in the towns and cities.
The region has the most highly developed. transport networks in North America.
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Case study - lozere France - settlement hierarchy
Lozère is located in southeast France. It is a mountainous region, and the main economic activities are farming and tourism. Due to the mountainous relief and poor-quality soil, farming is mainly cattle rearing. Surprisingly, the region has a very low rate of unemployment. This is due to a long history of out-migration of young people in search of work. Table 1.12 (page 45 of the textbook)
shows how the population of St-André-Capcèze fell between the 1860s and the mid 2000s (Figure 1.18). Nevertheless, in recent years the population has increased slightly due to improved communications and easier travel. However, the population is an ageing one. Tourism offers some employment, and the services available relate partly to tourist potential (see the textbook, Table 1.14, page 45).
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Site and situation
The site of a settlement is the actual land on which a settlement is built whereas the situation or position is the relationship between a particular settlement and its surrounding area.
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The advantages and disadvantages of alternative sites for agriculture and housing include:
● availability of water - necessary for drinking, cooking, washing, as a source of food supply and transport
relief - high enough not to flood and level sites to build on
. fertile soils - often located close to rivers
• good accessibility - increases the potential for trade and commerce, such as close to bridges, weirs, confluence sites, estuaries and at points of navigation
access to resources such as minerals.
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Growth of settlements
There are a number of factors that affect settlement growth. Areas that are too hot or cold, wet or dry usually have small, isolated settlements. In contrast, in areas where food production is favoured, settlements have managed to grow. Settlements in more favoured areas have greater potential for growth.
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Function of settlements
Function refers to what a settlement does. Some settlements have a dormitory function. Others may have an agricultural function. Others may be tourist locations, mining villages, fishing villages, and so on.
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case study - south Korea - Urban sprawl
Seoul has grown dramatically since the early 1960s. It currently has a population of about 10 million in the main city and between 26 million and 36 million in the Metropolitan Region.
Seoul experiences a number of problems, just like most large cities. These include pollution, inequality, housing, traffic congestion and conflicts over land use change.
Problems in Seoul
Pollution
As Seoul has grown, the amount of air and water pollution has increased. It had become heavily polluted with lead, chromium and manganese and was a health risk.
Inequality
There has been increased inequality in Seoul since the financial crisis of 1997. Unemployment has increased and there is a greater gap between rich and poor in Seoul, compared with any other city in Korea.
Housing shortage
Seoul's population has grown from 2.5 million in 1960 to around 10 million today and over 25 million in the Seoul Metropolitan Region.
Less than 45 per cent of the land around Seoul is available for urban development due to steep terrain and mountains. Such flats have increased from 4 per cent of housing in 1970 to 35 per cent in 1990 and 50 per cent today.
Traffic congestion
Seoul experiences massive traffic congestion. In 1975 South Korea manufactured fewer than 20000 cars. By 1994 there were over 2 million cars registered in the Seoul area. Despite improvements to the motorway network, the increase in the population of Seoul and the number of cars in the area mean that congestion has increased. In addition, many of the roads in central Seoul are relatively small and unable to handle the large volumes of traffic.
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Reasons for rapid urbanisation in LICs and NICs
● better provision of education and health facilities in urban areas (social pull factor)
- fewer economic opportunities in rural areas - farming can be low paid, insecure and subject to climate and natural hazards (economic and physical push factors)
- poor access to clean water and sanitation, health care and education in rural areas (social push factors).
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Reduce the negative impacts of urbanisation
● create more jobs in rural areas so that people do not need to leave the area
● legalise squatter settlements and give residents security .
-provide more running water and sanitation both in rural and urban areas
● provide loans and subsidies for people to improve their homes.
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Case study - china - urbanisation
Since economic reforms began in China in 1978, between 150 million and 200 million Chinese have migrated from rural to urban areas.
Shanghai
Shanghai has a population of over 24 million.
Shanghai experiences a number of problems such as rapid in-migration, housing shortages, income inequality, pollution, congestion and poor air quality.
Housing and demographic issues
Housing shortages and overcrowding problems are acute. Almost half the population lives in less than 5 per cent of the total land area, and in central Shanghai population density reaches 40 000-160000 people per km2. Population pressure is caused by in-migration, overcrowding, disparities in wealth
and the social insecurity of Shanghai's poor 'floating population', i.e. the migrant labourers. From the 1990s whole neighbourhoods were demolished. Over 2 million residents were moved to the outer suburbs to live in better quality accommodation.
Economic growth has attracted an increasing number of foreign migrants and Chinese living overseas to live in Shanghai. Many of these live in luxury, gated apartments. This increases the rich poor gap in Shanghai.
Water and air quality
Water quality in Shanghai is a concern: less than 60 per cent of waste water and storm water and less than 40 per cent of sewage flows are intercepted, treated and disposed of. Waste disposal is also a major problem: the Huangpu River receives 4 million cubic metres of untreated human waste every day.
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Conservative boundary
Two plates move sideways past each other but land is neither destroyed nor created, e.g. the San Andreas fault in California
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Collision (convergent)
Two continental crusts collide: as neither can sink they are folded up into fold mountains, e.g. the Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate to form the Himalayas
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Constructive
Two plates move apart from each other; new oceanic crust is formed, creating mid-ocean ridges; volcanic -g. activity is common, e.g. the Mid-Atlantic Ridge where Europe is moving away from North America
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Destructive (convergent)
The oceanic crust moves towards the continental crust and sinks beneath it due to its greater density; deep sea trenches and island arcs are formed; volcanic activity is common, e.g. the Nazca plate sinks beneath the South American plate
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Causes of earthquakes
Release of pressure as two plates move in different directions or speeds
Also human activity sometimes
Like nuclear testing / the weight of large dams and or drilling of oil
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Impacts of earthquakes
• Loss of life
• Loss of livelihood
• Total or partial destruction of building structure
• Loss of public ilities such as electricity or gas
• Floods from collapsed dams
- Release of hazardous material
• Fires Spread of chronic illness
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Impacts of volcanoes
Lahar
Earthquakes
Material flying everywhere
Air pollution
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-Destruction of settlements
• Loss of life
• Loss of farmland and forests
• Destruction of infrastructure - roads, airstrips and port facilities
• Reduced tourist arrivals
• Out-migration
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Provided opportunities due to volcanoes
• new land and islands for people to live on
- fertile soils
● soils rich in minerals
- important as tourist destinations
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Case study - soufriere hills, Montserrat- a named volcano
The Soufrière Hills volcano erupted in 1995 after being dormant for nearly 400 years. Its biggest eruption was in 1997 when 19 people were killed. The volcano is caused by the subduction of the Atlantic plate under the Caribbean plate.
To reduce the impact of the volcano, the capital city Plymouth was evacuated, and most of the islanders fled to the north of the island or overseas. Emergency shelters and facilities were provided in the north of the island. In the long term there has been major redevelopment of housing, schools, hospitals and a new airport.
The Montserrat Volcano Observatory was set up to monitor changes in the volcano. Scientists regularly:
● check the size and shape of the volcano
- use seismometers to check for internal changes within the Earth's crust
- measure emissions of sulfur.
It is possible, in some cases, to divert lava flow by spraying vast volumes of water onto the advancing lava flow. Alternatively, diversion channels have been dug to divert lava flows away from settlements.
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Hydrological cycle
The hydrological cycle (water cycle) is the movement of water between air, land and sea. It varies in scale from the global hydrological model to a small-scale drainage basin hydrological model.
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Causes of floods
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Physical causes
Climatological
Rain / ice melt/ snow melt
Other
Earthquake
Landslide
Dam failure
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Human causes
- urbanisation and urban growth
- floodplain developments
- river engineering works
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Opportunes due to rivers
- a source of drinking water
• fertile silt for agriculture
- a line of communications and navigation
- a source of power
• fishing
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Managing impacts of river flooding
* building dams or reservoirs to hold back excess water
* raising the banks of rivers
* dredging the river channel so that it can hold more water
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Process that occur in the coastal zone
Wave action from constructive and destructive waves
Wind action
Mass movement and weathering
River and ice actions
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Coral reefs
Corals are small marine organisms. They absorb calcium salts from seawater and combine them with carbon dioxide to build a skeleton of calcium carbonate.
Coral requires certain conditions in which to thrive:
-clear, salt water with a temperature of over 20 °C
• shallow coastal water
- a good supply of water and plankton.
- There are three main types of coral reef: fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls
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Hard engineering (two examples)
Sea walls
Aim/method; to large scale concrete curved walls designed to reflect wave energy
Strengths; easily made and good in areas of high density
Weakness; expensive and lifespans is about 30-40 years
Groynes
Aim/method; to prevent longshore drift
Strength ; relatively low cost and easy repaired
Weakness; cause erosion on down drift side and interrupt sediment flow
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Soft engineering (2 examples)
Beach nourishment
Aim/method; sand pumped from sea bed to replace eroded sand
Strength; looks natural
Weakness; expensive and short term solution
Managed retreat
Aim/method; coastline allowed to retreat in certain places
Strength ; cost effective and maintains a natural coastline
Weakness; unpopular and political implications
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Case study - dubai - opportunities associated hazards and manage to of a studied coastline
Some coastal areas provide an excellent opportunity for tourism. Coastal areas that can guarantee hot, sunny conditions have an added advantage. Coastal reclamation in the United Arab Emirates has been developing on a large scale since 2001 . Two palm-shaped artificial islands, Palm Jumeirah and Palm Jebel Ali, were completed in 2007. In 2003 plans were unveiled for a third, Palm Deira, as well as 'The World', a collection of over 300 islands, each one in the shape of a country.
Palm Jumeirah not only created a new shoreline; it also became the centre for world-class hotels, over 200 shopping outlets, and a range of luxury housing and leisure and entertainment developments. Sea front projects ranging from desalination plants to artificial islands have transformed the entire coastline in the past few decades. More than 40 per cent of the shores of some countries in the region are now developed. According to a report in the journal Nature, uncontrolled development and a lack of scientific monitoring are seriously threatening ecosystems along this coast.
To create the islands for Palm Jumeirah, some 94 million m³ of sediment were dredged from the sea. Such large-scale projects are changing the ecology in ways that will only become clear in the coming decades. One of the problems is water circulation. Water around some parts of the islands can remain almost stationary for several weeks, increasing the risk of algal blooms. In addition, the fish that have colonised the new environment are invasive species (species from outside the area).
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Stevenson screen
A Stevenson screen is a wooden box standing on four legs at a height of about 120 cm. The screen is raised so that air temperature can be measured. The sides of the box are slatted to allow air to enter freely. The roof is usually made of double boarding to prevent the Sun's heat from reaching the inside of the screen. Insulation is further improved by painting the outside of the screen white to reflect much of the Sun's energy. The screen is usually placed on a grass-covered surface, thereby reducing the radiation of heat from the ground.
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Rain gauge
A rain gauge is used to measure rainfall. It consists of a cylindrical container, in which there is a collecting can containing a glass or plastic jar, and a funnel that fits on to the top of the container (Figure 2.12). It is important to check the rain gauge every day, preferably at the same time.
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Max and min thermometer
The daily readings of maximum-minimum thermometers are used to work out the average or mean temperature for one day (called the mean daily temperature) and the temperature range for one day (called the daily or diurnal temperature range).
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Wet and dry bulb thermometer
Wet- and dry-bulb thermometers are used to measure relative humidity. The dry-bulb is a glass thermometer which records the actual air temperature.
The wet-bulb is a similar thermometer, but with the bulb enclosed in a muslin bag which dips into a bottle of water.
This thermometer measures the wet-bulb temperature which, unless the relative humidity is close to 100 per cent, is generally lower than the dry-bulb temperature.
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Sunshine recorder
The number of hours and minutes of sunshine received at a place can be measured and recorded by a sunshine recorder (such as a Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder
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Barometer
A mercury barometer consists of a hollow tube from which the air is extracted before the open end is placed in a bath of mercury. When the pressure of the mercury in the tube balances the pressure of the air on the exposed mercury, the mercury in the tube stops rising.
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Anemometer
An anemometer is used to measure wind speed. It consists of three or four metal cups fixed to metal arms that rotate freely on a vertical shaft. When there is a wind, the cups rotate. The stronger the wind, the faster is the rotation. The number of rotations is recorded on a meter to give the speed of the wind in km/hr. A Figur
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Wind vane
Wind vane
A wind vane is used to indicate wind direction. It consists of a horizontal rotating arm pivoted on a vertical shaft. The rotating arm has a tail at one end and a pointer at the other. When the wind blows, the arm swings until the pointer faces the wind. The directions north, east, south and west are marked on arms that are rigidly fixed to the shaft.
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Clouds cover
Cloud cover is measured in oktas (eighths). This is made by a visual assessment of how much of the sky is covered by cloud. If the sky is completely covered with clouds it has 8/8 cloud cover.
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Equilateral areas
* annual temperatures are high (26-27 °C), being close to the Equator
* seasonal ranges are low (1-2 °C), but diurnal (daytime) ranges are greater (10-15 °C)
-rainfall is high (more than 2000 mm per year), convectional in nature and occurs throughout the year.
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Factors affecting climate
Latitude
Altitude
Pressure systems
Distance from the sea
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Effects of deforestation
- surface erosion and compaction of soils
* sandification
* increased flood levels and sediment content of rivers
* climatic change
* loss of biodiversity.
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Case study - Sonoran- desert
The Sonoran Desert is located in southern USA (southern California and southern Arizona) and northern Mexico.
Its vegetation includes the saguaro cactus, which can grow to a height of 15 m and live for up to 175 years. Its ribbed stem expands as it fills with water during the winter wet season. Its stem shape reduces wind speed and water loss from the plant, while sunken stomata also reduce water loss. It has shallow roots to catch water from storms before it evaporates. The palo verde is a small, drought-tolerant tree that loses its leaves in the dry season, but its green bark allows it to photosynthesise without leaves. Creosote bushes have small, dark leaves to reduce transpiration. Plant density depends upon water availability.
Soils in the Sonoran Desert are typically thin, relatively infertile and alkaline. Seasonal rains carry
soluble salts down through the soil. However, during the dry season these are drawn up to surface by evaporation. Concentrations may become toxic for some plants. In addition, flash flooding can compact the soil, leaving the surface impermeable.
There has been considerable human impact in the area. Some cities, notably Phoenix in Arizona, have expanded rapidly at the expense of the desert. The increased demand for, and abstraction of, water has lowered water tables. Road construction and pipelines have affected the movement of mammals, and fenced highways have prevented pronghorn antelopes, for example, from reaching water supplies. Domesticated animals have escaped into the wild and reduced grazing availability for wild mammals. The introduction of exotic plant species, such as tamarisk, has displaced native species such as cottonwoods and desert willows.
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Human development index
The Human Development Index (HDI) was devised by the United Nations in 1990.
four indicators of development:
* life expectancy at birth
* mean years of schooling for adults aged 25 years
* expected years of schooling for children of school entering age
* GNI per capita (PPP$, namely purchasing power parity, i.e. how much you can buy for your income related to local prices).
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Development gap
Reasons for variations between countries include:
Physical geography: for example, landlocked countries have generally developed more slowly than coastal nations, and tropical countries have grown more slowly than those in temperate latitudes.
* Economic policies: for example, open economies which welcomed and encouraged foreign investment have developed faster than closed economies; institutional quality in terms of good government, law and order and lack of corruption generally result in high rates of growth.
* Demography: progress through demographic transition is a major factor, with the highest rates of economic growth experienced by those nations where the birth rate had fallen the most.
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Inequalities within countries
The Gini coefficient is a technique frequently used to show the extent of income inequality.
-It is defined as a ratio with values between 0 and 1.0.
* A low value indicates a more equal income distribution while a high value shows more unequal income distribution.
* In general, more affluent countries have a lower income gap than lower income countries.
* Southern Africa and South America show up clearly as regions of very high income inequality. Europe is the world region with the lowest income inequality.
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One child policy (china)
The policy:
To address overpopulation, the policy had been planned in 1977, although it was not mandated until 1979.
The policy was introduced to promote one child families and forbids couples having more children in urban areas.
Parents with multiple children are not given the same benefits as parents of one child
In most cases, wealthy families pay a fee to the government in order to have a second child or more children.
The limit has been strongly enforced in urban areas, but the actual implementation varies in locations
In most rural areas, families are allowed to apply to have a second child if their first-born is a daughter or suffers from physically disability, mental illness, or mental retardation
Families violating the policy are required to pay penalties and may possibly be denied bonuses at their workplace.
Children born in overseas countries are not counted under the policy if they do not obtain Chinese citizenship
Chinese citizens returning from abroad are allowed to have a second child.
Positive Impacts:
The authorities claim that the policy has prevented more than 400 million births from about 1979 to 2011.
The individuals saving rate has increased since the one-child policy was introduced
The fertility rate in China fell from 2.63 birth per woman in 1980 to 1.61 in 2009
The focus on population control provided better health service for women and
reduction in risks associated with pregnancy.
At family planning offices, women received free contraception and pre-natal
classes
Negative Impacts:
The policy has been implicated in an increase in forced abortions, infanticide, and underreporting of female births
The sex-ratio at birth in China reached 1170:1000 in the year 2000, substantially higher than the natural baseline, which ranges between 1030:1000 and 107:100 due to the preference for a boy child
Little Emperor syndrome as some parents over-indulge their only child he may become unadjusted to the society
Resulted into Gender-selected abortion, abandonment, and infanticide
Since there are no penalties for multiples births, couples turned to fertility medicine to have twins. According to a 2006 China Daily report, the number of
twins born per year in China had doubled.
Government officials and especially wealthy persons have often been able to
violate the policy in spite of fines.
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Factors affecting inequalities within countries
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Residence
Ethnicity
Employment
Education
Land ownership
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Sectors
The primary sector exploits raw materials from land, water and air. Farming, fishing, forestry, mining and quarrying make up most of the jobs in this sector.
The secondary sector manufactures primary materials into finished products. Activities in this sector include the production of processed food, furniture and motor vehicles.
. The tertiary sector provides services to businesses and to people. Retail employees, drivers, teachers and nurses are examples of occupations in this sector.
• The quaternary sector uses high technology to provide information and expertise. Research and development is an important part of this sector. Jobs in this sector include aerospace engineers, research scientists and biotechnology workers.
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Case study - South Sudan and Sudan
-The countries of Sudan and South Sudan, which were the single country of the Sudan until 2011, have suffered food shortages for decades.
• The long civil war and drought have been the main reasons for famine in the Sudan, but there are many associated factors as well
- One of the big issues between the two sides in the civil war was the sharing of oil wealth between the government-controlled north and the south of the country where much of the oil is found.
- The United Nations has estimated that up to 2 million people were displaced by the civil war and more than 70000 people died from hunger and associated diseases.
● At times, the UN World Food Programme has stopped deliveries of vital food supplies because the situation has been considered too dangerous for the drivers and aid workers.
- The separation of Sudan into two countries has not occurred easily. There has been intermittent fighting in border regions. This has undermined agricultural production.
- In March 2013 the World Food Programme warned that more than 4.1 million people were likely to be short of food in South Sudan in that year. In May 2016, the UN warned that more than 5 million people in South Sudan would face severe food shortage.
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Food aid types
* relief food aid
* programme food aid
* project food aid.
The USA and the EU together provide about two-thirds of global food aid deliveries. At the international level, the main organisations are the UN World Food Programme (WFP), the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the Food Aid Convention.
Food aid is vital to communities in many countries, particularly in Africa but also in parts of Asia and Latin America. However, it is not without controversy:
The selling of heavily subsidised food in African countries has undermined the ability of African farmers to produce for local markets.
. Food aid is very expensive, not least because of the high transport costs involved.
There have been recent concerns that food aid may be required for even more people in the future. Steep increases in the price of food have caused big problems in a number of countries, resulting in large-scale protests. The World Bank warned that progress on development could be destroyed by rapidly rising food costs.
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Case study - Bangladesh - India high tech city an industrial zone
Bangalore is the most important city in India for high-technology industry. Known as the 'Garden City', Bangalore claims to have the highest quality of life in the country.
In the 1980s Bangalore became the location for the first large-scale foreign investment in high technology in India when Texas Instruments selected the city.
Other TNCs soon followed as the reputation of the city grew. Important backward and forward linkages were steadily established over time.
Apart from ICT industries, Bangalore is also India's most important centre for aerospace and biotechnology.
Many European and North American companies that previously outsourced their ICT requirements to local companies are now using Indian companies.
The city's population grew from 2.4 million in 1981 to over 12 million in 2017. The city has grown into a major international hub for ICT companies.
● Bangalore has built up a large pool of highly skilled labour. There has been very high investment into the city's infrastructure.
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Industrial agglomeration
Industrial agglomeration can result in companies enjoying the benefits of external economies of scale. This means the lowering of a firm's costs due to external factors. External economies of scale can be subdivided into urbanisation economies and localisation economies.
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Tourism
● Tourism brings in valuable foreign currency and benefits other sectors of the economy.
- It provides considerable tax revenues.
- By providing employment in rural areas it can help to reduce rural-urban migration.
- A major tourism development can act as a growth pole.
- It can create openings for small businesses and support many jobs in the informal sector.
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Tourism’s (overrated ?)
economic leakages are high
most local jobs created are menial, low-paid and seasonal
money borrowed to invest in the necessary infrastructure for tourism increases the national debt
at some destinations tourists spend most of
their money in their hotels with minimum benefit to the wider community
tourism might not be the best use for local resources that could in the future create a larger multiplier effect if used by a different economic sector
locations can become over-dependent on tourism
the tourist industry has a huge appetite for resources
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Development of tourism pros and cons
Social/cultural disadvantages
* Loss of locally owned land
* Abandonment of traditional values
* Displacement of people
* Traditional community structures may be weakened
* Abuse of human rights
- Increasing availability of alcohol and drugs • Crime and prostitution, sometimes involving children.
• Visitor congestion at key locations
Denying local people access to beaches
• Loss of housing for local people as more visitors buy second homes
Social/cultural advantages
. Can increase the range of social facilities for local people
• Can lead to greater understanding between people of different cultures
Visiting ancient sites can develop a greater appreciation of the historical legacy of host countries
Can help develop foreign language skills in host communities
May encourage migration to major tourist generating countries
Major international events such as the Olympic Games can have a very positive global impact
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Case study - Jamaica - the benefits and cons accocisted with the growth of tourism
● Tourism has become an increasingly vital part of Jamaica's economy in recent decades.
-Tourism's direct and indirect contribution to GDP in 2014 amounted to almost 27.2 per cent of total GDP.
• Direct employment in the industry amounted to 90 000. 1007 to ylill
-Tourism is the largest source of foreign exchange for the country.
●The Jamaican government sees the designation of the National and Marine Parks as a positive environmental impact of tourism. Entry fees to the Parks pay for conservation.
- The Marine Parks are attempting to conserve the coral reef environments off the coast of Jamaica.
- Ecotourism is a developing sector of the industry. Considerable efforts are being made to promote community tourism, which is seen as an important aspect of 'pro-poor tourism'.
● The physical attractions of Jamaica almost sell themselves, so the government is putting much effort into trying to boost the island's human attractions.
● During the off-season, 25 per cent of hotel workers are laid off.
● Other negative aspects include: the environmental impact of tourism; the heavy use of resources, particularly water, by hotels; socio-cultural problems between residents and visitors.
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Non renewable energy
Non-renewable sources of energy are the fossil fuels and nuclear fuel. Eventually, these non-renewable resources could become completely exhausted. The burning of fossil fuels creates pollution and is the major source of greenhouse gas emissions. Climate change due to these emissions is the biggest environmental problem facing the planet.
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Renewable energy
Renewable energy resources are mainly forces of nature that are sustainable and which usually cause little or no pollution. Renewable energy includes hydro-electricity, biofuels, and wind, solar, geothermal, tidal and wave power.
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Nuclear power pros and cons
Cons
• Power plant accidents, which could release radiation into air, land and sea.
. Radioactive waste storage/disposal. Most concern is over the small proportion of 'high-level waste'.
.Rogue state or terrorist use of nuclear fuel for weapons.
• High construction and decommissioning costs.
. Seen by some people as less 'democratic' than other sources of power.
Pros
* Zero emissions of greenhouse gases.
* Reduced reliance on imported fossil fuels.
. Not as vulnerable to fuel price fluctuations as oil and gas.
-In recent years nuclear plants have demonstrated a very high level of reliability.
• Nuclear technology has spin-offs in fields such as medicine and agriculture.
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Solar power pros and cons
Advantages
A completely renewable resource
No noise or direct pollution
Very limited maintenance required
Technology is improving and reducing costs
Can be used in remote areas where it is too expensive to extend the electricity grid
Disadvantages
Initial high cost of solar plants
Solar power cannot be harnessed during storms, on cloudy days or at night
Of limited use in countries with low annual hours of sunshine
Large areas of land required to capture the Sun's energy in order to generate significant amounts of power
A generally positive public perception
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Advantages of geothermal power
The advantages of geothermal power are:
* extremely low environmental impact
* geothermal plants occupy relatively small land areas
* not dependent on weather conditions (like wind and solar power)
relatively low maintenance costs.
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The limitations of geothermal energy
. there are few locations worldwide where significant amounts of energy can be generated
total global generation remains very small
some of these locations are far from where the energy could be used
• installation costs of plant and piping are relatively high.
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Cons of wind turbines
* People are concerned that huge turbines located nearby could blight their homes.
* There are concerns about the hum of turbines disturbing both people and wildlife.
* Skylines in scenically beautiful areas might be spoiled forever.
● Turbines can kill birds.
-Suitable areas for wind farms are often near the coast where land is both scenically beautiful and expensive.
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Case study - china - energy supply
• China uses more energy than other country in any the world. In 2015 China's main sources of energy were: coal (63.7 per cent), oil (18.6 per cent) and hydro-electricity (8.5 per cent).
● China was an exporter of oil until the early 1990s although it is now a very significant importer.
● Chinese investment in energy resources abroad has risen rapidly in order to achieve long-term energy security.
● In recent years China has tried to take a more balanced approach to energy supply and at the same time sought to reduce its environmental impact. The development of clean coal technology is an important aspect of this approach.
The further development of nuclear and hydropower is another important strand of Chinese policy.
China aims to increase the production of oil while augmenting that of natural gas and improving the national oil and gas network. Priority has also been given to building up the national oil reserve.
• Total renewable energy capacity in China reached 502 GW in 2015. This included 319 GW of hydro electricity, 129 GW of wind energy, 43 GW of solar PV and 10 GW of bioenergy.
The Three Gorges Dam across the Yangtze river is the world's largest electricity generating plant of any kind. This is a major part of China's policy in reducing its reliance on coal.
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Dams and reservoirs
In the twentieth century, global water consumption grew sixfold, twice the rate of population growth. Much of this increased consumption was made possible by investment in water infrastructure, particularly dams and reservoirs, affecting nearly 60 per cent of the world's major river basins.
Dams are mainly used to save, manage and prevent the flow of excess water into specific regions. Not all reservoirs are held behind dams, but
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Case study - southern USA- water problem
The USA is a huge user of water. The western states of the USA, covering 60 per cent of the land area with 40 per cent of the total population, receive only 25 per cent of the country's mean annual precipitation. Yet each day the west uses as much water as the east.
The southwest in particular has prospered due to a huge investment in water transfer schemes. This has benefited agriculture, industry and settlement.
California has benefited most from this investment in water supply. Seventy per cent of runoff originates in the northern one-third of the state but 80 per cent of the demand for water is in the southern two-thirds. While irrigation is the prime water user, the sprawling urban areas have also greatly increased demand.
The 2333-km long Colorado river is an important source of water in the southwest. Over 30 million people in the region depend on water from the river. Despite the interstate and international agreements (between the USA and Mexico), major problems over the river's resources have arisen.
because population has increased along with rising demand from agriculture and industry.
. The $4 billion Central Arizona Project (CAP) is the latest, and probably the last, big money scheme to divert water from this great river.
● Resource management strategies include: measures to reduce leakage and evaporation losses; recycling more water in industry; charging more realistic prices for irrigation water; extending the use of the most efficient irrigation systems; changing from highly water-dependent crops such as rice and alfalfa to those needing less water.
● Future options include: developing new groundwater resources; investing in more desalination plants; constructing offshore aqueducts that would run under the ocean from the Columbia river in the northwest of the USA to California.
There is now general agreement that planning for the future water supply of the southwest should embrace all practicable options.
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Potential consequences of enhanced global warming
• greater global temperature variations and heatwaves
rising sea levels
. increasing acidity in oceans
• melting of ice caps and glaciers
disruption of the warm water currents of the Gulf Stream
growth of the tropical belt
. changing patterns of rainfall
. declining crop yields.
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Consequences of desertification
Environmental
• Loss of soil nutrients through wind and water erosion
Changes in composition of vegetation and loss of biodiversity as vegetation is removed
* Reduction in land available for cropping and pasture
* Increased sedimentation of streams because of soil erosion and sediment accumulations in reservoirs
Economic
* Reduced income from traditional economy (pastoralism and cultivation of food crops)
* Decreased availability of fuelwood, necessitating purchase of oil/ kerosene
* Increased dependence on food aid
* Increased rural poverty
Social and cultural
* Loss of traditional knowledge and skills
* Forced migration due to food scarcity
* Social tensions in reception areas for migrants
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Attempt to conserve resource (strategies)
Various other strategies can be used in the attempt to conserve resources.
- The agreement of quotas is an increasingly frequent resource management technique, illustrated by the case study of the EU's Common Fisheries Policy.
Much further along the line is rationing. This is very much a last-resort management strategy.
At various times the use of subsidies has been criticised by environmentalists. It has been argued that reducing or abandoning some subsidies would aid conservation.
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Measures of energy conservation
Government
Improve public transport.
. Set a high level of tax on petrol.
• Set minimum fuel consumption requirements for vehicles.
Congestion charging to deter non-essential car use in city centres.
Encourage business to monitor and reduce its energy usage.
* Promote investment in renewable forms of energy.
* Pass laws to compel manufacturers to produce more efficient electrical products.
Individuals
* Walk rather than drive for short local journeys.
* Buy low fuel consumption/low emission cars.
* Reduce car usage by planning more 'multi-purpose' trips.
* Use public rather than private transport.
* Car pooling.
* Use low-energy light bulbs.
* Install and improve home insulation.
* Turn boiler and radiator settings down.
* Wash clothes at lower temperatures.
* Purchase energy efficient appliances.
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Case study - south- east china - environmental problems in the pearl river delta
The Pearl River delta region in south-east China is the focal point of a massive wave of foreign investment into China.
The region's manufacturing industries already employ 30 million people. Major industrial centres include Shunde, Shenzhen and Guangzhou.
● The three major environmental problems in the Pearl River delta are air pollution, water pollution and deforestation.
In 2007 eight out of every ten rainfalls in Guangzhou were classified as acid rain. The high concentration of factories and power stations is the source of this problem along with the growing number of cars in the province.
● Two-thirds of Guangdong's 21 cities were affected by acid rain in 2007. Overall, 45 per cent of
the province's rainfall in 2007 was classified as acid rain.
● Almost all the urban areas have overexploited their neighbouring uplands, causing a considerable reduction in vegetation cover. This has resulted in serious erosion.
● Half of the wastewater in Guangdong's urban areas is not treated before being dumped into rivers. Guangdong's government is working to reduce chemical oxygen demand (COD) and also to cut. sulfur dioxide emissions.
The Environmental Protection Bureau classifies the environmental situation as 'severe'.
Among the measures used to tackle the problems are
(a) higher sewage treatment charges,
(b) stricter pollution regulations on factories and
(c) tougher national regulations on vehicle emissions.
