pompeii & herculaneum Flashcards

Question

history of P excavations

Answer 1

found by **chance**, **didnt know** **until found inscription** * **1592 Domenico Fontana cut** large **irrigation channel through P** * **1689 inscription** found name ‘**pompeii**’ * **1748 Roque de Alcubierre began formal excavations** * **1806-15 French Bourbon (royal family living in area) excavations** **asap**--> **werent interested in preserving** the **site, quickly to find treasures** * **1815-60 Neapolitan (from Naples region) excavations, attempts to preserve & restore site for 1st time to display** to increasing no. **visitors (frescoes in situ (left it situation where they were found) under shelters to display)** --> * **Preserve for visitors to come to attract tourists**

Answer 2

* **1875-1901** * **Rebuild ancient walls, roofs** --> Good to **visualise but not authentic and couldve reconstructed wrong**, * **Sculptures left in new replanted garden** --> **warps** **perception of sites** → to **attract tourists** * **used Iron and asbestos concrete** **to reinforce buildings** for 1st time **(asbestos** are **carcinogenic** → cause **cancer**, didnt know back then very harmful) (**Iron corrodes, today use steel**)

Answer 3

* great, painstaking work **studied frescoes and developed styles** * **Contributed to excavations at P** for many **years** * Msot **well known contribution** was his **categorisation of wall paintings into 4 styles** 1. **masonry** style characterised by **simulation of marble** (look like), made to **look like stonework** 2. **architectural** style **‘illusionism’** 3. **ornate** style mroe**figurative & colourful** 4. **intricate** style **less ornamented** than its predecessor but **more complex**

Answer 4

* 1911-1923, **superintendent** **(in charge, oversaw excavations)** of Archaeological works * **Major contribution to rediscovery of P** was exploration of **~600m of Via dell’ Abbondanza (main street of Pompeii) aka road of abundance** * **Excavations** utilised **new techniques to reconstruct structures from top down** * He **restored** the **facades** of buildings → **save inscriptions & graffiti** * **Preserved & restored 2nd storeys of buildings as he excavated** * **criticised** for **basing recreations on** **imagination** → forever influenced **perceptions of facades** * Once **restore, ppl cant visualise** other way, If **evaluate** his work, **some good on road & working top down but restoration work based on his fanciful thinking highly wrong!!!**

Answer 5

* **excavated most** * 1924 **chief archaeologist** at **P** serving as director until 1961(straight **after Spinazzola)** * Undertook **extensive systematic excavation** & **analyse P houses** * **Uncovered** sig structures **ampitheatre & palaestra** (sports area, athletes to train) * **Reconstructed buildings he excavated** * archaeological inquiry away from destruction of AD79 and houses of the wealthy but digged deeper to **what p was like before** (good) * Interested in **how poor lived** (good) * Excavated **4 hectares of H, rediscovered cave** * **1st archeologist** interested in **pre-eruption layer** (For 1st time excavations below destruction lvl 79 AD excavate famous **(House of Surgeon)**) * **Funding** became **problem** at P post war erafast paced exploration continued * **Large portions of city unearthed** however criticised by some **rushed, poor excavation & restoration techniques** bc **inconsistent recording methods & incomplete publications** (Buildings excavated & restored with techniques **Spinazzola** used **remained** in **better condition** * **Recently** realised involvedi n **corrupt dealings with fascist party of italy,** * Added **lighting to p** for **night visits** & used **ancient theatres** for **dramas** (**More ppl to see ancient ruins & more incoem from tourists to fund conservation** , But **change** theatre’s **structure by adding modern substances** eg. concrete disastrous * **Little attention** in **preserving** what already **excavated** → **buildings** started **deteriorating** * Criticised for **tampered evidence** eg. **skeletons** to heighten **tourist** interests If kept skeletons kept **in situ, context of where found & who found with like early treasure hunters**

Answer 6

* After **retired 1961**, focus of site **management** altered to **conservation** * **many Excavated buildings** constantly **exposed to elements need sig maintenance, conservation, restoration** * Large scale excavations **suspend**ed in favour of **smaller, more focused archaeological explorations** * Fausto Zevi decided 1977 to suspend all excavation to devote resources to conservation & recording * Since 1980 international coop studying sites **P 1997 granted status** as **UNESCO World Heritage Site** → world attention → transformed into **autonomous entity** with **control over its own administration & finances** → **entrance fees** of visitors used in P for **maintenace & restoration (Before**, moeny from P tourists **distributed to italian gvt** * **Despite** **resources, exposure to weather, seismic event & millions visitors** constantly strains ancient city **(H better state)**

Answer 7

* **small** (by **Roman standards) surrounded by defensive walls** * **irregular shape,** built on **terrain slopes above sea lvl** * **earliest** areas developed were around **Forum & Via Stabiana insulae, heavily influenced by Greek urban planning ** seen in regular** ** **street layout & roads dividing town into insulae**, some only **1 house** others **over dozen** * **grid pattern less precisely applied** * **early** surrounded by **defensive stone walls (12 towers, 8 gateways leading to town)** --> became **Roman colony** --> some **sections demolished for housing** * **Herculaneum Gate** * **roman paving techniques used polygonal blocks of basalt & raised footpaths both sides roads** * **stepping stones** for **pedestrians** + access to **wheeled traffic** so **cross roads w/o stepping in sewage & waste** * **deep grooves** in **roads** --> **volume** **traffic**

Answer 8

* **Greek classical town layout** w/ **narrow straight streets dividing town into insulae** * **sea wall w/ large vaulted chambers for boats** * **less traffic**, but **more efficient drainage & sewerage systems** * **main street used as** its **Forum** * **Posts** erected as **barriers of entry to roads** (prevent access)

Answer 9

magistrates responsible for maintaining town infrastructure (streets, roads)

Answer 10

* site layout * streetscapes * public & private buildings * ancient writers * official inscriptions * graffiti * wall paintings * statues * mosaics * human, animal, plant remains

Answer 11

initially didn't realise carbonised scrolls thought lumps of coal for fuel * nasa tech to pass through diff light spectrums, effectively read scrolls --> writings of philosopher Philodemus (Epicurean philosopher) * used AI to read scrolls

Answer 12

Calpurnius Piso, Julius Caesar's father in law who was very rich and had opulent villa looking over Bay of Naples

Answer 13

1. **electoral (programmata)** * urge citizens to **vote for candidate**, usually **signed by family & friends**, **women** could (but cant vote) * political graffiti: rogrammata * electoral notice of someone who tries influence votes of ppl **(many in P)** * roman town top politicla spectrum was Rome emperor but town itself had own local gvt * P&H top of local gvt were 2 duumviri (plural) like magistrates --> next important 2 aediles) 2. **advertisement** * announce **shows** coming to **Amphitheatre** * **local magistrates** responslbe **pay all/part expenses of gladiatorial shows** 3. **personal messages** * walls often **painted over for new graffiti**

Answer 14

* not all remains uncovered and if were, some evidence destroyed/not seriously studied * diff deduce info (ownership, functions of rooms, SOL who used buildings esp when decorations & epigraphy often removed/stolen) * little literary evidence to cross-check w/ archaeological evidence * few public buildings in H (forum not excavated) --> understanding political & commercial life in H limited * some early archaeologists didnt understand evidence (romans didnt see work & home separately, diff concept of room uses, didnt segregate women in house, lived close proximity with slaves, freedmen, client, tenants)

Answer 15

ARCHAEOLOGICAL * **decorative art (frescoes, mosaics,** show **Greek influence)** * **everyday objects (food, utensils, objects** for **commerce, transport, entertainment**, medicine) --> **hsitorians** **valuable for daily life** * **wax tablets** (dossiers) reveal **bus & legal activities, fmaily structure** * **rollys of papyri** (Epicurean philosophy) * **architecture (public & private)** * **human remains (skeletons, plaster & resin casts**) reveal **sex, age, health, appearance, genetic diversity, status, cause of death** **EPIGRAPHIC** * **wall writings (electoral slogans, graffiti) --> city events & activities** * **formal inscriptions** on **bronze, marble, stone** (civic charters, regulations) --> evidence of **gvt, political elite** **LITERARY** * PTY, PTE, Seneca, strabo, vitruvius, cicero, cassius dio,

Answer 16

* PTY's letters to tacitus * PTE academic & Roman admiral, 'natural history' one of world's 1st encyclopedias & wrote abt P's natural reosurces & products * **Strabo wrote abt the geography** * **Seneca discussed earlier earthquake, Vitruvius** wrote abt **architecture, esp features of houses & Greek influence** on layout of theatres * **Cassius Dio wrote abt eruption**

Answer 17

* epigraphy is study of inscriptions * **writing on city walls** prominent form of **communication** eg. **ads for gladiatorial games/promote bus**' * **civic charters & regulations on bronze plates** fixed to **walls of public buildings** * **patrons** used inscriptions to **promote themselves & family** usually on **pubic buildings/ statues** **welathy citizens** (who r**ecognised patron's contribution to city)** * f**unerary inscriptions on tombstones** reveal **religious & burial customs** but also need to be interpreted with caution, reveal **how ppl want to be remembered**

Answer 18

public * temples * bathhouses (thermae) * amphitheatre (circus) * palaestra * Basilica (law courts) * theatre * raods * water towers & fountains * town walls & gates * Thermapolia * Brothels * Taverns (last 3 at front of houses, attached) private structures * insulae, villas (country & suburban) * palatial/humble town houses * farm buildings

Answer 19

* political slogans & public notices usually painted in red & black than inscribed * mostly painted by professional scribes on outer walls of buildings * walls firstly whitewashed with lime & at night scribe wrote message under light of oil lamp, not always done by professional * quite reliable bc spontaneous form of expression, show range ppl from all classes & bgs thinking * pompeii dedicated to Venus --> graffiti love, devotion, jealousy, bitterness common * many related to gladiators

Answer 20

* **guests follow colourful decor** while **slaves dark corridors** * **social orientation (no. frescoes** & their **quality** --> lvl **resources & social aspirations of HH**) * frescoes coats of **mortar (lime & sand mix),** coats of **lime mixed with finely powdered marble**, **pigemnts aplied** when **plaster still wet** * **AUGUST MAU** 4 styles wall paintings **chronologically & according to traits, not isolated to P** 1. **incrustation** * **colourful blocks painted on walls** resemble **large marble slabs** **decorating temples & public buildings** that **inds couldnt afford** 2. Architectural * **realistic** reflects **everyday objects & scenery** * **illusions of windoes** 3. Ornamental * **monochromatic,** ornamental walls painted with **few pieces of architecture, columns** to **divide** **wall** into **sections** 4. intricate * **all elements** of earlier styles * **chaotic**, filled to excess

Answer 21

many identified P&H * made of **marble, bronze or stone** * aesthetic runners, **mythological scenes, prominent figures** eg. **Marcus Nonius Balbus in H** * some **purely artisitc & represent wealth** & **Greek culture** * others **political**

Answer 22

**pictures/decors** made of **diff coloured** pieces of **stone, tile, glass** to form **simple/elaborate** design * usually appeared on **floor inside/outside** but also on **walls** * **geometric designs, scenes or animals, mythical legends, religious motifs** & representations * **storng Greek influence** depict Greek gods

Answer 23

* agriculture * fishing * **industries (ceramics, olive oil, wine, fulleries** to bleach & clean clothes) * trade * **markets, shops, bars, taverns, inns, thermapolia (commercial** life) * banking

Answer 24

* P&H **both** generally **localised ecos** (nto always rely on Rome) based laregly on **agricultural production & fishing** * **P** more **trading & commercial centre**, making **profit & accumulating wealth** * **H smaller fishing town had farms** * ~**600 excavataed privately owned shops, workshops, bars**, inns * **Epigraphic evidence** of **guilds of tradesmen and retailers** * ~**20 maritime warehouses** (sea) of a **port area & buildings lined w/ wine jars (export & import** wine) * Paintings of cargo boats on Sarno and porters carrying products to load onto vessels

Answer 25

* **Inscriptions** on **walls & floors** of **houses & workshops** **paying tribute to pursuit** of **profit**’ profit is joy’ found in **mosaic** **entrance** way of 2 **wealthy men** * ‘Welcome gain’ inscrived around **impluvium** in **carpenter's house** * Images **mercury****god of commerce** * But idea of creation for profit is **questionable** and **not** necessarily indicates **p as whole** bc **production of bread, wine, clothing wasnt** in **bulk for export** but **some profits** still made **locally** → **limitations of evidence** * Debate betw archaeologists abt **extent p had ‘textiles’ or ‘wool’ industry** * **No. fulleries & farming of sheep** used as **evidence of export** by historian Moeller while Jongman argues more **small scale & localised**

Answer 26

* **respectable** way of **earning living** * ppl w/ **large landholding** **enjoy high status** * many **farmsteads & villas** associated with **farm/vineyard (villa rustica)** in **Sarno River Plain** and **market gardens (horti)** **within P walls** provided raw materials **(wine, olive oil, grains, fruit, veg, meat, wool**) for most **retail and industrial** **workforce** * many **Fishing fleets from H** on **coastline of Bay of Naples** provided **crustaceans, molluscs, fish** also to make **garum**, **exported to south of france, highly prized** * **Industries spawned others** eg. **terracotta & ceramic containers** for **storage & trade wine, oil, garum** --> **pottery **

Answer 27

* **Hub of town for eco, commerce, banking, admin**, etc * Vitruvius in his treatise on architecture said roman fora should be built with columns widely spaced to maek transaction of bus more convenient * Forum **buildings once roofed in bright red terracotta tiles** with **statues surrounding** them * **Large rectangular blocks** fitted solidly in ground **barred access to wheeled traffic** * On **any day of week (esp market day)** forum & surrounding streets wouldve been filled w/ lively **bustle of shopkeepers, merchants, customers, teachers, students, ppl gossiping, attend temples, law courts/hold political office**

Answer 28

building of EUMACHIA * one of largest buildigns in forum believed built by **patroness of fuller guild Eumachia**, contained **statue of her** * **Dedications on facade** refer to **her** name and her **son** Marcus Numistrius Fronto (**couldve been runnign for public office at the time**) * One of building unclear but it mayve been meeting place for **fuller’s collegium or where bus conducted eg. sale of wool/TEXTILES** * **Eumachia was free born woman who married into wealthy family & held public** office of Priestess & matron of the Imperial Cult → explains connections made betw imperial family & family of Eumachia patroness of the fullers guild * Not entirely sure what was used for, **assume** she was **patronness bc statue & inscription of her there,** likely used by fullers guild and ool & textiles

Answer 29

* fish, meat, veg * Had **pool of sea water to keep fish fresh** **no refrigeration** * **Busy market specialising** in **selling fish & meat, possibly fruit & vegs** * **Location** chosen so its **pedestrian traffic wouldnt disturb****main forum space** * Consisted of **large arcaded courtyard w/ shops wedged betw marble columns** * In **centre** unusual building (**tholos) bounded by 12 columns & in centre thought pool forl ive fish** * **Large quantities of fish scales & bones**(evidence) found in **underground channel** that **linked pool with drains** * a **small raised temple, statues of an emperor** and **notable Pompeian dignitaries (prob financed** the buildingFolitor

Answer 30

On **other side of forum** , **market** selling **(grains) & legumes** **sold to inds & bakeries** **Entrance** had **8 openings** to faciliatete movement of customer

Answer 31

* **measuring table** w/ **grooves of semicircles diff sizes** eg. measure kilo of wheat and put into carved semicircular holes and measure exact amt, evidence standardising weights * **weight ing table, marble slab** with **9 circular cavities** of **diff capacities** for **measuring foodstuffs** sold by **shopkeepers** * **Augustus** attempted to **standardise all weights & measures** throghout empire, (table with circle holes)

Answer 32

* Didnt barter, money in form of coins to trade in P&H * **most coins found minted under romna emperor vespasian** * **Currency** included **DENARII and SESTERCE** * Cache of 127 waxed writing tablets found 1959, they were bus transactions of Sulpicii family (family of bankers & money lenders)

Answer 33

* Remaisn of **20 warehouses** containing **weights for anchoring boats** & **fishing gear** but **amphorae & satatue of Neptune (god of sea) departing sailors made sacrifices** * a **trans-shipment point** ofr **local & foreign goods** * Ocne shisp **unloaded, goods transferred to barges(flatter boats) to Sarno River** to **inland towns** and onto **wagons into P** * Evidence indicates **P** was **important trading town** for **Campanian** region * **H’s eco** served more **localised needs** (smaller trading port bc **smaller town and less industries)** * P made garum & wine

Answer 34

* **ucertain** how **extensive** exports of P **wine** were to other **parts of Roman Empire** * Occasional **Pompeian amphora, tile or pottery container** found **beyond italy cut** some scholars believe their **export trade relatively minimal** * **Pompeian** **wine** **amphorae** found in **Spain, Germany, Britain** * **Pliny the elder** said **garum** was **major export** throughout the **Mediterranean** Praised **quality** of Pompeiian garum * Prized commodity, 2 bottles of garum produced in Pompeii were found in South of France, shows extent of exportation

Answer 35

* **Tableware for Puteoli * Pottery** from **spain** and gaul * **Furniture from naples** * **Lamps from alexandrai** * **Wine & oil import**ed **from spain,** sicily, crete

Answer 36

In past, believed **red slip ware (clay vessels)** found in P Confirmed **Jaye Pont** that it was **thriving local industry** & challenging previously held assumptions

Answer 37

* found **600+** * Numerous shops located along **Via dell abbondanza** (road) as **main comercial thoroughfare**, **shops built** rught up kerb had cd hte threshold which indicates the use of a **shutter** * **Nocommercial segregation** & **shops interspersed with housing** → Andrew Wallace-Hadrill said * Sohops at **front **of **houses**, **rich** ppl l**eased front rroom** of house bc rent * **Many** shops had a **back room** accessed by internal stairs **likely shopkeeper's living quarters** * Shop & workshop **owenrs advertised their bus w/ painted trade signs/ paintings on outside** of walls * **Busy street** prime location for **painted political slogans**

Answer 38

* ~**200** public eating & drinking places identified in **P** * Some just fast food snack bars aka thermopolia and recognised by **marble-covered counter!** Whih **large dolia holding hot drinks and dishes may have been encased** * Another possibility that **dolia (holding hot drinsk & dishes)used to store dried food** * **Msot places food taken away/ eatien standing up** * One of largest found in H opp Palaestra with 2 spacious entrances

Answer 39

* **Wine bars & taverns** known as **cauponae**! Scattered throughout **both towns but** in **P** were **more densely clustered near entrance gates & around amphitheatre** * Some had room/s at back with benches for clients * Others had **couches for welathier clients to recline while eating & drinking** * At least **some Pompeians heavy drinkers**, shown **in graffiti**

Answer 40

* evidence of **large commercial vineyard near P amphitheatre** * ~ **2014 vine-root holes & cavities** of their **supporting stakes were plaster cast in large area** today replanted w/ vines * site had**room** set up **for wine pressing** & a **shed with embedded dolia, each could fill 40 amphorae** * **Dolium partly on ground bc weather** and **keep it cooler,** encased in ground for **storage** * Amphorae look like jars

Answer 41

* Had **rooms for pressing grapes (torcularia plural) for fermentation (cellae vinariae) & storage** * According to **PTE**, districts with **mild climate stored wine in jars & buried them** **complete/partially in ground → protect from weathe** * Villas at Boscoreale (villa of psanella & villa regina) possessed a huge storage capacity * **Wine transported to town in large leather wineskins (cullei) then decanted into amphorae/dolia**

Answer 42

Wide variety of wines **produced in vesuvian area** **Sign on H wine bar invited patrons** ,**advertised** **half a dozen types wine & their vintages (when they were made)** Anotehr **tavern advertisemenet confirms wide range of wines sold in Pompeii** (ass red copper coin)

Answer 43

The **same estates that produced wine** also produced oil **Villa of pisanella** ept enough **storage jars for over 5900L of oil** Most of pressing (**press olives to extract oil)done on estates**, even thorough oil presses also found in **Pompeian houses & in Forum granary**

Answer 44

* **Pompeii** renowned for its garum, fish sauce **one of main condiments used for flavouring roman cuisine,** Made from **guts** of fish and other parts normally thrown away, **soaked in salt**, so garum is **juice produced by rotting substances** * Aa prominent manufacturer was Aulus SCAURUS 4 large mosaics of fish sauce bottles found in atrium of his house with inscriptions Nly 50 fish sauce bottles found in/around P **2 found** in **southern france** w/ his label **(exported)**

Answer 45

If had q on eco, **put agri & fishing in separate paragraph to industries**, do other ones eg. **wine, oil, garum, pottery making, perfume** * **fishing Primary source income for H**, fundamental source of income for **P** * **many fishing nets, bronze hooks, sinkers & fish bones & skeletons discovered at H** * **Bakeries (pistrina)** * **some** bakeries had **adjoining area for selling own bread** * Around **30** bakeries in **P** * **10 kinds bread** produced in bakreies but **poor quality of flour made bread very hard** * **Lack of yeast** made bread **deteriorate quickly** * Barkeries did **own refining of grain in lava stone** mills, usually 3 or 4 in a courtyard with a **table for kneading dough in the oven**

Answer 46

* wool one of most imp industries in **P** bc * **wash and dye wool & manufacture cloth** * Associated with manufacture of cloth was **laundering, bleaching, dyeing** of **clothes** usually carriedo ut in **fullonicae**/laundries, **18** were in **Pompeii** found * **Some** occupied **rooms of private houses (possible rented)** * Can be identified by **no. interconnected basins/tanks** with **built in steps for washing and rinsing** * Eidence **fullers rinsed dried and brushed cloth**, **(dry --> bleach w/ sulphur --> dye)** * perfume --> **Flower production for perfume industry, * root cavities** prob of **rose bushes, fragments of terracotta** and **glass perfume containers** evidence

Answer 47

**Farmers, fisherman P** had **large commuity** * **artisans, craftsmen** included **artisits, carpenters, potters, metalworkers Merchants, manufacturers,** * **service** industries eploying **shopkeepers, bakers, brothel keepers** * lot of evidence

Answer 48

1. emperor * lived in Rome but inhabitants of Roman towns had to show allegiance to him 2. nobility (aka elite, all freeborn) * patricians * equestrian order (eg. Marcus Nonius Balbus patron for public buildings) 3. poorer freeborn (outside elite) * ingenui (all freeborn) * plebs humilus poor & plebs media rich 4. freedmen and women (liberti) * libertus (man) liberta (woman) liberti all * wealthy --> not welathy 5. slaves (servi) * had hierarchy * those working for elite if literate could do bus transactions & trusted handling money * worst in quarries, breaking stone to build, galelys (just Rome tho) women in all groups but in each, inferior to men (paternalsitic society) some freedmen became wealthy and surpassed upper echelons but elite despised

Answer 49

5000 based on theatre seating but not accurate 10, 000 where 40% slaves (P)

Answer 50

* **own land, run for office, become politicians, vote** * **upper** lvl had **social network** w/ **friends, clients (freeborn & freed)** who **they advised** & **interest** looked after **publicly & privately** **(PC relation)** * Men could run for public office and could become **members of the ordo decurionum Local gvt, councils**

Answer 51

* **Range**d from the **elite** (generally **land-owning families)** to **plebs media** ( **rich but outside elite**) to most humble freeborn (**plebs humilus)** * Many of this group engaged in some form of **commerce** * Even **elite** concerned w/ **selling agricultural produce of their country estates** & **renting parts of theri** **town houses to small businesses** * As **prospective candidates for office,** **elite depended on these groups for political support**

Answer 52

* **benefit** **both** (**gain manumission ex slave received bus advice & contacts** and **previous master** **gets political support** when **running for office)** * freedman/woman usually **remained tied to his/her former master and patron in a relationship** (SLIDE 16), of **gratitude & loyalty**, * **Epitaphs** reveal **patrons** often **paid for graves** of deserving **freedmen/women** * **Freedmen & women often paid for their own graves and freeborn** * **tradition** that **welathy high status men** have **group of clients serving him** * **clients expected to arrive** at **patron's house** for **morning salutatio**, * **clients usually plebeians (poor, former slaves) but some acquired wealth** by **trading** & **became patrons**

Answer 53

Full legal rights Could hold political office Included wealthy landowners & businessmen ( Colosseum is microcosm of roman society (extra) Included wealthy landowners & businessmen Could be members of the town council Controlledp public finances, spaces religion Had privileged seats in amphitheatre and theatre Received honorary statues & tombs

Answer 54

* Could **NOT hold formal political office** * **Under** **legal control of fathers/husbands** * Could **own property & Conduct bus**inesses but still **relied on men** * **Constructed buildings & tombs** * **Held priesthoods** * **Support electoral candidates (influence vote)** * **Received honorary statues & tombs** (**few,** only **priestesses bc** **highly honoured**eg. eumachia as role of fuller’s patron & priestess)

Answer 55

masters could help est bus

Answer 56

Thinking later on when hes old enough eh can gain political office

Answer 57

He’s her patron and she’s trusted with running a business, most likely her famil & friends supported him

Answer 58

**crafts, trade & commerce** * **Small shops, workshops, bars, taverns, built into facades** of many dignisified **residences often run** by the **freed** dependants of the **owner** of the house

Answer 59

Wives of freedmen helped their husbands in businesses eg. bakeries Others ran own enterprises eg. brothels & inns and become wealthy Wax tablets of H reveal Poppaea Note, a freed woman of Priscus who had slaves of her own and another inscription of Naevoleia Tyche, well-off freedwoman of Lucius, also had freedmen and women of her own Even if they were ex-slaves could accumulate enough wealth to have own slaves

Answer 60

**Luxurious houses owned** by many **freedmen rivalled** **Pompeian elite** * **cultural language** of the **nobility** to **establish** their **status** in that society’ * **Actions** **to emulate elite** even with **houses** so they could **gain status** * **elite** who had **wealth** in their families for **generations** **resented ‘new money**’ of freedmen * **Paintings** done by hand by **artists, paid** **lots to create mosaics & frescoes** **display wealth**, eg walk into **atrium** see know automatically owner rich

Answer 61

* **Vote in elections** * **business owners** * some **Participate in religious cults** * Could **become an Augustalis (priest of emperor's cult)** * could **NOT hold formal political office**

Answer 62

Could not hold former political office Some worked for former masters

Answer 63

A large prop of population of P&H was likely been of servile origin, creating an obvious ethnic diversity in the relatively small total number.

Answer 64

**captured & acutioned/ offspring of slave mother belonged** to their **master** * **many** employed in **upper class HHs** as **cooks, entertainers, nurses, tutors, clerk/ secretaries** * on **agri estates, pick grapes, harvesting, ploughing** * **poorest had at least 1 slave**

Answer 65

In urban HH there was a great diff in status betw a server/oven-stoker Eg. dispensator who **controlled master’s funds** or the cellarius who **controlled food supplies** * **educated Male slaves highly privileged** * **Female slave unable to marry** and if had **offspring**, according to **Roman law** **belonged to** her **owner** * Slave’s **treatment was dependent** on **master** --> **Manumission**

Answer 66

**Slaves** could be **manumitted by** **masters/save up** enough **money to buy** their **liberty** (but then they had to pay a freedom tax) → permitted to **assume master’s name** * public & private slaves * Public slaves owned by town gvt cleaning streets, (social hierarchy) * **If owner sell slave,** **price 5% slave** **pay to grant manumission**

Answer 67

* Prevalent in **P** * Graffito but also paintings depict **wealthy offering a beggar a piece of bread** * Suggests **boundaries betw upper & lower lvls of society not distinct**

Answer 68

**little remain**, bc ppl only **value upper class** & didnt create a proper tomb w/ tombstone/ epitaph on it, * **few houses** had **separate slave quarters** at **back** w/ **narrow** dingy **passageways** with **cramped rooms,** --> **some HHs treated** them **well** in **main rooms** * **domestic work common**, (not only thing they did) * few **tombstones** attributed to slaves **written by upper class** * **Little** **evidence** in **archaeological records** * Some **owned by the town council (public slaves)** * **Often shared owner’s living space** * Very **few tomb inscriptions mention being a slave** , most probably **buriedi n tombs of their masters/unmarked graves** * problematic for historians & archaeologists, dont obtain comprehensive picture --> **limited understanding** of **daily life & social structure**

Answer 69

Female painting: literate (stylus & wax tablet), hair embellishent/style, jewellery, opulent garments

Answer 70

Evidence from **written & archaeological sources** suggest female influencei n P&H * **Paintings, inscriptions, graffiti** (though **interpretive)** suggest that women were omewhat **active in eco, religious, political roles in LIMITED way** * **inferior to men** * **paternalistic societies**, even **prominent women always connected to their paterfamilias**

Answer 71

father of HH * under Roman law power of life & death over entire family

Answer 72

* Could **INHERIT** a **share of** their **father’s estate** & could **make a will** on the sme basis as a brother but **couldnt dispose inheritance** * **own property** & **make bus transactions**

Answer 73

* **individually & w/ husbands, run shops** * **lower status often** worked in **fulling industry (washing & dyeing cloth)**, **making & mending clothes** * **businesswomen (w/ husbands/alone if widowed)** eg. bakery, * **wealthy upper class** eg. **buy, sell, rent properties**, * **freedwomen** eg. **taverns** * **pristess** (of popular **cults**) eg. Cult of Isis * **slave** eg. **cook, clean, entertain** * **tradesppl** eg. **sell perfume & dye, work at fullery, sell fruit & veg** * prostitutes --> **high-class courtesan**/ foreigners **(freed/slave at brothels & bars)** * **medical profession** aka **doctors, midwife (mostly servile origin)**

Answer 74

**unable to vote**, but still role in public life * **Some** public **priestesses** responsible for **construction & dedication** of **public buildings** * **supported political candidates**

Answer 75

* **unknown how many** females could **read/write**, believed **upper class girls educated in home** probably by a **slave tutor** * **Frescoes** show **women with stylus & tablet/book in hands** suggest **literacy**= **status** & maybe made woman **more desirable as a marriage partner**

Answer 76

Born into prominent Eucmachii family who owned vineyards & brickworks She assumed the public office of Priestess of Venus as well as matron of an imperial cult of Concordia Agustus She became patron of the Fuller’s Guild when she dedicated a building in the forum

Answer 77

* P&H **self governing** in **local matters** but **subject to decree of Rome** * **Gaps** in **knowledge** of **day-to-day** details of **political life** eg. **where elections held** * **Only male citizens vote** * **Epigraphic evidence** suggests **political activity intense in P** esp leading up to **elections** **(graffiti whitewashed painted over programmata layers)** * **Most including women polticialyl aware** * **Competition for office** so fierce **harder to gain seat city council > Roman Senate** - Cicero

Answer 78

* **2600 electoral announcements survived**, named **over 100 candidates for political office** * **Monumental inscriptions (honorific** inscriptions on **statue** bases) * **Epitaphs on tombs** * **occupation on tombstones**, * **Public buildings (Basilica, Commitium) B** housed **law courts** but also **political and eco structures**, **C meeting place for politicans**

Answer 79

**Executive arm of gvt** comprised **Board of Four/quattuorviri(4 magistrates** most important roles), **2 duumviri/**duoviri and **2 aediles** **3 arms of gvt (executive, council, ppl’s assembly)** **Executive: duumviri, aediles** (**offices** **south**ern end **Forum**) **cOUNCIL** **Curia** met in council house, **South**ern end forum Cruai for councillors **PPL’S Assembly** **Commitium South East** corner **Forum** **Near** each toher **to interact**

Answer 80

P&H modelled on Roman world and hence the Cursus Honorum (roman career path of political offices) prevalent in towns → offices of aedile & duumvir (singular) extremely important If male into politics, go through hierarchy to gain position esp Rome, procedure Doubt question on cursus honorum bc more focused on rome, but still need to know system moving through ranks Cant jump ranks, move 1 role after another, Councillers sometimes former magistrates themselves, educated, wealthy, moved through cursus honorum

Answer 81

Duumviri 1 of 2 equal magistrates elected annually w/ law giving powers who adminsitered justice & presided over the decuriones (councillors) Senior to aediles (more important) Administrative: carried out decrees of town council & administered electoral rolls Judicial: presided over the town’s courts Financail: presided over town money, looked after revenue & taxation Entertainment: public spectacles Gladiators, amphitheatres, * every 5 years elected as quinquennial duumviri to take census & control morality

Answer 82

Unworthy decuriones (members of council, usually former magistrates) Electoral candidates w/ required qualifications Inappropriatebehaviour during elections Misuse public funds Robberies Murder

Answer 83

Councillers sometimes former magistrates themselves, educated, wealthy, moved through cursus honorum Responsible for sentecning but only could give death penalty to foreigners & salves In civil cases, limited to law suits whose value didnt exceed 15,000 sesterces/defamatory trials whose limite was 10,000 sesterces Magistrates led town council, councillors nejoyed privileges eg. best seats at public shows in theatres/amphitheatre Symbols of power: purple bordered toga, lictores(guards) who carried bundles of rods called fasces symbolised military power

Answer 84

derived from quattuorviri, voted for them * only elect magistrates * poor male could only partake here not in council * vote as individuals or guilds * male citizens over 25 yo * voted on proposes by council * met in Comitium * every year elected 4 decurions to run towns (2 officials 'duumviri' for justice & finance, aediles supervise public buildings, manage markets, maintain order, issue licences & permits)

Answer 85

aka Ordo decurionum, 80-100 decurions/councillors (male) elected for life * (former) magistrates for life from most wealthy citizens (only freeborn, excluded actors & innkeepers) * revised every 5 years * debate & vote issues affecting city's administration * want men of honour (honesty, virture) and wealth * needed to make generous contributions to city * over 25 yo *only richest citizens bc private funding for community * every decision written in archives, if important inscribed in bronze (historians) * right to weal purple edged toga * had reserved seats at public performances * allowed to display fasces as trad symbols of power * met in curia

Answer 86

DUOVIRI * administered electoral rolls * criminal and civil cases & sentencing (magistrates) * census * co-mayors * serve 1 year AEDILES * admin public buildings * maintain roads & sewerage systems * regulate markets * maintain public order * sponsor theatre, gladiator comps, * serve 1 year

Answer 87

roman politicans usually held prestigious priesthoods in the state & Imperical Cult (worship emperor) as part of cursus honorum (usually) * religion and politics weren't separate, intertwined * all political meetings accompanied by religious rites * priesthoods associated w/ emperor worship eg. Augustales, integral in political life, many magistrates * Augustales had to pay a fee to Treasury to join, expected funds used to conduct Imeprial Cult --> wealthy freedmen & freeborn eligible

Answer 88

* extraordinary magistracy aka prefect for admin of justice) take place of duumviri for short time during emergency if town couldnt be governed by normal means * position could be legally appointed by town council under Lex Petronia * rarely used in P&H * occurred in P after 62AD earthquake destroyed ifnrastructure and delayed elections

Answer 89

1. Curia * city council meet in lavishly decorated curia chamber (south of forum) adjactent to Comitium 2. Comitium * Ppl's assembly where populus voted for ind magistrates (duumviri & aediles) * building roofless, town meetings held where citizens question members gvt (heavy gates) 3. Basilica * seat of the judiciary & law courts, centre of bus activities * long rectangular central hall flanked on either side by colonnaded aisle * one end 5 doors linked hall with Forum and other raised podium where duomvir sat

Answer 90

* only freeborn males could run for office * 1. reputation 2. wealth bc magistrates werent paid & expected to make generous contributions to public funds * voters interested in personal integrity of candidate (upright, reserved life') * although werent paid, wanted status & power * 1/2 electoral manifestos & programmata (propaganda) discovered in P from March election AD79 * earlier slogans whitewashed over to advertise next group candidates * candidate wore white toga (candida) & employed slave to whisper his name to everyone he contacted to identify himself

Answer 91

* candidates didn't write manifestos themselves, made electoral promises/boasted past * trade corps promoted candidates! * pastry vendores, muleteers (duomvir), fruit merchants (wanted ? as aedile) * graffiti shows some werent happy with duoviri

Answer 92

* housing * leisure * food & dining * health * clothing * baths * water supply * sanitation

Answer 93

Women not married wore tunics belt fastened on waist (like men) Longer than male tunics Made of wool/silk Females og wore togas but grew out of fashion & worn by prostitutes ‘lower status’ Men diff types togas eg. toga praetexta (broad purple border) worn by magistrates & some high priests in formal settings Most evidence from artistic representations (frescoes, statues, few material scraps) Togas not worn all time, statues show highly ranked men wearing toga Togas heavy, woollen, diff to put on, restricted mobility, formal wear Commonly worn by men all classes but purple striped &width reflect status Poorer made of darker, coarse wool Women of rank wore stolas Long sleeveless tunic over another tunic Symbol of marriage, proclaiming modesty & respect for tradition Palla (cloak) were overhead when outdoors Palla drapes over head (women) Tunic underneath Tunic on own common person prob slave Fulleries useful evidence for clothing in P&H

Answer 94

Most evidence is abt wealthy (frescoes, statues depict wealthy ppl) A lot of fabric doesnt survive over the years (material evidence)

Answer 95

both cities obtained water from aqueducts (bridges) * pipes from aqueducts supplied street fountians, public baths, swimming pools, public water storage towers * every house had tanks to collect & store rainwater * public toilets common but private only for rich * H water sewage more advanced bc at the coast more wealthier * Og P relied on water from Sarno River, wells, rain Under emperor Augustus, aqueduct built supplying towns with water ‘Aqua Augusta” From aqueduct (artificial channel transporting water), entered water tower (castellum aquae) and travelled by lead pipes into city Many private homes connected to source directly Water tower in P bigger than ones in H

Answer 96

Frequent bathing + public baths Public & private toilets Reliable water supply → public water fountains

Answer 97

Well preserved toilets Public fountains (nymphaea) (42 P, 3 H) Many ppl lived near water fountains for continuous fresh supply

Answer 98

Central baths Divided into men & women’s section Women’s smaller but preserved better Suburban baths Well preserved, located near ancient beach front Gift from Marcus Bablus and weren’t segregated but used by men & women diff times

Answer 99

orum baths Based on design of Stabian baths Separate sections for men & women Elaborate stucco walls Central baths Largest, more modern Suburban baths No sign of segregation of gender sections Well preserved frescoes Sarno baths Located under apartments

Answer 100

Open midday Heating from furnaces circulating hot air through floor & walls Entrance fees weren’t high Often close/connected to palaestra (forum, stabian & central baths at H each had palaestra) Decorated to convey luxury (complex mosaics & frescoes on walls, bronze statues) Access to baths part determined by class freedmen/slaves visited once a week, wealthier everyday

Answer 101

Apodyterium where bathers changed & stored clothes Caldarium hot steam-filled room, 40 degrees Basin of cold drinking water Tepidarium warm room for massage, scrape off dead skin Frigidarium cold room to close skin pores last stage process

Answer 102

Vestibule (foyer) entrance area Wealthy owner if visitors queuing up to see them bc had benches Narrow entry through doorways often betw shops retned to merchants Door sometimes guarded by door keeper (ianitor) & access to house strictly controlled

Answer 103

ornate room received guests, * frescoes on walls * impluvium & compluvium * mosaics on floor * where public & private activities took place at diff times * centre had shallow pool 'impluvium' to collect rainwater through compluvium (hole in roof also providing light) * water drained from impluvium to a cistern below) * ppl argue activities in here but for most P houses, atrium practical function as service court for Hh activities

Answer 104

* talk abt bus where master had tables & scrolls Large space open to sky, Religious & social centre of roman house Clients waited to pay respects (salutation) to master of house/patron Square hole in roof (compluvium) allowed light to enter & other rooms surrounding atrium, Rain fell of sloped roof into impluvium Pool helped keep part of house cool, drained into HH’s cistern, stored for later use HH’s wealth displayed to impress visitor w/ wealth & status Often lavishly decorated Mosaics, portraits of ancestors, lararium (shrine of HH gods) Office where paterfamilias met with clients & discuss bus Maybe had wooden partition to enclose room for privacy & warmth Maybe as master bedroom, sometimes used as dining room Atrium & tablinum declined importance over time See through to atrium & gardens

Answer 105

* outdoor dining area, 3 sides covered in frescoes Dining room w/ couches for reclining (adopted greek practice) 3 couches U-shape, each hold 3 ppl many had winter & summer dining room in garden/opening into it Roman furniture was light & portable to move betw rooms

Answer 106

* dolium to provide water * bronze cooking vessels over small fire * few houses had * furthest from entrance Diff to identify Fireplaces for cooking Mostly not decorated bc workplaces for slaves Cooking often in many rooms on portable stoves Usually larger houses have distinguishable kitchen

Answer 107

* if weren't preserved, diff to identify bc move around rooms depending on season Located anywhere in house Little furniture w/ beds easily moved

Answer 108

only rich ppl owned, mostly public * use chamberpots in homes * many private houses had * toilet is latrine * private baths only for wealthy (P) Many houses had latrines, some used chamber pots Shared toilet facilities Kitchen waste water used in toilet but some had lead pipes for continuous flushing Waste through sewerage system through pipes Msot bathing in public baths Not all bathhouses structured same, different entrances for women and men at diff times of day didnt have to swim same pools same time as men for privacy Apodyterium change room Ornate decorations within bath houses with frescoes and mosaics, stucco decor (raised) Underneath main floors, slaves had to warm fires for tepidarium and caldarium system to retain heat and keep floor and pools warm/hot (hypo(under eg. hypothermia)caust) furnace, steam to pass under the floors and into hollow walls Vaulted ridged ceilings arched over so steam could evaporate, At baths for massage get slaves to apply oil to skin and use strigel (curved metal) to scrape off excess oil from skin and exfoliate

Answer 109

* often several in 1 house to accommodate dinner w/ many guests * formal ones distinguished archaeologically by markings in mosaic pavements --> where couches placed * wealthy Romans followed Greek custom reclining to eat & talk at meals * couches U-shape around low central table * winter heated by iron/bronze/terracotta braziers. summer meals outside w/ trees & fountains (cool)

Answer 110

colonnaded garden * peristyle usually featured garden where msot decorative stuff: floor mosaics, wall paintings, statues, fountains * presence & quality of wall paintaings in P houses relate to size & no. rooms * some P gardens had fruit trees, flowers, statues, ponds, fountains * found carbonised seeds, Colonnaded garden (columns) Usually 1 but up to 3 colonnaded area enclosed garden inside house Statues, water foundation, running water, murals, ponds, seating, gardens Central hub of house, verandah area surrounded it Poorer houses smaller peristyle, basic plants Replaced og kitchen garden where vegs & fruits oil & wine provided for family Light into house, place of contemplation Essential for homes of ppl holding public office Houses w/o, room next to small garden decorated w/ nature eg. paintings of gardens

Answer 111

* no standard house in P/H * room functions interprative, reflect historical context * material removed from their context makes room function almost impossible to determine * resident changed room usage according to seasons * attributing single room function inaccurate bc couldve been multifunctional * assumptions abt dwelling/owner relationship is only conjecture (guess), diff to knwo if 1 family/several occupied * evidence for tenement/apartment housing/upper floor use almost non-existent in P bc upper storeys collapsed * previous analyses housing focused on wealthy bc artistic & architectural value (misrepresents type of accommodation for large prop of pop) * past archaeologists only focus on wealthy homes, domuses, villas bc most decorated

Answer 112

house of wealthy Roman for senator/businessman, met bus clients in morning where owner & wife entertained clients, political colleagues over meals * seats outside entrances & in corridor so clients could wait * where wealth, power, hospitality of owner dispalyed to impress visitors

Answer 113

* info daily domestic life * changes in housing 7 urban life * regular plan & systamtic space usage * grand houses in P, competitive society where quality & luxury of hosue & decor = social standing * wealth & status demosntrated by size, multi-roomed dwellings & decor of houses * poorer citizens lived in 1 room apartments/cramped spaces at rear of bus premises/ floor above * no. visitors indicate social importance * refer to greek culture affirm social status & interior decor = culture eg. mosaics, frescoes * building materials (limestone, rock from mt vesuvius) * public & private spaces & activities (front public, back private), also workspace * morning, HH's clients salutatio (morning reception) in atrium * slaves present in homes (narrow corridors & smaller windows maybe slave quarters) & if not, assumed lived w/ owners, * many houses didn't have strict differentiation of space into areas for slaves * evidence of rented upstairs apartments! * 350 small independent dwellings in p, various types & SOL within 1 block likely ordinary citizens who lacked property & rented * loft livign areas on mezzanine floors above shops hwo ordinary lived (loft = attic) * most private & public buildings constructed from limestone, tufa brick & wood

Answer 114

* elaborate houses plain on outside (paint w/ white & red) but front foors could be large --> owner's wealth & status * grandest houses on commercial streets aka Via dell'Abbondanza * typical atrium-peristyle house --> simple symmetrical layout, few windows (small & high to keep out sun heat), * stairways mean some houses had 2 storeys

Answer 115

* abundant natural resources --> fruit & veg (figs, almonds, grpes, raisins, lentils, pomegranats) determined by carbonised remains of seeds * evidence vineyards, mosaics, frescoes, plaster casts made of plant roots seafood * fish (bones, fish hooks, frescoes, mosaics,) * scallops & cuttlefish (Shells) * octopus (mosaic) * human bone analysis sheep, pigs, cattle, eggs * animal bones & egg shells bakeries (pistrina) * wheat breaed sig part diet, other grains too home cooked meals * some houses had kitchen (culina, often wealtheir) * others cook on portable stove top * evidence dining rooms (triclinia) sometimes sumemr & winter made of couches w/ tables for food & drink bought food (tavens, thermapolia) garum (many labels found in P & throughout Campania recording Scaurus' name), * olive oil (oil presses) * wine (wine presses, frescoes, PTE)

Answer 116

Breakfast (ientaculum) Basical meal (bread, fruit, cheese) Lunch Meat, eggs, vegs, bread Dinner Many courses ending with fruit, drink wine Wealthy ppl held banquets with many courses Dining for elite class based, diff seating for diff classes in the triclinium Gardens integral part everyday life Grow figs & olives, flowers (ornamentation), several purposes Salted fish from spain Shellfish not nativeto italy Mineralised remnants of sea urchin Butchered leg joint of giraffe (exotic food, only giraffe bone found in roman italy) Less wealthy less variety, more common inexpensive foods (grains, fruits, nuts, lentils, olives, local fish, chicken eggs) Wealthy imported foods Ready-cooked food in thermapolia What sources reveal Types of foods, carbonised remains & bones (sewers) Garum prolific, bread, produced/cooked in domestic (kitchens in wealthy homes) & on go (bakeries & thermapolia) Trade → giraffe Social status (exostic foods + variety) Banqueting for elites (frescoes, tricliniums) how they ate

Answer 117

BATHS (municipal **thermae**) * 3. cold (fridgidarium), 1. warm (tepidarium), 2. hot (calidarium) baths * oil massage, exfoliate, sauna * had social meetings * decor: painted stucco walls, mosaic floor * daily pleasure & necessity * diff entrances & facilities for men & women, private ones catered each at diff times THEATRE * P 2 theatres: one was Odeon (recitals, lectures, 1200 ppl) * religious festivals & plays (comedies, mimes) * copied Greek ideas * all actors male, wore face masks PALAESTRA (sports ground aka gym) * boxing, wrestling, javelin, discus throwing mostly men used * big swimming pool in middle of open sports ground AMPHITHEATRE * spectacles: gladiatorial contests, animal hunts * gladiators often prisoners of war, slaves, criminals, or very poor, each fight usually to death but audience could decide (thumbs up = die) TAVERNS, BROTHELS * gambling, drink, prostitutes * brothels only found in P

Answer 118

art, architecture, religion --> regular contact w/ cultures bc major trading partners RELIGION * greek religion but diff names, worship same gods but diff titles (Adapted olympian gods and goddesses (triad) (Zeus → Jupiter) Polytheistic (worship multiple gods) Temples Rituals) * Herculaneum named after Hercules * Temple of Isis in P one of 1st strucutres rebuilt after 62AD earthquake * carbonised remains around altar of TOI --> sacrifices to gods & goddesses * H limited evidence for Egyptian religious influence ARCHITECTURE * both cities, Greek architecture very influential * grid patterned, wide, straight streets surrounding Forum streetscapes (grid pattern) * columns: Pompeiian basilica all 3 column styles Doric (plain), Ionic (scroll at top), Corinthian (ornate decorated w/ leaves, flowers, scrolls at top) * layout of villas & houses : peristyles, theatres, palaestra * egyptian influence in P of animals & plant life * building of Eumachia in P ART * in P, statues of Greek, Greek mythology in mosaics & frescoes (Three Graces frescoe in P, Neptune Mosaic in H) Frescoes & mosaics (originated Ancient Greece) Subject matter (depict Hercules, mythology) Style of statues * Egyptian imagery in P's Alexander Mosaic (river Nile), TOI Egyptian mythology scenes * H small statues of E goddess Isis (but more evidnece in P) * villa of papyri in H: art & architecture very greek

Answer 119

* Romans were polutheistic (worship many gods) based on 12 olympian greek gods * archaeological & written evidence * HH shrines (lararia) where guardian spirits of the hose worshipped * cult of the lares for ancestors, protect house * State religion basedo n the Capitoline Triad, worshipped in the Capitolium in rome, Jupiter (protector of the state & greek equivalent to zeus), Juno (carer of women & greek equivalent of hera) & minerva (patroness of craft-workers, greek equivalent of athena) Pompeii favoured patron goddess venus (of love, beauty, fertility) over time associated with greek aphrodite Herculaneum favoured hercules (god of victory & commercial enterprise) based on greek god heracles (son of zeus)

Answer 120

* Largely concerned with ritual Not necessarily with faith Ppl aimed to please/appease the gods, hoping for some favour in return (reciprocal relationship) Religion connected with politics, part of both public & private life Served political function, esp in public cults & imperial cult

Answer 121

ensure prosperity, fertility, protection of family Paterfamilias (chief priest) conducted all family ceremonies & all religious observances in home Led his family in prayer & made offerings eg. fruit crops & incense Some HHs performed animal sacrifice (eg. charred bones of lambs and burnt remains of nuts, figs, dates)

Answer 122

Temple-like strucutres/paintings usually found in atrium of houses (some shops too) * Wall niche found in poorer homes w/ painted back wall & figurines Aedicule, 3D miniature temple on a podium, lined with marble/painted stucco with statuettes found in richer homes Wall painted to look like an aedicule w/ HH gods painted * At least 20 lararia images of Isis discovered in Pompeii

Answer 123

Lares, (worshipped at the lararium) Associated with the home, headed by the family spirit lar familiaris Had their own shrine in a cupboard Food dropped at meals offered to em Usually depicted as dancing youths in tunics, holding a horn of plenty (rhyton) 1 hand and ceremonial dish (patera) or wine bucket in other Found as statues or painted in lararia Most lararia in p&h missing their statues of lares → priority/protection when fleeing eruption Genius, (male line of descent) Worshipped on the bday of the paterfamilias Their statuettes placed on table at meal times Represented as snake believed ‘gentle bringer of peace & good luck’ to HH Often depicted in lararia Vesta (goddess of the hearth) Penates (gods of the larder) aka food store Statuettes placed on table at meal times

Answer 124

Pompeians & herculaneums appeased(gain favour of) gods for good luck & fertility using amulets as objects/paintings Mani pantee: votive hand usually in bronze with thumb, index, middle finger raised in sign of benediction, symbols of deities (snakes, toads, beetles) Snakes regarded as bringers of peace & prosperity Erect phallus was symbol of fertility found in houses as decorative b

Answer 125

Temples: of apollo, jupiter, vanus, isis, vespasian, Imperial cult existed ope n with columns, when priests performed rituals and sacrifices, public could see Raised platform → gods importance Cults (the imperial cult) Foreign cults (cult of isis) Rituals

Answer 126

Eumachia had a big tomb bc she was patroness of the fullers guild, & a priestess (valued priestesses if tomb like that) Tombs for slaves buried elsewhere not in same cemetery, still existed when master liked if there’s ornate tombstone Mamia’s tomb (pompeii) priestess large ornate tomb Important ppl in towns honoured n death with large statues and tombs eg. duumvir Overlap religion and politics Main source of info abt death & burial in P No tombs in H uncovered Amt graffiti suggests high frequency visitors to cemeteries not exclusively for 1 social class After roman colonisation, most cremated & ashes placed in urns that were buried/placed in tomb Urns that were buried often marked by a herm, (a sculpture of the head of deceased) Often coins & pottery buried with deceased Symbol of wealth & status Larger, elaborately decorated = wealthy family Small headstones & inscriptions for children, slaves, less prominent members society Some had statues of ind’s for passers to view Others had tricliniums within em for mourning families to hold banquetsi n their honour Inscriptions on monuments give name & rank of person, vital info abt lives, public works, activities Inscriptions evidence how tomb owners want to be remembers not necessarily true Very few children/slaves represented, many of freedmen & women

Answer 127

Seat tombs Curved stone seats for several ppl to sit & pay respects Citizens tombs Varied in size depending on ind’s importance Altars, paintings, statues, official inscriptions abt family bg, occupation, official positions Family tombs Popular among rich families Can be distinguished by no. statues at front of tomb

Answer 128

Teeth cavities, plaque, gum disease Evidence old age, arthritis No lead poisioning Generally good health Some fractures, tuberculosis, some dental decay * non skeletal evidence: medical equip

Answer 129

Most survived kept, disarticulated skeletons not systematic storage of complete skeletons Fled to seashore to escape eruption, Skeletal remains rare bc romans cremated their dead Pompeiians healthy similar size to ppl living Naples today Females 153cm 167 males Suggestl lived well into 50s & 60s (arthritis) Teeth cavities, others plaque bad breath, signs gum diseas & abscesses decaying teeth No dental intervention eg. extractions, false teeth Adults active lives Medical knowledge & practice sophisticated at time Lead poisoning, water pipes & utensils Minimal evidence of surgical intervention in P skeleton sample, discovered medical implements → practices widely P medical instruments as home medical kits, treat minor injuries Range of instruments scalpel, tweezers, Injuries maybe sustained in geographical region where medical attention not available Inds maybe couldnt access medical practitioners for financial/social reasons Bones tell us How old person at death Diseases Muscles attached to bones, bones change shape to create more surface for muscles What kind exercise person did

Answer 130

59 days of roman yr were holidays, Many activities Gambling, dining, partying at home Communal, community spirit, social cohesion Public baths, theatre entertainment, arena, palaestra, Taverns, inns, thermopolia, brothels (dine, drink) Forum Open area to socialise, markets, men participated Within home, Read, write, draw, entertain guests, dice & board games, play music

Answer 131

Lavish patronage by members of seeking popular support H seat 2000 ppl Lower rows wide & spacious enough for magistrates & important citizens to have own seats set out Next block seating was avg citizens, top for women Standing room for poor Seat magistrates who finance theatrical entertainments Divided by class → acknowledge hierarchical structure of society Rulers could interact w/ people, share entertainment in daylight Dunno what entertainments performed on stages, prob slapstick humour to appeal to all sections of populace Entertainment free but entry tokens required Amphitheatre, theatre, small theatre (odeon) Odeon for poetry & music recitals (performance but more intimate bc small theatre) Theatre for theatrical performances (Some dramatic, others comedic, farces) Amphitheatre largest, for gladiator contests, etc Gladiatorial contests associated with funeral rites honouring dead sometimes Sacrificial death ritual associated with god Saturn Could be staged honouring the gods on emperor’s bday If q on leisure, categorise, talk abt theatres in 1 paragraph then other eg. bathhouses Bathhouses (thermae) not just cleanse themselves, not that hygienic bc didnt change water and no chlorine Also to bathe and socialise, dine, sauna, massage, library in some Only wealthy had own toilets and baths Within pools of bathhouses, 3: cold, warm, hot pool Frigidarium (cold), tepidarium(warm), caldarium(hot) Sometimes in particular order, physician would assign order

Answer 132

Disarticulated, Bans on investigations Sample sizes Limited info can be concluded

Answer 133

Cult gave citizens opps to publicise their loyalty to the emperor & mvoe upwards socially Augustus role in imperial cult helped advance their social standing when other public officed denied them Linked with temples

Answer 134

* Archaeological ethics → primary goal to identify, protect, CONSERVE archaeological finds Methods for conservation & restoration governed by international code of ethics ‘Venice Charter for the Conservation & Restoration of Monuments & Sites” Endangered sites priority 1999, the Superintendent at the time, Pietro Giovanni Guzzo, declared a moratorium on all further excavations at P & H. → debate on conserve vs excavate P 44 of 66 ha’s urban area visible, generally agree other ha’s unexcavated to preserve for future Some argue continuing excavations necessary to find more texts revealing ancient roman life Villa of the Papyri at H centre of this debate Contains only library survived intact from ancient Roman world Volcano may erupt again, scarcely do more damage to what’s buried bc exposed parts most risk

Answer 135

Archaeologists gather more info on victims (Health, cuases of death, diet, demographics, height) ^ interest → tourism → revenue for conservation Empathy for victims Usual for italy to display human remains (monasteries) No direct descendants of victims alive today Can make casts/holograms > display actual remains → og ones conserved & studied Remains ~2000 yrs old far from modern world

Answer 136

Show respect to & dignity for victims (Remains shouldnt be displayed w/o consent) Recent yrs pressure to have some human remains returned for reburial Taboo in certain cultures to display human remains Bones & casts need to be conserved Many already displayed are in poor conditions → deteriorate Spread misinfo w/ incorrect displays for narrative effect

Answer 137

WHEN recovered

Answer 138

1748 * Not insensitive to collect, study, display human remains Used to create tableaux in rooms of houses to entertain visitors Not recorded & stored as disarticulated bones Some early P visitors took skeletal remains as keepsakes 1860s * Fiorelli created plaster casts of victims, not insensitive to display, attraction to site However many casts didnt have skeletal material but reinforced with metal rods

Answer 139

1980s * Human remains not found in large no’s at H before this time Attitudes changed, research appropriate Many left in situ for tourists to see but started disintegrated & grew weeds 21st century * 2009 remaining skeletons scientifically studied 2015 86 casts scanned to produce 3D models of victims preparing for exhibitiong of just human remains → restored & studied for scientific, archaeological purposes under Great Pompeii Porject

Answer 140

* medical imaging, modern forensic techniques, x-rays (not new tech though) & digital scans to carry out non-invasive work on fragile Pompeii casts * intra-red photograph, spectral imaging --> extract info human eye fails capture with its receptions for red, green, blue * high resolution digital camera (create 3D models) * sophisticated computer tech (computer software aka CAD) * COMPUTERS (Ssince 1960s recording, storing, comparing photographs, plans, maps, tens of thousands of finds * 3D tech (non-invasive method --> analysis & investigation take place w/o damaging buildings) * digital cemra (record excavations than relying on drawing)

Answer 141

* facilitate conservation & restoration of P&H * aided greater understanding of sites, **change our interpretations**

Answer 142

* many processes to try read/unravel * some hacked apart with butcher's knife * 1800 scrolls, some 6m length * 18th century conservator from Vatican, Antonio Piaggio devised machine to delicately open scrolls (1st took 4 yrs to unroll & in pieces, still hard to read) * 1999 scientists from Brigham Young University examined papyrus using infrared light --> see black in k lines -> show previous readings often wrong * 2008 multispectral imaging took 16 diff images of each fragment at diff light lvls to create composite image --> text clearer --> multispectral spectrometer --> show writings of Philodemus --> show us elite of these towns adherents of philosophies of Philodemus who was an Epicurrean philosopher (believed life too short, 'eat, drink & be merry') --> shows VALUES of time * many works found are by Greek philosopher Philodemus * unrolling not best method bc damages scroll in process * 2008 Dr Brent Seales placed some scrolles in CT scan & tried flattened scans into 2D images but machine couldn't distinguish ink from papyrus (ink contained no metal) (owner of house was Calponius Piso)

Answer 143

* heavily criticised not doing enough to conserve P, * H better bc Hadrill conservation project (better preserved) * mainly international/sometimes private entities/EU intervene & offer funds to conserve

Answer 144

Conservation & restoration work at H impressive ‘model of best practice’ Until recent yrs, P mismanaged, in poor state Hence 3011 UNESCO threatened to take away P’s World Heritage Status unless started to reverse site’s vulnerable conditions Pompeii late 20th century Henri de Saint-Blanquat: P dying its ‘second death’ 1986 1st eruption, 2nd forgotten, & allowed to deteriorate 2nd death deterioration of site Nov 2010 part of Schola Armaturarum on P’s main thoroughfare collapsed Sensationalised, news agencies falsely stated building was House of the Gladiators Huge sections of a garden wall around House of Moralist collapsed 2 separate occasions later that month Dec 2010 ancient shop and a house reduced to heap of mortar & column in courtyard of another house collapsed Disasters led to…slide Hadrill said collapses happen often over fragile site (15 major catastrophes since 2008) Most fail catch press attention bc not on major thoroughfares where tourists walk or in frequently visited houses June 2011 UNESCO Report on 2010 disasters threatened take away P’s World Heritage Status unless trend reversed Despite allied bombing 1943 & earthquake rocking Campania on 23 Nov 1980 Caused columns, sections of walls, some upper storeys to crash ground Most destruction in P&H began when sites excavated, exposed, neglected

Answer 145

Last 2 centuries P&H subjet to destructive forces (natural & anthropogenic) some unavoidable & others preventable from nature (Wind, rain, sun, earth tremors/eruptions, animals, birds, )& humans (mismanaging funds/steal, poor excavation, tourists) * weather * water * acid rain * weeds * parasites & birds * poor restoration work * theft * tourism

Answer 146

Some physical remains originally interiors, never meant to expose effects of sun, wind, rain Light faded vibrant colours of frescoes, carbonised objects deteriorated quick Strong sunlight in Campania sped up fading & bleaching of paintings & breakdown of organic materials Airborne substances (gritty particles, carbon particles, oil droplets, bacterial & modl spores) cause untold damage 1957 carried out inventory of all existing wall decorations & discovered almost ⅓ faded completely, none ever being recorded

Answer 147

Form of groundwater & rain H Subrurban Baths complex saturated by surface water drained off house above → deteriorate vaulted roof of tepidarium & force authorities to close baths to public P as of 2012 doesnt have effective drainage system despite H Conservation Project attempts to address Too much, pools on ground (bc below watertable, H so low)

Answer 148

Since pollution 20th century, acid rain → discolouration, abrasion, corrosion of surfaces Winter rains penetrate inadequate roofs & run down exposed walls → pool on mosaic floors & cause damp to rise up walls High calcium content of wall paintings dissolves under moisture & soluble salts surface, bleach & fade paintings

Answer 149

Parasitic plants grow over many ruins esp houses closed to public & in enclosed areas of bare soil eg. peristyles, gardens Roots undermine foundations of houses, destabilise walls, buckle & loosen mosaic floors When small mosaic piece lifts from floor, damp encourages growth weeds, algae, lichens Brambles & ivy penetrate plaster inner walls & cling to outer walls, destroying ancient stonework Attempts to remove causes walls to crack, break & crumble → allow damp to enter

Answer 150

Many pigeons at P&H nest in secluded corners of site & acidic excreta corrosive effect on floors & wall decors Cause irreparable damage by pecking carbonised wooden beams, doors, window frames at H 2004 H Conservation Porject using predatory falcons to discourage birds from nesting in area Regularly brought to site to stimulate permanent presence ‘territorial deterrence”

Answer 151

Replacing lintels over doors & windows by softwead instead of seasoned hardwood → rot, mould, termite infestation Cheaper timber instead matching to og, Rusting iron armatures in reinforced concrete used for repairs mid 20th century split concrete open & cause collapse of restored & ancient structures Frescoes damaged by applying modern mortars (release salts), paraffin wax & recently Paraloid B72 varnish prevent plaster from breathing Before Carbonised wood was stabilised, covered with glass/fibreglass now crumbling within microclimate created, Perspex cases to protect frescoes & graffiti create humidity & dirt trap Humid ocnditions cause mould growth -> remove perspex shielding & treatment of frescoes w/ antibiotics

Answer 152

1975-200 nearly 600 items stolen from sites 1975 museum at P closed after robbed 1977 14 frescoes cut from walls of Hosue of Gladiators 1990 storeroom robbed at H w/ over 250 artefacts taken Theft Recovery Italian paramilitary police recover 60 000 pieces of looted/stolen artwork & archaeological artifacts January 2010, many from P

Answer 153

Approx 3.5 million tourists visit P annually, ½-1 mill visit H (smaller site) Good: revenue for conservation & help public by educating for awareness & valuing heritage sites Bad: tourists confined to smaller areas as streets barricaded off & houses braced by scaffolding shut to public. Only small % seen in 1950s experienced today 2006 16 monuments, houses, villas could be viewed compared with 60 in 1956 Millions of feet trample mosaics & street pavements, wearing them down & sometimes exposing lead pipes, eventually crack & break Hot humid breath & camera flashes deteriorate fading wall paintings Backpacks & fingers rub walls, columns, frescoes → perspiration & body oils react w/ ancient surfaces Rubbish dumped, attract vermin & cigarette butts discarded Fragments of marble & pottery collected as souvenirs graffiti

Answer 154

Some improvements recent yrs (rid of feral dogs & introduce system where 1 ticket to visit all Vesuvian sites to take P pressure off) Poor site management blamed for present state as Lack of resources, leadership, skilled workforce Failure to constantly monitor site Corruption (embezzled funds) Divided authority betw superintendent and ‘city manager’ (disagreements) Outsourcing contractors (specialised Cultural bureaucracy & red tape Apply to get something done need several gvt bodies for approval (red tape) to achieve anytihng Once changed, cant reverse to og state eg. concrete in amphitheatre for modern concerts

Answer 155

Total protection from harmful & damaging factors Close streets, houses, rooms to protect against excessive tourism Erect roof coverings, glass, plastic over frescoes

Answer 156

Any process enhances visual/functional understanding of object/building to aid interpretation Helps public understand how things maybe looked/operated AD 79 Problem is restorers may incorrectly do restoration work & cant be reversed Poor restoration work continued into modern era Recent ‘restoration’ of theatre by Marcello Fiori cemented over original stones to turn into modern performance space for Pompeii Viva project, permanently damaging theatre

Answer 157

Safeguarding objects & structures comprising material remains of past to ensure they’re available to use & enjoy today & in future Cautious task w/ careful risk management analysis & strats Collaborative (& multi-disciplinary) process with experts & specialists around world eg. archaeologists, material scientists careless conservation & restoration caused damage --> now udner codes of practice in international docs (Venice Charter)

Answer 158

Herculaneum much better conserved than Pompeii Since 2014 Professor Osanna appointed superintendent, slowed P’s spiral of preservation through projects & enhance our understanding of site (rebirth, redemption) ‘not longer time of emergencies’ he said

Answer 159

Italian contributions before 2013 (Great Pompeii Proejct 2013), italy didnt contribute much to conversation of sites except 1995 guzzo superintendent of site & existing ocnvervation efforts revitalised 1999 guzzo declared a moratorium on further excavations of P&H, decided all funds diverted to preserve remains of cities than excavating P continued problems (degradation, mismanagement, vandalism) 2008 italian gvt declared 1 year state of emergency for site & appointed commissioner to oversee P Fiori poor restoration & embezzled funds but Osanna (2014) ended P’s emergency state Joint italian & international contributions 2012, Euro Commission approved funding to secure P as attraction With money from Italian gvt, funds 105mill euros Multidisciplinary teams made from experts around world & EU

Answer 160

Value of tourism Bring REVENUE since 1997, vital for conservation work at sites ^ public awareness, understanding, appreciation of sites & their ancient past P 3.5mill, H ½ mill Double-edged sword problems of tourism (covered) Too many tourists Backpacks grush against ancient walls Walking on og pathways, some worn away, exposing lead pipes Touch walls, frescoes, artefacts (transfer oil) Warm breath, camera flashes affect frescoes Rubbish attract vermin, stray dogs & pigeons Vandalism (ancient column pushed) Modern graffiti Theft Solutions Divert visitors to from P to other sites (H with 1 ticket system) Visitor quotas for overused parts of site Rotate which houses accessible to public Extra security guards More surveillance cameras Holograms >displaying fragile objects Walking boards > og pavements More signs discouraging flash photography