Popular Culture and the Witchcraze Flashcards
Population increase of Europe from 1500-1600
110 million
When were drypoint engravings/printing press invented and by who?
Around 1440s by Johannes Gutenberg
Literacy increase in Europe
1/3 of Europeans were literate by 1700 in urban areas but priests in the rural areas were usually the only literate person. Improved slowly in southern Europe and women
Support that a print revolution happened
More people became literate, affected Church as texts of scientific were forbidden to be read by clergy, print became entertainment, able to spread messages easily - helped protestantism spread. Made books more affordable.
Support against the idea of a print revolution
Printing did not undermine the hierarchy and served to preserve the control of the Church, some believe that there was a communications revolution instead due to developed transport and handcopied texts flourished until the late 17th century.
Popular culture - Geographically
South - restrictions on women’s freedom, outdoor emphasis
North - indoor emphasis
Rural and urban, mountainous or pastoral region, agricultural and industrial differences
West more economically advanced than east.
Popular culture - Elites
Difference between nobles and learned elites - different life styles, privileges, religion
Shared culture between lower classes included festivals and bear/bull-baiting
Popular culture - Middling classes
Made up of merchants, professionals and substantial farmers who shared culture with neither the elite or poor
Popular culture - Urban
Centres of sophistication, had literacy and diversity, hierarchy still preserved in cities. Split into public and private culture. Increased population due to peasants moving hoping to improve financially.
Popular culture - Common
9/10 lived in rural areas, change from serfdom (apart from eastern europe), low literacy, separated by religion; youth culture and gender, taverns centres of entertainment, many holy days
Popular Culture - Gender
Affected every aspect of life, women seen as inferior and vulnerable to passions, excluded from education; politics and profession, gathered for socialisation at washing stations, shaped society via gossiping networks
Popular Culture - Hardships
No changes in energy sources, dependent on harvest, epidemics devastating and intensified with urbanisation and caused people to find scapegoats, plague and childbirth dangerous regardless of class.
Four classes of people
Gentlemen - nobility who own land which they don’t work
Yeoman - owns enough land to be fully dependent
Husbandman - had house, possessed less land which was leased
Citizens/Labourers - freemen in towns and cities who worked for others
Why was enclosure a problem?
Arable lands were used up and were inaccessible to the public. Converted to pastured lands which needed less labour increasing unemployment. Enclosed fields without consent. Enclosed coastal areas became vulnerable to invasion.
Who was against carnivals and the feast of fools and why?
Educated elite believed it was pagan and unchristian and tried to abolish festivals. Believed it caused a breakdown of order. Their beliefs were further fueled by May Day Riots in 1517 and in the 1520s-30s there were 20 carnivals in Germany turned into anti-Catholic protests. Council of Trent (protestant) set up to stop celebrations of saints but only partly successful.
Carnival
Usually in Jan/Feb celebrated through south and central Europe. Celebrated activities before giving it up for Lent. Theme of ‘world turned upside down’ with classes, allowed poor to express their resentment of authority to prevent further action from the poor. Acted as a safety valve.
Feast of Fools
Dec-Jan popular across Europe but less in southern Europe. Lord of misrule elected to command people. Mocked priests and danced and drank in church. Young clergy organised festival. 15th century: became frowned upon, died out 17th century. Acted as a safety valve.
Punishment of women
Women perceived as a threat to the patriarchy punished including reciting their crimes in a public market or via rough music. In England and France they had ‘skimmingtons’ and ‘charivari’ to publicly shame domineering women
Reasons for a ‘crisis of order’
Rapid population growth, vagrancy, war, plague
Calvinists
Wants locally translated Bibles which increased literacy, psalms sung instead of hymns, emphasised discipline. Attacked Christmas and midsummer festivals in 1570s Scotland.
Puritans
Came to power 1646-1660 in Britain. Banned public amusements. Festivals of misrule and May games banned under Oliver Cromwell. Philip Stubbs (puritan) made list of activities that should be abolished including dancing which included ‘unclean handling’
Martin Luther
Critiqued indulgences (paying to shorten time in purgatory before going to heaven) with 95 theses in 1517 which increased his popularity. Wrote books against Catholicism. Comdemned by the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor. Translated the Bible into German. Believed the Pope is the enemy of God.
German Peasant’s War
1524-5 Radicalised Luther’s message however Luther disagreed with their violence. War inspired Anabaptist movement (main radical belief was that adults should choose to be baptised). Condemned by both Protestants and Catholics.
Reformed Protestant
Stresses wickedness of idolatry more than Lutheranism. Against celibacy of clergy. Against mass’ objectivity and sees it as a metaphor while Luther upholds mass. Agrees that the Pope is the enemy of God.
How were serious crimes punished?
Death, orchestrated to be a public spectacle and acted as entertainment.
Hermetica
16th century of treatises on philosophy, astrology, magic and occult arts. Made magic a source of inspiration for scientists and suggested how to use minerals and plants and motivated them to discover substance’s properties
Counter-reformation
Ideas of Council of Trent continued by Jesuits who weaponised their ideas. Partly successful in recovering Catholicism. Recovered Poland, Germany, France, Hungary but not North Europe. Able to spread Catholicism to overseas colonies especially across central and south America. Burke argues that it mainly affected the educated and cut off Catholic elite from popular culture.
Challenges to the Protestant Reformation besides the Counter-Reformation
Secularism (free from religious qualities and promoted science), individualism (stresses human independence), religious tolerance
Burke’s argument
Believes between 1500-1800, people became more politically aware and interested. Supported by increased rebellions and violence against tax officials.
Percentage of women accused of witchcraft compared to men
Over 75% in most regions
Why were women seen as weaker
Story of Adam and Eve showed women as likely to succumb to diabolical temptation. Malleus Maleficarum said women were more gullible, lustful and prone to infidelity.
Where were male witches common and why
In Iceland, Estonia and Finland. Hunts sometimes got out of control and confessing witches were forced to name accomplices.
Transition of magic from positive to negative view
Magic common belief early modern society, well established place for cunning men and wise women who did white magic in society before witchhunts. Idea of diabolical pact emerged 1420s and by 16th century witches associated with maleficium, sabbats and devil
Difference between possession and witchcraft
Possession was when a demonic spirit invaded the body, altered movements and personality. Distinguished from witchcraft by their responsibility of actions. In England, the connection between the two became synonymous. Witches often persecuted for causing possession of other people.
Papal bull about witchcraft
1484 Pope Innocent VIII declared witchcraft an exceptional crime, allowing torture
Societal structure that made rise of witchhunts possible
Belief of witches emerged late fifteenth and early sixteenth century. Furthermore, communities needed scapegoats to maintain social cohesion. View of women. Hallucinogenic drugs commonplace in markets, bread often contaminated by plants when harvest failed and starvation resulted in hallucations
Factors which encouraged likelihood of witchhunts
Lack of religious homogenity, translated Bible meant more people read that witches should be sentenced to death. Elites wanted to impose conformity and preserve hierarchy. Witches often in rural communities and accusers often knew accused, masking disputes. Legal professionals gaining from witch trials. Catastrophe e.g. war (English Civil War and Thirty Years War), drought, harvest failures
When was the reformation?
1520-1650
Inquisitorial system in Scotland
Before 1590, witches tried in judicial courts. After 1590, witch trials approved by privy council or parliament. Wanted to strengthen central control but did not have judicial capacity.
Inquisitorial system in England
Central justice over capital crimes, strict central procedures = low conviction rate
Torture prohibited and controlled by privy council
Rules relaxed during Civil War -> Hopkins unsupervised.
Inquisitorial system in France
Parliament of Paris most centralised gov in France, handled most witchcraft cases, required that capital sentences of witches had to appeal to them - dismissed 36% cases and confirmed 24% cases.
Inquisitorial system in Germany
No central control, 2000 territories with own courts, Imperial Reichstag passed laws, half of all prosecutions of witches took place in Germany
Torture
Used to gain info/confessions. People were aware that it could be unreliable. Rules that were usually in place (e.g. establishing commitment of crime before torture, testimonies under torture not used) were relaxed for witchcraft. Torture often implicated others and accomplices named, starting chain-reaction hunts. Areas with torture - up to 95% conviction. Areas without torture - below 40% conviction. People preferred to confess and be executed than be tortured.
Secular Courts
Started participating in witch-hunting after 1560 as many countries had laws on witch-craft. Intensified witch-hunts. Allowed to execute where ecclesiastical courts couldn’t
Ecclesiastical courts
Prosecuted heretics but could not inflict bodily harm, referring them to secular courts. Weakened by late 16th century, reform led to decline in papacy’s control except in Spain and Italy where witchcraft persecutions were kept relatively low
Free confessions explanations
Felt guilty due to social pressure and belief of false memories, mental instability, drug-induced hallucinations especially from mouldy rye bread which’s poisoning induced hallucination, wanted to avoid torture and saw torture as worse than death
Methods of witch testing
Water in pail shimmered when witch walked by, witch can’t recite prayer without faltering, devil’s mark said to be insensitive to pain and pricked with needle to be tried, floating in holy water = witch and sinking = innocent
Capital punishments
Burnt in countries that viewed witchcraft as heresy and sometimes strangled before they were burnt. In England, witches were hung.
Scotland witchcraft statistics
4000 accused, 2500 executed. Had 5x the average executions than in Europe. Most severe out of Protestant Europe. 85% accused were women often in their 40s
Scottish witch accusation process
Pre-trial investigation in local church court which couldn’t execute. Imprisoned and tortured suspects. Given to ad hoc local courts which tried 9/10 witches. Most trials authorised centrally
Mary Queen of Scots on Witchcraft
Mother of James I/VI passed Scottish Witchcraft Act in 1563
When did Jamies I write Demonologie
1597
Nordic region witchcraft
1200 recorded deaths and mostly tried in secular courts. Access to Malleus Malificarum and mostly biased towards women except for Iceland. In Denmark witchcraft made illegal in 1617.
Blakulla trials in Darlarna
1668-76 Sweden, more than 100 women, children and some men killed for visiting Blakulla. Twice as many women than men in Darlarna due to army conscription. Most accused were from middle class families. Caused local authorities to declare state emergencies and decreased hunts
Polish witchcraft
Involved in milk-theft, Malleus Malificarum translated into polish 1614. In Wielkopolska, 96% women. Witchcraft illegal in 1776 (failed to prevent hunts, Barbara Zdunk executed 1811 in modern Poland). Mostly done in secular courts. Burnt - catholic country.
Kleczew, Wielkopolska case study
Worst outbreak of panic in Poland. Lord of the manor was willing to accept accusations of women being witches as true and would pay for costs of cases. Drew in people from up to 15 miles, inflated number of trials
Witchcraft in France
Mostly female accused and comprised of 3/4 witchcraft defendants tried in parliament. Black death killed 1/3 population and most populated country in Europe until 1795. High protestant population in south and catholic in north. Decline driven by legal reforms limiting torture and scepticism of judges.
Witchcraft in the Netherlands
Lack of centralised system however some parts e.g. Friesland required evidence to accuse, torture and death penalties for witchcraft was banned. 164-200 people killed overall in witch hunts. Out of 164 documented, 155 were women. Around 40,000-60,000 accused. Had periods of high inflation and famine however wages rose as fast as prices. First country to discontinue executions. Last execution in 1609.
Witchcraft in Italy
Mostly occurred during Renaissance. Mainly took place by papal inquisitors and some in secular courts. Was a capital crime and relied on two EWT or confession. Used torture. Played a significant role in the development of belief of diabolic witchcraft including Matteuccia’s trial which was the earliest account of a witches’ sabbath
Witchcraft in Russia
Russian Orthodox Church showed witchcraft as heretical. Trials conducted under ecclesiastical courts. Severe punishments for witchcraft. Less intense than Western Europe. 3/4 of cases accused men. Used torture.
When was torture restricted by the papacy?
1623
Wave motion of witch hunts
In Ortenau, the hunt came in 3 waves over the span of 1627-1630
Why did witch hunts decline?
Judicial officials became suspicious especially after more elites were accused. Sometimes popular pressure stopped hunts as they would boycott the hunts.
Trier
1581-1593 caused by poor harvest (all but 2 harvests destroyed at the same time as the hunts), power handed to the religious authorities from council increasing heretical crimes, Jesuit college established creating those who accused witches and used statement of children. 306 witches denounced and snowballed into a further 1500 prosecutions. 1000 executions. Largest hunt ever.
Würzburg
1626-1631 highly influenced by Prince-Bishop Ehrenberg. Affected all parts of society, even priests and the Prince-Bishop’s nephew. Only came to an end after Ehrenberg’s death. 900 executions
Bamberg
1626-1631 influenced by Prince-Bishop von Dornheim who was nicknamed the ‘witch-bishop’. Built ‘witch-house’ for the accused. Influenced by 30 years war, famine, plague, snowballing and Catholic minority of elite ruling over Protestants. Von Dornheim would confiscate victim’s assets to pay for trial making the hunts become about money. 600-900 executions
Cologne
1626-1634 controlled by Prince-Elector Ferdinand who was educated in Trier during their hunts. Caused by series of crop failures. Witch-commissioners appointed. 2000 executed
St Bartholomew Day Massacre
1572, protestants slaughtered by Catholics in Franch causing influx of French immigrants to England
Peace of Aubsburg
1555, intended to bring an end to religious wars in Central Europe by dividing the numerous German states between Catholic and Lutheran authority
Defenestration of Prague
1618, protestants attending assembly defenestrated, no serious injury inflicted but marked one of the opening phases of the Thirty Years War
Denmark’s involvement in the Thirty Year War
Joined 1625, repelled by Wallenstein’s army of 100,000 mercenaries and withdrew 1629
King of Bohemia during Thirty Years War
Ferdinand II from 1617, was a Catholic and many feared that he would re-Catholicise Bohemia. The Thirty Years War began in Bohemia. Issued Edict of Restitution that restored Catholics all land confiscated by the Protestants since 1552.
The Battle of White Mountain
1620, Ultimate collapse of Bohemian Protestantism and the end of the Thirty Years War for Bohemia
The Treaty of Westphalia
1648, allowed the fragmentation of the Holy Roman Empire into more than three hundred sovereign states
Period of von Dornheim’s rule as prince-bishop
1923-32
Stop of Bamberg witch-trials
Witch-hunts in Bamberg ceased in 1931 after Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II opposed them - 1 year later, the advance of Swedish and Saxon armies caused von Dornheim to flee from Bamberg causing those who he had in captive to be released
Counter-reformation linked with hierarchy
Protestantism viewed as a threat to the social and political order
Weather magic
Started in Bavaria 1589 and again in 1628 during cold and wet weather but hunts started 80 yrs before Little Ice Age
How many people could endure sleep deprivation torture
2%
William Harvey
King’s physician, provided natural explanations behind accusations e.g. witch’s mark
Margret Moone
1645 from Colchester evicted because a man paid higher rent than her and left homeless. Accused of death of livestock, spoiling food and killing children
Johannes Junius
Mayor of Bamberg, confessed during torture that every member of his family was a witch apart from his daughter. Executed
Pre-Hopkins Essex
90% accused in Essex female, poor and old. Males were often sons or husbands of witches. By early 1645, parliament in essex in crisis and had anxiety about royalist forces. + inflation
During-Hopkins Essex
250 tried from 1645-7. JPs not active during Civil War to intervene.
English Civil War
1642-51 Puritan war on Catholicism. 4% of population killed
Cost of Hopkins witch hunts
Hopkins charged £8 per case. Those imprisoned at Ipswitch cost up to around £50. Total costs equalled 1/7 of town’s annual expenses
What happened to Hopkins and Stearne in their later lifes
People became reluctant to convict suspects due to the cost and evidence. People became suspicious of both and Hopkins became accused of witchcraft. Previously established authorities came back. Lawsuits filed against Stearne. Hopkins dies 1647, hunts stop. Link directly to Hopkins as Civil War end 2 yrs after.
Inquisitorial vs acquisitorial
Inquisitorial - witches are looked for
Acquisitorial - hunts start AFTER accusation
Evidence of suspicion growing in Essex
1646, pardons given by parliament for 9 witches in Essex due to concerns of quality of evidence after report sent to parliament about concerns about persecuted witches
Nature of hunts which hunters were involved in
Hunters were not the driving force, only involved in cases which they were invited to by the local people. Had no part in the trial and often left when the trial started. Guilt was decided by judges showing lack of responsibility. Only gave accusers confidence.
Evidence for puritanism being linked with hunters in England
Newcastle 1650, 15 executed due to puritan administration. Called Scottish witch pricker to help hunt
Evidence for the cause of hunts being from above in England
1660 witch trials declines due to lack of support from the elite
Puritan oppression in England
Charles I pursued radicals in the 1630s. Andros introduced policies which targeted puritans and tried to control colonies e.g. puritan landowners had to pay fee if they wanted titles, introduced new taxes to Massachusetts (predominantly puritan).1684 England revoked law allowing Puritans to govern themselves. Witch trials were a method for Puritans to reassert control via strict religious beliefs
Reasons for stress in Salem
Paranoia due to puritan oppression, wars with natives (attacks uncommon but fear very constant, some residents were refugees from attacks), tension between England and America e.g. trade has to go through England to go to America so economy is damaged, dispute between Porters and Putnams - Porters wanted to expand commerce, Putnams wanted to isolate. Salem village wanted independent church from the town
When was the witchcraft law introduced in Massachusetts
1641
Cotton Mather
Senior clergyman, had religious training, wrote about witches and inspiring hysteria around witches.
Why in Salem were convictions easy to secure?
Use of spectral evidence, accused could often not defend themselves, petitions by neighbours testifying for the accused was ignored, long-standing gossip accepted as evidence. Only way to survive was to confess and accuse others
Reverend George Burroughs
Recited the lord’s prayer to test if he was a witch. Succeeded without fault but was still executed. Shows the absurdity of the lack of logic in Salem. Key minister. Unable to pay back money to the Putnams.
Giles Corey
Salem: refused to plea, died by torture which increased public opinion against trials.
Samuel Parris
Minister of Salem, persecution of witches began in his household. His daughters were Elizabeth and Abigail and his slave was Tituba. Used as a key witness. Supported by Putnams.
The afflicted in Salem
Betty Parris, Abigail Williams, Ann Putnam, Jr., and Elizabeth Hubbard, Played fortune telling game and started to act strangely, said that they were being pinched by invisible agents. Likely suffered ergot poisoning
Who were the first 3 accused in Salem?
Sarah Osborne, Sarah Good, Tituba. All were outsiders.
How were the first accused found?
Neighbour of Parris instructed slave to make a ‘witch cake’ and fed it to the dog. The guilty would then suffer pains. The afflicted said that they saw the apparitions of the accused after the witch cake.
How were the Putnams behind the Salem Witch Trials?
Pressed for JPs to take on case, present at trial, supported prosecutions. Many of the accused were connected to the Putnams. Parents of Ann Jr who accused the most.
Sarah Osborne
One of the accused at Salem. Widow who tried to take over her husband’s farm, upsetting social norms. Died in prison.
Tituba
One of the accused at Salem. Slave of Samuel Parris. Speculated to be native or afro-carribean (religious practices may have been viewed as witchcraft. Confessed and accused others. Spent 13 months in jail and was freed.
George Jacobs Sr.
One of the accused at Salem. 72 yr old. Victim of personal grudges; accused by his granddaughter and hanged.
Mary Easty
Opposition to Salem Witch Trials. 58 yrs. Martyr who fought for innocence and key in ending hunts.
Phips
Determined to end Salem trials, suspicious of afflicted girls and inspired by Increase Mather. Called for disbanding of the court, bailed suspects, stopped executions and additional arrests. His wife was accused, motivating him against it and questioning the use of spectral evidence.
Mark of the end of the Salem Witch Trials
Stoughton set up a new court, the Superior Court of Judicature in 1693. Phips prevented use of spectral evidence and first cases with this court had many dismissed. Stoughton resigned from courts due to Phips
How did Increase Mather change the Salem Witch Hunts?
Opposed spectral evidence. Due to his high status as the head of ministerial association, public opinion changed.
Impact post-Salem
Economic impact as those involved in trial did not tend to farms. Accusers did not suffer consequences. End of trials generally ended hunts in North America for a long time. Many accusers expressed regret
When were the Salem witch trials?
1692
When did witch hunting end around Europe?
Generally around 1630. In the Dutch republic, 1603. In Poland, the mid 18th century. In England, last execution in 1685 and last trial in 1717
Changes to regulation of local justice which caused decline of witch hunts
Judicial authorities began to control inferior/local courts. For example, Parliament of Paris reversed many death sentences as people had to appeal capital offenses to them. In Champagne-Ardennes, witch panic got out of control in 1587-8 and Parliament of Paris intervened
Changes to restriction of torture which caused decline of witch hunts
Judges took over when concerned about misuse of torture. 17th-18th century, torture became attacked especially in books. Restrictions happened in countries which were more impactful than banning. Most restrictions/abolitions happened late 18th century.
Changes to standards of evidence which caused decline of witch hunts
More people began to suspect using confessions from torture, accept that there were natural causes of events, that there were mental illnesses, deny use of spectral evidence and testimonies from children, servants and alleged accomplices.
Edmund Robinson
1634, Lancaster witness admitted that he fabricated the accusation
Katherine Malpas
1622, caught pretending to be a witch for her parent’s financial gain
Religious climate changing causing decline
Post reformation causes closer studies of Bible reveal that there is only 1 reference to witchcraft persecution. People questions sovereignty of God and if there was maleficia, he would punish them himself
Effect of end of 30 years war
Protestant and catholic communities became more tolerant and less people became driven to create an ideal christian community and to purify the world by burning witches by the end of 17th century. Lots of publications against witch hunting
Balthasar Bekker
Dutch Calvinist pastor and biblical scholar. Attacked witch hunting in publications 1691-93. Believed that if the devil was not given power, witchcraft stops. Suggested that states should persecute those who accuse
Social changes which caused decline
Inflation levelled off, improved wages. Increasing urbanisation caused less local disputes and less personal relations caused less scapegoats in the community
Nicolas Copernicus
Polish mathematician 1473-1543, challenged geocentrism with heliocentrism. People ignored until 16th century when it caused religious controversy
Johannes Kepler
Court astronomer to Holy Roman Emperor 1571-1630 theorised orbit was elliptical, not circular, mother was a victim of witch hunts
Galileo Galilei
Italian intellectual 1564-1642, improved astronomy, supported heliocentrism and challenged papacy. Convicted with heresy 1633 put under house arrest.
Rene Descartes
French intellectual 1596-1650, moved to Netherlands to avoid Catholics. Argued world was made up of physical laws and opposed Catholicism
Francis Bacon
English philosopher 1561-1626, stressed need for empirical method and experiments
Isaac Newton
English mathematician/thinker 1642-1727 work on light and gravity influential and dominated scientific world. Promoted through the Royal Society
Thomas Hobbes
English philosopher and mathematician 1588-1679 stressed deductive reasoning and denied witches. Affected by the breakdown of English politics in 1640s. Wanted to blend science and politics, believed in rule of man, not God
John Locke
Philosopher 1632-1704 supported empiricism, humans born as blank slate and ideas are learnt. Moulded concepts of liberal democracy, against censorship and divine kingship
Gresham College and The Royal Society
Founded in London 1594, collection of natural philosophers dedicated to experimental science.
Difference in decline of witchcraft east and west europe
By 18th century trials were only present in the east where academic institutions and a strong state administration was absent or weak
Sir Robert Boyle
Educated elite, believed in demons and witches despite being a famous scientist
Changing religious attitudes leading to decline
Most educated Catholics accepted that they couldn’t see God’s work in the everyday and there was less interpretation of the supernatural
Jane Wenham
1712, many people held a grudge against her and Judge Powell recognised this and was suspicious of evidence. Powell asked queen to give her a pardon which was granted.
Wonders of the Invisible World
1693 written by Cotton Mather defending the trials and supporting spectral evidence
Aftermath of Putnams from witch trials
Faced accusations of stirring up hunts for personal gain
Lawful consequences of Salem
1702, Massachusetts government declared the witch trials illegal. 1711, passed a law compensating the families of those convicted. Spectral evidence was banned
Religious consequences of Salem
People began to question Puritan authority in New England. Change in emphasis of personal religious practice over strict adherence = more religious tolerance.
Martha Corey
Well-regarded woman who was accused in Salem because she did not fully support the trial
Bridget Bishop
First person executed, known for wearing bright clothes and not acting like a proper Puritan woman
Carol Karlsen
Found many of the accused in Salem owned property and if they were convicted, their land could be taken
Example of victims of Native attacks
1692 girls living in Salem had been orphaned in Maine as their family were victims of the attacks
King William’s War
From 1689, tensions between English settlers and French-supported Wabanaki Native Americans. 1691-2, there was an increase of refugees from Native American attacks into Salem
Mercy Lewis
Accuser in Salem who survived Native attacks in Maine which orphaned her. Believed that witches were attacking Salem
Geillis Duncan
Confessed and named 70 accomplices under torture. Scottish so torture encouraged. Shows how quickly chain reaction hunts could occur
Comparison of persecutions between religious inhomogeneity and homogeneity
Holy Roman Empire - 25000 persecutions, extreme religious divisions
Catholic Spain - 300 persecutions, homogenous
Katharina Merckhelm
Confessed to being apart of a plot to freeze and destroy Bamberg’s crops.
How did the Netherlands prevent economic causes behind witch hunts?
Constant import of Baltic grain meant that they did not suffer from famines and persecutions were kept to a minimum of 200.
Example on the influence of pamphlets
Hunt in Franche-Comté began shortly after the publication of Henry Boguet’s ‘Discours des Sorciers’ in 1602
Example of how snowballing was extreme
In Rouen, 9 people provided a total of 525 accomplices in 1670
Rottenburg case study
Shows misogyny; people became worried that hunts would eliminate all the women in the town. Justified by the fact that 2 villages had been left with only 1 female inhabitant by the end of hunts.
