pompeii & herculaneum

Question 1

pompeii’s geographic location

Answer 1

• built on a volcanic plateau located betw Sarno River (south) and fertile slopes of Mt V (north)
• USE Sarno River to transport goods, onland through Bay of Naples
• 9km south of V
  Strategically imp bc only route link north & south & connected seaside area w/ fertile agricultural region of inland
  Surrounded by defensive wall

Question 2

H’erculaneum’s geographic location

Answer 2

directly under mt vesuvius on a promontory betw 2 streams

Question 3

what are decumani & cardo/cardines?

Answer 3

decumani: roads east to west (horizontal)
cardines: roads north to south (vertical)

meet at right angles
often nymphaea (water fountains & shrines) at crossroads

Question 4

campania

Answer 4

unstable volcanic area prone to earth tremors, fluctuating watertable lvls, thermal spring s

Question 5

pyroclastic flows & surges

Answer 5

Pyroclastic surge low density, turbulent cloud of hot ash & rock billows over terrain barely touching ground travels up to 300km per hour

Pyroclastic flows more denser, hotter, dry avalanche of pumice, ash &gases up to 50km/hr

Question 6

pliny the younger’s eyewitness account

Answer 6

• Staying at Misenum 30km from pompeii w/ uncle pliny the elder admiral of the fleet
• During eruption Elder sailed to Stabiae 5km south P to assist, stayed overnight
• Pty stayed behind to gave eyewitness acc of eruption
• Records earth tremors, receding sea, fiery cloud above volcano

Question 7

what are the issues of pliny’s account reliability

Answer 7

• Wrote description in form of 2 letters to friend Tacitus (roman historian) 25 yrs after event
• Some exaggeration of elder’s role in events during eruption
• Failed to mention yr of eruption (sig omission)
• description of what occurred at Stabiar based on what slaves & sailors told him

Question 8

contested date of eruption

Answer 8

• 24 august AD 79 based on 11th century summary of Cassius Dio Roman from 3rd century AD
• Flawed bc factual errors but at least provides yr

scholars debate autumn or summer
In favour of summer:

• Discovered leaves of deciduous trees
• Evidence of summer-flowering herbs found at Oplontis
• The last batch of garum from P made w/ type of fish plentiful in summer
• autumn bc discovered late autumn ripening fruits eg. pomegranates

Most convincing evidence is hoard of coins found in House of Golden Bracelet 1974, contained silver denarius of Titus recording his 7th consulship, coin dates AD 79

Question 9

impact of eruption on pompeii

Answer 9

• Completely buried
• Distance from volcano → escaped 1st 2 surges and 3rd stopped at Herculaneum Gate
• 4th surge reached temp 400 deg
• Maybe toxic gases penetrate entire town
• Amt ash deposited 1.8m in north to 60cm in south
• covered in 5m of volcanic debris –> easier to excavate

Question 10

impact of eruption on herculaneum

Answer 10

• Completely buried
• Suffered more horrific fate than pompeii
• 1st stage : Initial explosion, shock waves, earth tremors
• 1st surge arrived 5 mins after collapse of the eruption column dumped 3m hot ash on town
• next surges & flows destroyed buildings, carbonised remains eg. wooden window frames, bread loaves
• Final phase city buried 23m (solidified rock-like) & coastline extended 400m
• much harder to excavate, & bc below water table –> need to pump 24/7 to prevent flooding

Question 11

causes of inhabitant deaths on pompeii

Answer 11

• 600/+ perished when roofs collapsed under weight of pumice & rock rained from eruption
• if abandoned buildings & climbed onto roofs caught in 4th pyroclastic surge (which overwhelmed city)
• Some died of asphyxiation, others thermal shock (large, rapid change temp can have dangerous effects on living)
• Majority of pop prob escaped city but couldve died in countryside if didnt realise hwo far to escape surges & flows

Question 12

cause of inhabitant deaths in herculaneum

Answer 12

300 remains sheltering beach & possible boathouses in area
* Killed by thermal/fulminant shock (intense heat)

Question 13

phases of eruption

Answer 13

1. PLINIAN PHASE

• named after pliny the younger bc coincided ‘mushroom cloud’ witnessed
• 18 hrs rain of pumice (pompeii)
• Plume dispersed for umbrella shape, wind pushed towards Herculaneum, instant deaths for habitants phase/flow
• Only 4th surge went over pompeii city walls
• deposits showed 50-80 000 tonnes of pumice per sec discharged by V

2. PELEAN PHASE

• pyrclastic flows & surges
• due to direction wind blowing, P mostly affected by ash & pumcie fall(upwind)
• 6 surges & flows
• H hit by both surges & flows, column collapsed under own weight
• travelling ~200km/h, surge of billowing volcanic ash & superheated gases wouldve killed msot immediately

Question 14

features of Herculaneum town

Answer 14

• Some see more seaside fishing village or town, main industry fishing bc Rich waters of bay supported thriving fishing & shellfish industry
• Salt pans formed near Herculaneum
• Oily fish eg. tuna, mackerel, anchovies, moray eels → raw materials for garum
• Holiday homes, rich & wealthy
• Rich traders from Rome , many high status Romans had permanent/seasonal residences
• early , waterfront fortified by wall to protect from invaders & waves → dismantled when no longer need defence, built luxurious Suburban Baths
• ‘Marcus’ Nonius Balbus considered patron of H, 30 statues of him,** inscriptions that he paid → popularity**
• Calpurnius Caesonius Piso (Caesar’s father in law) owned Villa of the Papyri
• limited landform but on the coast of Bay of Naples

Question 15

volcanic or pyroclastic eruption:?

Answer 15

pyrcolastic

Question 16

ancient sources available

Answer 16

Fresco of Bacchus, Pliny the Elder, Martial
Animal bones survived → ate meat
Carbonised loaf of bread survived → had wheat, barley
Strabo
Dio Cassius

Question 17

natural resources/features of pompeii

Answer 17

• Very fertile soil → grow crops, fruits, vegs, olive trees, vines, timber
• Sarno River imp for trade, source of water & Bay of Naples also bottles of garum (fermented fish sauce) & fish/sesafood in mosaics
• used volcanic rock for buildings & paving streets
• oil presses forextracting oil from green olives found in houses in P&H and villas in fields around Mt Vesuvius
• Whole campanian region famous for perfume, basic ingredient of olive oil
• pumice stone exported, lava usedi n stone millstones to grind grain & press olives
• volcanic materia eg. tufa

Question 18

crops in P&H

Answer 18

• Mediterranean climate for agriculture
• Wheat, barley,
• Veg (cabbage, onions, corn)
• Fruits (figs, olives, Peaches, cherries, plums, pears)
• Vineyards grow grapes (eat/ferment for wine)
• Olives grow on trees (oil)
• Material spewed from volcano weathered into deep fertile soils Rich in phosphorus & potash supporting natural vegetation
• Soil spongy nature retained enough of winter rains to produce crops
• Slopes of Vesuvius covered w/ grape vines
• Wine exported to Rome, Spain
• Southern end of Bay of Naples, flocks of sheep for fleeces & textile production

Question 19

our knowledge today of the effects of the V eruption come mainly from..

Answer 19

• writings of PtY
• stratigraphic study of the V towns by vulcanologist Professor Sigurdsson

Question 20

vulcanologist Sigurdsson

Answer 20

conducted 1st systematic examination of V deposits & reached conclusions matching Pliny’s account

• studied stratigraphy of P, H, Oplontis & Stabiae
• identified diff types deposits from eruption
• according to ash & pumice deposits & own ovservations at Mt St Helens verified Pliny’s statement on an enormous column rising above V resembling an Italian umbrella-shaped pine tree

Question 21

summary of surges

Answer 21

1. hit H

• killed most inhabitants
• flow hit H moments later, containing larger fragments of volcanic material

2. hit H

• more powerful than 1

3. hit H

• reached town wall of P

4. hit H

• covered whole P
• msot lethal surge, killed inhabitants by asphyxiation/thermal shock

5 &6. hit P&H

• surge 6 most destructive, took tops off buildings in P

Question 22

what is a pugilistic pose? what happened to the bodies?

Answer 22

boxer

• some plaster casts at P
• contracted muscles due to intense temps
• shattered teeth, fractured bones

Question 23

positive & neg

Giuseppe fiorelli

Answer 23

• 1863-75
• Funded by King of Italy
• Uncovered 2 town blocks at H but worked slow bc diff to work around modern houses & cutting into hardened volcanic deposits

POSITIVE

• 1st systematic excavation: worked methodically top to bottom
• Shored up walls to prevent collapse
• Before, it was ‘HAPHAZARD excavations’–> unsystematic, a lot at the same time
• Whole site carefully mapped (9 regions → town blocks (insulae) → each building entrance
• Developed numbering system to indicate building location, used today
• recorded excavations w/ detail using photography, diaries, daily reports
• Encouraged tourism → entrance fees → funds to preserve/excavate further

Created 1st successful plaster casts of P’s victims but controversial

• scholars believe vital info abt vitcims of V at moment of death (how they died)
• argue casts disrespected dead
• Archaeologists cant access skeletal remains within casts eg. DNA testing w/o breaking
• rcent yrs discovered some casts contained metal rods → fabrications to attract tourism to site → contort them into shapes he wanted, more sensational

Question 24

what is provenance?

history of H excavations

Answer 24

• 1711 workers constructing well in Resina discovered pieces of marble, sold to guy and bought the land and sponsored 1st excavations, more than treasure hunts & only antiquarians interested in objects old & beautiful, guy used marble from H to decorate his villa
• damage from workers tunnelling through hard volcanic material at site (Prince d’Elkboeuf)
• 1738 Charles 3 sponsored treasure hunting at H using tunnels to excavate,
• Karl Weber 1st systematic excavations, meticulous plans of theatre, basilica and Villa of the Papyri also at P and Stabiae
• Patronage: Charles 3rd was his patron and funded excavations to Karl Weber
• Provenance: context where fthings found to understand what they were (KW)

Question 25

history of P excavations

Answer 25

found by chance, didnt know
until found inscription

• 1592 Domenico Fontana cut large irrigation channel through P
• 1689 inscription found name ‘pompeii’
• 1748 Roque de Alcubierre began formal excavations
• 1806-15 French Bourbon (royal family living in area) excavations asap–> werent interested in preserving the site, quickly to find treasures
• 1815-60 Neapolitan (from Naples region) excavations, attempts to preserve & restore site for 1st time to display to increasing no. visitors (frescoes in situ (left it situation where they were found) under shelters to display) –>
• Preserve for visitors to come to attract tourists

Question 26

Excavations by Michele Ruggiero & Giulio de Petra

Answer 26

• 1875-1901
• Rebuild ancient walls, roofs –> Good to visualise but not authentic and couldve reconstructed wrong,
• Sculptures left in new replanted garden –> warps perception of sites → to attract tourists
• used Iron and asbestos concrete to reinforce buildings for 1st time (asbestos are carcinogenic → cause cancer, didnt know back then very harmful) (Iron corrodes, today use steel)

Question 27

MAOI

AUGUST MAU

Answer 27

• great, painstaking work studied frescoes and developed styles
• Contributed to excavations at P for many years
• Msot well known contribution was his categorisation of wall paintings into 4 styles

1. masonry style characterised by simulation of marble (look like), made to look like stonework
2. architectural style ‘illusionism’
3. ornate style mroefigurative & colourful
4. intricate style less ornamented than its predecessor but more complex

Question 28

VITTORIO SPINAZZOLA

Answer 28

• 1911-1923, superintendent (in charge, oversaw excavations) of Archaeological works
• Major contribution to rediscovery of P was exploration of ~600m of Via dell’ Abbondanza (main street of Pompeii) aka road of abundance
• Excavations utilised new techniques to reconstruct structures from top down
• He restored the facades of buildings → save inscriptions & graffiti
• Preserved & restored 2nd storeys of buildings as he excavated
• criticised for basing recreations on imagination → forever influenced perceptions of facades
• Once restore, ppl cant visualise other way,

If evaluate his work, some good on road & working top down but restoration work based on his fanciful thinking highly wrong!!!

Question 29

AMEDEO MAIURI

Answer 29

• excavated most
• 1924 chief archaeologist at P serving as director until 1961(straight after Spinazzola)
• Undertook extensive systematic excavation & analyse P houses
• Uncovered sig structures ampitheatre & palaestra (sports area, athletes to train)
• Reconstructed buildings he excavated
• archaeological inquiry away from destruction of AD79 and houses of the wealthy but digged deeper to what p was like before (good)
• Interested in how poor lived (good)
• Excavated 4 hectares of H, rediscovered cave
• 1st archeologist interested in pre-eruption layer (For 1st time excavations below destruction lvl 79 AD excavate famous (House of Surgeon))
• Funding became problem at P post war erafast paced exploration continued
• Large portions of city unearthed however criticised by some rushed, poor excavation & restoration techniques bc inconsistent recording methods & incomplete publications (Buildings excavated & restored with techniques Spinazzola used remained in better condition
• Recently realised involvedi n corrupt dealings with fascist party of italy,
• Added lighting to p for night visits & used ancient theatres for dramas (More ppl to see ancient ruins & more incoem from tourists to fund conservation , But change theatre’s structure by adding modern substances eg. concrete disastrous
• Little attention in preserving what already excavated → buildings started deteriorating
• Criticised for tampered evidence eg. skeletons to heighten tourist interests
  If kept skeletons kept in situ, context of where found & who found with like early treasure hunters

Question 30

After Maouri

Answer 30

• After retired 1961, focus of site management altered to conservation
• many Excavated buildings constantly exposed to elements need sig maintenance, conservation, restoration
• Large scale excavations suspended in favour of smaller, more focused archaeological explorations
• Fausto Zevi decided 1977 to suspend all excavation to devote resources to conservation & recording
• Since 1980 international coop studying sites
  P 1997 granted status as UNESCO World Heritage Site → world attention → transformed into autonomous entity with control over its own administration & finances → entrance fees of visitors used in P for maintenace & restoration (Before, moeny from P tourists distributed to italian gvt
• Despite resources, exposure to weather, seismic event & millions visitors constantly strains ancient city (H better state)

Question 31

describe the town of pompeii

Answer 31

• small (by Roman standards) surrounded by defensive walls
• irregular shape, built on terrain slopes above sea lvl
• earliest areas developed were around Forum & Via Stabiana insulae, heavily influenced by Greek urban planning
  ** seen in regular
  ** street layout & roads dividing town into insulae, some only 1 house others over dozen
• grid pattern less precisely applied
• early surrounded by defensive stone walls (12 towers, 8 gateways leading to town) –> became Roman colony –> some sections demolished for housing
• Herculaneum Gate
• roman paving techniques used polygonal blocks of basalt & raised footpaths both sides roads
• stepping stones for pedestrians + access to wheeled traffic so cross roads w/o stepping in sewage & waste
• deep grooves in roads –> volume traffic

Question 32

describe the town of Herculaneum

Answer 32

• Greek classical town layout w/ narrow straight streets dividing town into insulae
• sea wall w/ large vaulted chambers for boats
• less traffic, but more efficient drainage & sewerage systems
• main street used as its Forum
• Posts erected as barriers of entry to roads (prevent access)

Question 33

aediles

Answer 33

magistrates responsible for maintaining town infrastructure (streets, roads)

Question 34

diff types evidence available to us (physical)

Answer 34

• site layout
• streetscapes
• public & private buildings
• ancient writers
• official inscriptions
• graffiti
• wall paintings
• statues
• mosaics
• human, animal, plant remains

Question 35

rolls of the papyri

Answer 35

initially didn’t realise carbonised scrolls thought lumps of coal for fuel

• nasa tech to pass through diff light spectrums, effectively read scrolls –> writings of philosopher Philodemus (Epicurean philosopher)
• used AI to read scrolls

Question 36

owner of the villa of the papyri

Answer 36

Calpurnius Piso, Julius Caesar’s father in law who was very rich and had opulent villa looking over Bay of Naples

Question 37

graffiti & wall writings (types of public noticesas evidence

Answer 37

1. electoral (programmata)

• urge citizens to vote for candidate, usually signed by family & friends, women could (but cant vote)
• political graffiti: rogrammata
• electoral notice of someone who tries influence votes of ppl (many in P)
• roman town top politicla spectrum was Rome emperor but town itself had own local gvt
• P&H top of local gvt were 2 duumviri (plural) like magistrates –> next important 2 aediles)

2. advertisement

• announce shows coming to Amphitheatre
• local magistrates responslbe pay all/part expenses of gladiatorial shows
  3. personal messages
• walls often painted over for new graffiti

Question 38

limitations of evidence provided by a range of sources

Answer 38

• not all remains uncovered and if were, some evidence destroyed/not seriously studied
• diff deduce info (ownership, functions of rooms, SOL who used buildings esp when decorations & epigraphy often removed/stolen)
• little literary evidence to cross-check w/ archaeological evidence
• few public buildings in H (forum not excavated) –> understanding political & commercial life in H limited
• some early archaeologists didnt understand evidence (romans didnt see work & home separately, diff concept of room uses, didnt segregate women in house, lived close proximity with slaves, freedmen, client, tenants)

Question 39

the 4 range of sources

Answer 39

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

• decorative art (frescoes, mosaics, show Greek influence)
• everyday objects (food, utensils, objects for commerce, transport, entertainment, medicine) –> hsitorians valuable for daily life
• wax tablets (dossiers) reveal bus & legal activities, fmaily structure
• rollys of papyri (Epicurean philosophy)
• architecture (public & private)
• human remains (skeletons, plaster & resin casts) reveal sex, age, health, appearance, genetic diversity, status, cause of death

EPIGRAPHIC

• wall writings (electoral slogans, graffiti) –> city events & activities
• formal inscriptions on bronze, marble, stone (civic charters, regulations) –> evidence of gvt, political elite

LITERARY

• PTY, PTE, Seneca, strabo, vitruvius, cicero, cassius dio,

Question 40

ancient writers evidence

Answer 40

• PTY’s letters to tacitus
• PTE academic & Roman admiral, ‘natural history’ one of world’s 1st encyclopedias & wrote abt P’s natural reosurces & products
• Strabo wrote abt the geography
• Seneca discussed earlier earthquake, Vitruvius wrote abt architecture, esp features of houses & Greek influence on layout of theatres
• Cassius Dio wrote abt eruption

Question 41

official inscriptions as evidence

Answer 41

• epigraphy is study of inscriptions
• writing on city walls prominent form of communication eg. ads for gladiatorial games/promote bus’
• civic charters & regulations on bronze plates fixed to walls of public buildings
• patrons used inscriptions to promote themselves & family usually on pubic buildings/ statues welathy citizens (who recognised patron’s contribution to city)
• funerary inscriptions on tombstones reveal religious & burial customs but also need to be interpreted with caution, reveal how ppl want to be remembered

Question 42

public & private buildings as evidence

Answer 42

public

• temples
• bathhouses (thermae)
• amphitheatre (circus)
• palaestra
• Basilica (law courts)
• theatre
• raods
• water towers & fountains
• town walls & gates
• Thermapolia
• Brothels
• Taverns (last 3 at front of houses, attached)

private structures

• insulae, villas (country & suburban)
• palatial/humble town houses
• farm buildings

Question 43

graffiti & wall writings

Answer 43

• political slogans & public notices usually painted in red & black than inscribed
• mostly painted by professional scribes on outer walls of buildings
• walls firstly whitewashed with lime & at night scribe wrote message under light of oil lamp, not always done by professional
• quite reliable bc spontaneous form of expression, show range ppl from all classes & bgs thinking
• pompeii dedicated to Venus –> graffiti love, devotion, jealousy, bitterness common
• many related to gladiators

Question 44

wall paintings evidence

Answer 44

• guests follow colourful decor while slaves dark corridors
• social orientation (no. frescoes & their quality –> lvl resources & social aspirations of HH)
• frescoes coats of mortar (lime & sand mix), coats of lime mixed with finely powdered marble, pigemnts aplied when plaster still wet
• AUGUST MAU 4 styles wall paintings chronologically & according to traits, not isolated to P

1. incrustation

• colourful blocks painted on walls resemble large marble slabs decorating temples & public buildings that inds couldnt afford

2. Architectural

• realistic reflects everyday objects & scenery
• illusions of windoes

3. Ornamental

• monochromatic, ornamental walls painted with few pieces of architecture, columns to divide wall into sections

4. intricate

• all elements of earlier styles
• chaotic, filled to excess

Question 45

statues as evidence

Answer 45

many identified P&H

• made of marble, bronze or stone
• aesthetic runners, mythological scenes, prominent figures eg. Marcus Nonius Balbus in H
• some purely artisitc & represent wealth & Greek culture
• others political

Question 46

mosaics as evidence

Answer 46

pictures/decors made of diff coloured pieces of stone, tile, glass to form simple/elaborate design

• usually appeared on floor inside/outside but also on walls
• geometric designs, scenes or animals, mythical legends, religious motifs & representations
• storng Greek influence depict Greek gods

Question 47

economic features of P&H

• p trade > h

Answer 47

• agriculture
• fishing
• industries (ceramics, olive oil, wine, fulleries to bleach & clean clothes)
• trade
• markets, shops, bars, taverns, inns, thermapolia (commercial life)
• banking

Question 48

commercial centres in p&h

Answer 48

• P&H both generally localised ecos (nto always rely on Rome) based laregly on agricultural production & fishing
• P more trading & commercial centre, making profit & accumulating wealth
• H smaller fishing town had farms
• ~600 excavataed privately owned shops, workshops, bars, inns
• Epigraphic evidence of guilds of tradesmen and retailers
• ~20 maritime warehouses (sea) of a port area & buildings lined w/ wine jars (export & import wine)
• Paintings of cargo boats on Sarno and porters carrying products to load onto vessels

Question 49

evidence of commercial activity in p&h

Answer 49

• Inscriptions on walls & floors of houses & workshops paying tribute to pursuit of profit’ profit is joy’ found in mosaic entrance way of 2 wealthy men
• ‘Welcome gain’ inscrived around impluvium in carpenter’s house
• Images mercurygod of commerce
• But idea of creation for profit is questionable and not necessarily indicates p as whole bc production of bread, wine, clothing wasnt in bulk for export but some profits still made locally → limitations of evidence
• Debate betw archaeologists abt extent p had ‘textiles’ or ‘wool’ industry
• No. fulleries & farming of sheep used as evidence of export by historian Moeller while Jongman argues more small scale & localised

Question 50

agriculture as a backbone of p&h’s ecos

Answer 50

• respectable way of earning living
• ppl w/ large landholding enjoy high status
• many farmsteads & villas associated with farm/vineyard (villa rustica) in Sarno River Plain and market gardens (horti) within P walls provided raw materials (wine, olive oil, grains, fruit, veg, meat, wool) for most retail and industrial workforce
• many Fishing fleets from H on coastline of Bay of Naples provided crustaceans, molluscs, fish also to make garum, exported to south of france, highly prized
• Industries spawned others eg. terracotta & ceramic containers for storage & trade wine, oil, garum –> **pottery **

Question 51

forum in pompeii

Answer 51

• Hub of town for eco, commerce, banking, admin, etc
• Vitruvius in his treatise on architecture said roman fora should be built with columns widely spaced to maek transaction of bus more convenient
• Forum buildings once roofed in bright red terracotta tiles with statues surrounding them
• Large rectangular blocks fitted solidly in ground barred access to wheeled traffic
• On any day of week (esp market day) forum & surrounding streets wouldve been filled w/ lively bustle of shopkeepers, merchants, customers, teachers, students, ppl gossiping, attend temples, law courts/hold political office

Question 52

commercial buildings in P forum

Answer 52

building of EUMACHIA

• one of largest buildigns in forum believed built by patroness of fuller guild Eumachia, contained statue of her
• Dedications on facade refer to her name and her son Marcus Numistrius Fronto (couldve been runnign for public office at the time)
• One of building unclear but it mayve been meeting place for fuller’s collegium or where bus conducted eg. sale of wool/TEXTILES
• Eumachia was free born woman who married into wealthy family & held public office of Priestess & matron of the Imperial Cult → explains connections made betw imperial family & family of Eumachia patroness of the fullers guild
• Not entirely sure what was used for, assume she was patronness bc statue & inscription of her there, likely used by fullers guild and ool & textiles

Question 53

macellum in the P forum

Answer 53

• fish, meat, veg
• Had pool of sea water to keep fish fresh no refrigeration
• Busy market specialising in selling fish & meat, possibly fruit & vegs
• Location chosen so its pedestrian traffic wouldnt disturbmain forum space
• Consisted of large arcaded courtyard w/ shops wedged betw marble columns
• In centre unusual building (tholos) bounded by 12 columns & in centre thought pool forl ive fish
• Large quantities of fish scales & bones(evidence) found in underground channel that linked pool with drains
• a small raised temple, statues of an emperor and notable Pompeian dignitaries (prob financed the buildingFolitor

Question 54

olitorium in the P forum

Answer 54

On other side of forum , market selling (grains) & legumes sold to inds & bakeries
Entrance had 8 openings to faciliatete movement of customer

Question 55

mensa ponderaria

Answer 55

• measuring table w/ grooves of semicircles diff sizes eg. measure kilo of wheat and put into carved semicircular holes and measure exact amt, evidence standardising weights
• weight ing table, marble slab with 9 circular cavities of diff capacities for measuring foodstuffs sold by shopkeepers
• Augustus attempted to standardise all weights & measures throghout empire, (table with circle holes)

Question 56

moeny in P&H

Answer 56

• Didnt barter, money in form of coins to trade in P&H
• most coins found minted under romna emperor vespasian
• Currency included DENARII and SESTERCE
• Cache of 127 waxed writing tablets found 1959, they were bus transactions of Sulpicii family (family of bankers & money lenders)

Question 57

pompeii’s port

Answer 57

• Remaisn of 20 warehouses containing weights for anchoring boats & fishing gear but amphorae & satatue of Neptune (god of sea) departing sailors made sacrifices
• a trans-shipment point ofr local & foreign goods
• Ocne shisp unloaded, goods transferred to barges(flatter boats) to Sarno River to inland towns and onto wagons into P
• Evidence indicates P was important trading town for Campanian region
• H’s eco served more localised needs (smaller trading port bc smaller town and less industries)
• P made garum & wine

Question 58

P exports

Answer 58

• ucertain how extensive exports of P wine were to other parts of Roman Empire
• Occasional Pompeian amphora, tile or pottery container found beyond italy cut some scholars believe their export trade relatively minimal
• Pompeian wine amphorae found in Spain, Germany, Britain
• Pliny the elder said garum was major export throughout the Mediterranean
  Praised quality of Pompeiian garum
• Prized commodity, 2 bottles of garum produced in Pompeii were found in South of France, shows extent of exportation

Question 59

pompeii imports

Answer 59

• **Tableware for Puteoli
• Pottery** from spain and gaul
• Furniture from naples
• Lamps from alexandrai
• Wine & oil imported from spain, sicily, crete

Question 60

pottery in pompeii

Answer 60

In past, believed red slip ware (clay vessels) found in P
Confirmed Jaye Pont that it was thriving local industry & challenging previously held assumptions

Question 61

tabernae(shops)
+ how they advertised

Answer 61

• found 600+
• Numerous shops located along Via dell abbondanza (road) as main comercial thoroughfare, shops built rught up kerb had cd hte threshold which indicates the use of a shutter
• Nocommercial segregation & shops interspersed with housing → Andrew Wallace-Hadrill said
• Sohops at front of **houses, rich ppl leased front rroom** of house bc rent
• Many shops had a back room accessed by internal stairs likely shopkeeper’s living quarters
• Shop & workshop owenrs advertised their bus w/ painted trade signs/ paintings on outside of walls
• Busy street prime location for painted political slogans

Question 62

thermapolia

Answer 62

• ~200 public eating & drinking places identified in P
• Some just fast food snack bars aka thermopolia and recognised by marble-covered counter! Whih large dolia holding hot drinks and dishes may have been encased
• Another possibility that dolia (holding hot drinsk & dishes)used to store dried food
• Msot places food taken away/ eatien standing up
• One of largest found in H opp Palaestra with 2 spacious entrances

Question 63

bars & taverns

Answer 63

• Wine bars & taverns known as cauponae! Scattered throughout both towns but in P were more densely clustered near entrance gates & around amphitheatre
• Some had room/s at back with benches for clients
• Others had couches for welathier clients to recline while eating & drinking
• At least some Pompeians heavy drinkers, shown in graffiti

Question 64

wine evidence industry

Answer 64

• evidence of large commercial vineyard near P amphitheatre
• ~ 2014 vine-root holes & cavities of their supporting stakes were plaster cast in large area today replanted w/ vines
• site hadroom set up for wine pressing & a shed with embedded dolia, each could fill 40 amphorae
• Dolium partly on ground bc weather and keep it cooler, encased in ground for storage
• Amphorae look like jars

Question 65

villas

Answer 65

• Had rooms for pressing grapes (torcularia plural) for fermentation (cellae vinariae) & storage
• According to PTE, districts with mild climate stored wine in jars & buried them complete/partially in ground → protect from weathe
• Villas at Boscoreale (villa of psanella & villa regina) possessed a huge storage capacity
• Wine transported to town in large leather wineskins (cullei) then decanted into amphorae/dolia

Question 66

evidence of wine variety

Answer 66

Wide variety of wines produced in vesuvian area
Sign on H wine bar invited patrons ,advertised half a dozen types wine & their vintages (when they were made)
Anotehr tavern advertisemenet confirms wide range of wines sold in Pompeii (ass red copper coin)

Question 67

production & storage of oil

Answer 67

The same estates that produced wine also produced oil
Villa of pisanella ept enough storage jars for over 5900L of oil
Most of pressing (press olives to extract oil)done on estates, even thorough oil presses also found in Pompeian houses & in Forum granary

Question 68

importance & evidence of garum manufacture

Answer 68

• Pompeii renowned for its garum, fish sauce one of main condiments used for flavouring roman cuisine,
  Made from guts of fish and other parts normally thrown away, soaked in salt, so garum is juice produced by rotting substances
• Aa prominent manufacturer was Aulus SCAURUS 4 large mosaics of fish sauce bottles found in atrium of his house with inscriptions
  Nly 50 fish sauce bottles found in/around P
  2 found in southern france w/ his label (exported)

Question 69

food industry

Answer 69

If had q on eco, put agri & fishing in separate paragraph to industries, do other ones eg. wine, oil, garum, pottery making, perfume

• fishing Primary source income for H, fundamental source of income for P
• many fishing nets, bronze hooks, sinkers & fish bones & skeletons discovered at H
• Bakeries (pistrina)
• some bakeries had adjoining area for selling own bread
• Around 30 bakeries in P
• 10 kinds bread produced in bakreies but poor quality of flour made bread very hard
• Lack of yeast made bread deteriorate quickly
• Barkeries did own refining of grain in lava stone mills, usually 3 or 4 in a courtyard with a table for kneading dough in the oven

Question 70

textiles & fulleries (industries)

Answer 70

• wool one of most imp industries in P bc
• wash and dye wool & manufacture cloth
• Associated with manufacture of cloth was laundering, bleaching, dyeing of clothes usually carriedo ut in fullonicae/laundries, 18 were in Pompeii found
• Some occupied rooms of private houses (possible rented)
• Can be identified by no. interconnected basins/tanks with built in steps for washing and rinsing
• Eidence fullers rinsed dried and brushed cloth, (dry –> bleach w/ sulphur –> dye)
• perfume –> **Flower production for perfume industry,
• root cavities** prob of rose bushes, fragments of terracotta and glass perfume containers evidence

Question 71

occupations in P*H

Answer 71

Farmers, fisherman
P had large commuity
* artisans, craftsmen included artisits, carpenters, potters, metalworkers
Merchants, manufacturers,
* service industries eploying shopkeepers, bakers, brothel keepers
* lot of evidence

Question 72

hierarchy in P&H

Answer 72

1. emperor

• lived in Rome but inhabitants of Roman towns had to show allegiance to him

2. nobility (aka elite, all freeborn)

• patricians
• equestrian order (eg. Marcus Nonius Balbus patron for public buildings)

3. poorer freeborn (outside elite)
   * ingenui (all freeborn)
   * plebs humilus poor & plebs media rich
4. freedmen and women (liberti)

• libertus (man) liberta (woman) liberti all
• wealthy –> not welathy

5. slaves (servi)

• had hierarchy
• those working for elite if literate could do bus transactions & trusted handling money
• worst in quarries, breaking stone to build, galelys (just Rome tho)

women in all groups but in each, inferior to men (paternalsitic society)
some freedmen became wealthy and surpassed upper echelons but elite despised

Question 73

most common figure for population for P and H

Answer 73

5000 based on theatre seating but not accurate

10, 000 where 40% slaves (P)

Question 74

privileges of freeborn men

Answer 74

• own land, run for office, become politicians, vote
• upper lvl had social network w/ friends, clients (freeborn & freed) who they advised & interest looked after publicly & privately (PC relation)
• Men could run for public office and could become members of the ordo decurionum
  Local gvt, councils

Question 75

privileges of freeborn in general

Answer 75

• Ranged from the elite (generally land-owning families) to plebs media ( rich but outside elite) to most humble freeborn (plebs humilus)
• Many of this group engaged in some form of commerce
• Even elite concerned w/ selling agricultural produce of their country estates & renting parts of theri town houses to small businesses
• As prospective candidates for office, elite depended on these groups for political support

Question 76

patron client relationship

Answer 76

• benefit both (gain manumission ex slave received bus advice & contacts and previous master gets political support when running for office)
• freedman/woman usually remained tied to his/her former master and patron in a relationship (SLIDE 16), of gratitude & loyalty,
• Epitaphs reveal patrons often paid for graves of deserving freedmen/women
• Freedmen & women often paid for their own graves and freeborn
• tradition that welathy high status men have group of clients serving him
• clients expected to arrive at patron’s house for morning salutatio,
• clients usually plebeians (poor, former slaves) but some acquired wealth by trading & became patrons

Question 77

freeborn (social and political elite) men

Answer 77

Full legal rights
Could hold political office
Included wealthy landowners & businessmen (
Colosseum is microcosm of roman society (extra)
Included wealthy landowners & businessmen
Could be members of the town council
Controlledp public finances, spaces religion
Had privileged seats in amphitheatre and theatre
Received honorary statues & tombs

Question 78

freeborn women (social & political elite)

Answer 78

• Could NOT hold formal political office
• Under legal control of fathers/husbands
• Could own property & Conduct businesses but still relied on men
• Constructed buildings & tombs
• Held priesthoods
• Support electoral candidates (influence vote)
• Received honorary statues & tombs (few, only priestesses bc highly honouredeg. eumachia as role of fuller’s patron & priestess)

Question 79

liberti (freedmen, ex-slaves) how could they become wealthy & influential?

Answer 79

masters could help est bus

Question 80

Why would eumachia have dedicated her building in the forum in her son’s name

Answer 80

Thinking later on when hes old enough eh can gain political office

Question 81

Why would umbricia januaria (female cause ends in a) running a bus for her former master, caecilius jucundus?

Answer 81

He’s her patron and she’s trusted with running a business, most likely her famil & friends supported him

Question 82

occupations of most freedmen & women in P

Answer 82

crafts, trade & commerce
* Small shops, workshops, bars, taverns, built into facades of many dignisified residences often run by the freed dependants of the owner of the house

Question 83

freedwomen

Answer 83

Wives of freedmen helped their husbands in businesses eg. bakeries
Others ran own enterprises eg. brothels & inns and become wealthy
Wax tablets of H reveal Poppaea Note, a freed woman of Priscus who had slaves of her own and another inscription of Naevoleia Tyche, well-off freedwoman of Lucius, also had freedmen and women of her own
Even if they were ex-slaves could accumulate enough wealth to have own slaves

Question 84

houses of freedmen

Answer 84

Luxurious houses owned by many freedmen rivalled Pompeian elite

• cultural language of the nobility to establish their status in that society’
• Actions to emulate elite even with houses so they could gain status
• elite who had wealth in their families for generations resented ‘new money’ of freedmen
• Paintings done by hand by artists, paid lots to create mosaics & frescoes display wealth, eg walk into atrium see know automatically owner rich

Question 85

freedmen (liberti) men rights

Answer 85

• Vote in elections
• business owners
• some Participate in religious cults
• Could become an Augustalis (priest of emperor’s cult)
• could NOT hold formal political office

Question 86

freedwomen rights

Answer 86

Could not hold former political office
Some worked for former masters

Question 87

composition of slaves

Answer 87

A large prop of population of P&H was likely been of servile origin, creating an obvious ethnic diversity in the relatively small total number.

Question 88

what slaves did

Answer 88

captured & acutioned/ offspring of slave mother belonged to their master

• many employed in upper class HHs as cooks, entertainers, nurses, tutors, clerk/ secretaries
• on agri estates, pick grapes, harvesting, ploughing
• poorest had at least 1 slave

Question 89

social hierarchy (?) among slaves

Answer 89

In urban HH there was a great diff in status betw a server/oven-stoker
Eg. dispensator who controlled master’s funds or the cellarius who controlled food supplies

• educated Male slaves highly privileged
• Female slave unable to marry and if had offspring, according to Roman law belonged to her owner
• Slave’s treatment was dependent on master –> Manumission

Question 90

manumission

Answer 90

Slaves could be manumitted by masters/save up enough money to buy their liberty (but then they had to pay a freedom tax) → permitted to assume master’s name
* public & private slaves
* Public slaves owned by town gvt cleaning streets,
(social hierarchy)
* If owner sell slave, price 5% slave pay to grant manumission

Question 91

beggars in painting meaning

Answer 91

• Prevalent in P
• Graffito but also paintings depict wealthy offering a beggar a piece of bread
• Suggests boundaries betw upper & lower lvls of society not distinct

Question 92

evidence of slaves

Answer 92

little remain, bc ppl only value upper class & didnt create a proper tomb w/ tombstone/ epitaph on it,

• few houses had separate slave quarters at back w/ narrow dingy passageways with cramped rooms, –> some HHs treated them well in main rooms
• domestic work common, (not only thing they did)
• few tombstones attributed to slaves written by upper class
• Little evidence in archaeological records
• Some owned by the town council (public slaves)
• Often shared owner’s living space
• Very few tomb inscriptions mention being a slave , most probably buriedi n tombs of their masters/unmarked graves
• problematic for historians & archaeologists, dont obtain comprehensive picture –> limited understanding of daily life & social structure

Question 93

how can tell if female wealthy

Answer 93

Female painting: literate (stylus & wax tablet), hair embellishent/style, jewellery, opulent garments

Question 94

women (rights?)

Answer 94

Evidence from written & archaeological sources suggest female influencei n P&H

• Paintings, inscriptions, graffiti (though interpretive) suggest that women were omewhat active in eco, religious, political roles in LIMITED way
• inferior to men
• paternalistic societies, even prominent women always connected to their paterfamilias

Question 95

paterfamilia

Answer 95

father of HH

• under Roman law power of life & death over entire family

Question 96

legal rights for women

Answer 96

• Could INHERIT a share of their father’s estate & could make a will on the sme basis as a brother but couldnt dispose inheritance
• own property & make bus transactions

Question 97

female occupations

Answer 97

• individually & w/ husbands, run shops
• lower status often worked in fulling industry (washing & dyeing cloth), making & mending clothes
• businesswomen (w/ husbands/alone if widowed) eg. bakery, * wealthy upper class eg. buy, sell, rent properties,
• freedwomen eg. taverns
• pristess (of popular cults) eg. Cult of Isis
• slave eg. cook, clean, entertain
• tradesppl eg. sell perfume & dye, work at fullery, sell fruit & veg
• prostitutes –> high-class courtesan/ foreigners (freed/slave at brothels & bars)
• medical profession aka doctors, midwife (mostly servile origin)

Question 98

female role in public life

Answer 98

unable to vote, but still role in public life

• Some public priestesses responsible for construction & dedication of public buildings
• supported political candidates

Question 99

female education

Answer 99

• unknown how many females could read/write, believed upper class girls educated in home probably by a slave tutor
• Frescoes show women with stylus & tablet/book in hands suggest literacy= status & maybe made woman more desirable as a marriage partner

Question 100

notable female in P

Answer 100

Born into prominent Eucmachii family who owned vineyards & brickworks
She assumed the public office of Priestess of Venus as well as matron of an imperial cult of Concordia Agustus
She became patron of the Fuller’s Guild when she dedicated a building in the forum

Question 101

local political life in P&H

Answer 101

• P&H self governing in local matters but subject to decree of Rome
• Gaps in knowledge of day-to-day details of political life eg. where elections held
• Only male citizens vote
• Epigraphic evidence suggests political activity intense in P esp leading up to elections (graffiti whitewashed painted over programmata layers)
• Most including women polticialyl aware
• Competition for office so fierce harder to gain seat city council > Roman Senate - Cicero

Question 102

evidence on political life

Answer 102

• 2600 electoral announcements survived, named over 100 candidates for political office
• Monumental inscriptions (honorific inscriptions on statue bases)
• Epitaphs on tombs
• occupation on tombstones,
• Public buildings (Basilica, Commitium)
  B housed law courts but also political and eco structures, C meeting place for politicans

Question 103

organisation of gvt

Answer 103

Executive arm of gvt comprised Board of Four/quattuorviri(4 magistrates most important roles), 2 duumviri/duoviri and 2 aediles

3 arms of gvt (executive, council, ppl’s assembly)
Executive: duumviri, aediles (offices southern end Forum)

cOUNCIL
Curia met in council house, Southern end forum
Cruai for councillors

PPL’S Assembly
Commitium South East corner Forum

Near each toher to interact

Question 104

how politices in P&H worked

Answer 104

P&H modelled on Roman world and hence the Cursus Honorum (roman career path of political offices) prevalent in towns → offices of aedile & duumvir (singular) extremely important
If male into politics, go through hierarchy to gain position esp Rome, procedure
Doubt question on cursus honorum bc more focused on rome, but still need to know system moving through ranks
Cant jump ranks, move 1 role after another,
Councillers sometimes former magistrates themselves, educated, wealthy, moved through cursus honorum

Question 105

duumviri (political offices)

Answer 105

Duumviri 1 of 2 equal magistrates elected annually w/ law giving powers who adminsitered justice & presided over the decuriones (councillors)
Senior to aediles (more important)
Administrative: carried out decrees of town council & administered electoral rolls
Judicial: presided over the town’s courts
Financail: presided over town money, looked after revenue & taxation
Entertainment: public spectacles
Gladiators, amphitheatres,
* every 5 years elected as quinquennial duumviri to take census & control morality

Question 106

what did duumviri make judgements abt?

Answer 106

Unworthy decuriones (members of council, usually former magistrates)
Electoral candidates w/ required qualifications
Inappropriatebehaviour during elections
Misuse public funds
Robberies
Murder

Question 107

councillor roles

Answer 107

Councillers sometimes former magistrates themselves, educated, wealthy, moved through cursus honorum
Responsible for sentecning but only could give death penalty to foreigners & salves
In civil cases, limited to law suits whose value didnt exceed 15,000 sesterces/defamatory trials whose limite was 10,000 sesterces
Magistrates led town council, councillors nejoyed privileges eg. best seats at public shows in theatres/amphitheatre
Symbols of power: purple bordered toga, lictores(guards) who carried bundles of rods called fasces symbolised military power

Question 108

ppl’s assembly (politics)

Answer 108

derived from quattuorviri, voted for them

• only elect magistrates
• poor male could only partake here not in council
• vote as individuals or guilds
• male citizens over 25 yo
• voted on proposes by council
• met in Comitium
• every year elected 4 decurions to run towns (2 officials ‘duumviri’ for justice & finance, aediles supervise public buildings, manage markets, maintain order, issue licences & permits)

Question 109

city council (politics)

Answer 109

aka Ordo decurionum, 80-100 decurions/councillors (male) elected for life
* (former) magistrates for life from most wealthy citizens (only freeborn, excluded actors & innkeepers)
* revised every 5 years
* debate & vote issues affecting city’s administration
* want men of honour (honesty, virture) and wealth
* needed to make generous contributions to city
* over 25 yo
*only richest citizens bc private funding for community
* every decision written in archives, if important inscribed in bronze (historians)
* right to weal purple edged toga
* had reserved seats at public performances
* allowed to display fasces as trad symbols of power
* met in curia

Question 110

2 duoviri vs 2 aediles

Answer 110

DUOVIRI

• administered electoral rolls
• criminal and civil cases & sentencing (magistrates)
• census
• co-mayors
• serve 1 year

AEDILES

• admin public buildings
• maintain roads & sewerage systems
• regulate markets
• maintain public order
• sponsor theatre, gladiator comps,
• serve 1 year

Question 111

priesthoods

Answer 111

roman politicans usually held prestigious priesthoods in the state & Imperical Cult (worship emperor) as part of cursus honorum (usually)

• religion and politics weren’t separate, intertwined
• all political meetings accompanied by religious rites
• priesthoods associated w/ emperor worship eg. Augustales, integral in political life, many magistrates
• Augustales had to pay a fee to Treasury to join, expected funds used to conduct Imeprial Cult –> wealthy freedmen & freeborn eligible

Question 112

emergency office (rare)

Answer 112

• extraordinary magistracy aka prefect for admin of justice) take place of duumviri for short time during emergency if town couldnt be governed by normal means
• position could be legally appointed by town council under Lex Petronia
• rarely used in P&H
• occurred in P after 62AD earthquake destroyed ifnrastructure and delayed elections

Question 113

municipal buildings (3)

Answer 113

1. Curia

• city council meet in lavishly decorated curia chamber (south of forum) adjactent to Comitium
  2. Comitium
• Ppl’s assembly where populus voted for ind magistrates (duumviri & aediles)
• building roofless, town meetings held where citizens question members gvt (heavy gates)
  3. Basilica
• seat of the judiciary & law courts, centre of bus activities
• long rectangular central hall flanked on either side by colonnaded aisle
• one end 5 doors linked hall with Forum and other raised podium where duomvir sat

Question 114

elections requirements

Answer 114

• only freeborn males could run for office
• 1. reputation 2. wealth bc magistrates werent paid & expected to make generous contributions to public funds
• voters interested in personal integrity of candidate (upright, reserved life’)
• although werent paid, wanted status & power
• 1/2 electoral manifestos & programmata (propaganda) discovered in P from March election AD79
• earlier slogans whitewashed over to advertise next group candidates
• candidate wore white toga (candida) & employed slave to whisper his name to everyone he contacted to identify himself

Question 115

evidence of elections

Answer 115

• candidates didn’t write manifestos themselves, made electoral promises/boasted past
• trade corps promoted candidates!
• pastry vendores, muleteers (duomvir), fruit merchants (wanted ? as aedile)
• graffiti shows some werent happy with duoviri

Question 116

everyday life dot points

Answer 116

• housing
• leisure
• food & dining
• health
• clothing
• baths
• water supply
• sanitation

Question 117

clothing

Answer 117

Women not married wore tunics belt fastened on waist (like men)
Longer than male tunics
Made of wool/silk
Females og wore togas but grew out of fashion & worn by prostitutes ‘lower status’
Men diff types togas eg. toga praetexta (broad purple border) worn by magistrates & some high priests in formal settings
Most evidence from artistic representations (frescoes, statues, few material scraps)
Togas not worn all time, statues show highly ranked men wearing toga
Togas heavy, woollen, diff to put on, restricted mobility, formal wear
Commonly worn by men all classes but purple striped &width reflect status
Poorer made of darker, coarse wool
Women of rank wore stolas
Long sleeveless tunic over another tunic
Symbol of marriage, proclaiming modesty & respect for tradition
Palla (cloak) were overhead when outdoors
Palla drapes over head (women)
Tunic underneath
Tunic on own common person prob slave
Fulleries useful evidence for clothing in P&H

Question 118

limitations of clothing as evidence

Answer 118

Most evidence is abt wealthy (frescoes, statues depict wealthy ppl)
A lot of fabric doesnt survive over the years (material evidence)

Question 119

water supply (unfinished)

Answer 119

both cities obtained water from aqueducts (bridges)

• pipes from aqueducts supplied street fountians, public baths, swimming pools, public water storage towers
• every house had tanks to collect & store rainwater
• public toilets common but private only for rich
• H water sewage more advanced bc at the coast more wealthier
• Og P relied on water from Sarno River, wells, rain
  Under emperor Augustus, aqueduct built supplying towns with water ‘Aqua Augusta”
  From aqueduct (artificial channel transporting water), entered water tower (castellum aquae) and travelled by lead pipes into city
  Many private homes connected to source directly
  Water tower in P bigger than ones in H

Question 120

3 reasons why sanitation levels may have been high

Answer 120

Frequent bathing + public baths
Public & private toilets
Reliable water supply → public water fountains

Question 121

2 sources of evidence for sanitation

Answer 121

Well preserved toilets
Public fountains (nymphaea) (42 P, 3 H)
Many ppl lived near water fountains for continuous fresh supply

Question 122

2 major baths at H

Answer 122

Central baths
Divided into men & women’s section
Women’s smaller but preserved better
Suburban baths
Well preserved, located near ancient beach front
Gift from Marcus Bablus and weren’t segregated but used by men & women diff times

Question 123

5 majro baths in P

Answer 123

orum baths
Based on design of Stabian baths
Separate sections for men & women
Elaborate stucco walls
Central baths
Largest, more modern
Suburban baths
No sign of segregation of gender sections
Well preserved frescoes
Sarno baths
Located under apartments

Question 124

public baths (thermae)

Answer 124

Open midday
Heating from furnaces circulating hot air through floor & walls
Entrance fees weren’t high
Often close/connected to palaestra (forum, stabian & central baths at H each had palaestra)
Decorated to convey luxury (complex mosaics & frescoes on walls, bronze statues)
Access to baths part determined by class
freedmen/slaves visited once a week, wealthier everyday

Question 125

process of bathing

Answer 125

Apodyterium where bathers changed & stored clothes
Caldarium hot steam-filled room, 40 degrees
Basin of cold drinking water
Tepidarium warm room for massage, scrape off dead skin
Frigidarium cold room to close skin pores last stage process

Question 126

vestibulum

Answer 126

Vestibule (foyer) entrance area
Wealthy owner if visitors queuing up to see them bc had benches
Narrow entry through doorways often betw shops retned to merchants
Door sometimes guarded by door keeper (ianitor) & access to house strictly controlled

Question 127

atrium

Answer 127

ornate room received guests,
* frescoes on walls
* impluvium & compluvium
* mosaics on floor
* where public & private activities took place at diff times
* centre had shallow pool ‘impluvium’ to collect rainwater through compluvium (hole in roof also providing light)
* water drained from impluvium to a cistern below)
* ppl argue activities in here but for most P houses, atrium practical function as service court for Hh activities

Question 128

tablinum (reception room)

Answer 128

• talk abt bus where master had tables & scrolls
  Large space open to sky,
  Religious & social centre of roman house
  Clients waited to pay respects (salutation) to master of house/patron
  Square hole in roof (compluvium) allowed light to enter & other rooms surrounding atrium,
  Rain fell of sloped roof into impluvium
  Pool helped keep part of house cool, drained into HH’s cistern, stored for later use
  HH’s wealth displayed to impress visitor w/ wealth & status
  Often lavishly decorated
  Mosaics, portraits of ancestors, lararium (shrine of HH gods)
  Office where paterfamilias met with clients & discuss bus
  Maybe had wooden partition to enclose room for privacy & warmth
  Maybe as master bedroom, sometimes used as dining room
  Atrium & tablinum declined importance over time
  See through to atrium & gardens

Question 129

triclinium

Answer 129

• outdoor dining area, 3 sides covered in frescoes
  Dining room w/ couches for reclining (adopted greek practice)
  3 couches U-shape, each hold 3 ppl
  many had winter & summer dining room in garden/opening into it
  Roman furniture was light & portable to move betw rooms

Question 130

culina (kitchen)

Answer 130

• dolium to provide water
• bronze cooking vessels over small fire
• few houses had
• furthest from entrance
  Diff to identify
  Fireplaces for cooking
  Mostly not decorated bc workplaces for slaves
  Cooking often in many rooms on portable stoves
  Usually larger houses have distinguishable kitchen

Question 131

cubicula (bedrooms)

Answer 131

• if weren’t preserved, diff to identify bc move around rooms depending on season
  Located anywhere in house
  Little furniture w/ beds easily moved

Question 132

toilets & bathhouses

Answer 132

only rich ppl owned, mostly public

• use chamberpots in homes
• many private houses had
• toilet is latrine
• private baths only for wealthy (P)
  Many houses had latrines, some used chamber pots
  Shared toilet facilities
  Kitchen waste water used in toilet but some had lead pipes for continuous flushing
  Waste through sewerage system through pipes
  Msot bathing in public baths

Not all bathhouses structured same, different entrances for women and men at diff times of day didnt have to swim same pools same time as men for privacy
Apodyterium change room
Ornate decorations within bath houses with frescoes and mosaics, stucco decor (raised)
Underneath main floors, slaves had to warm fires for tepidarium and caldarium system to retain heat and keep floor and pools warm/hot (hypo(under eg. hypothermia)caust) furnace, steam to pass under the floors and into hollow walls
Vaulted ridged ceilings arched over so steam could evaporate,
At baths for massage get slaves to apply oil to skin and use strigel (curved metal) to scrape off excess oil from skin and exfoliate

Question 133

dining rooms

Answer 133

• often several in 1 house to accommodate dinner w/ many guests
• formal ones distinguished archaeologically by markings in mosaic pavements –> where couches placed
• wealthy Romans followed Greek custom reclining to eat & talk at meals
• couches U-shape around low central table
• winter heated by iron/bronze/terracotta braziers. summer meals outside w/ trees & fountains (cool)

Question 134

peristylum/peristyle garden

Answer 134

colonnaded garden

• peristyle usually featured garden where msot decorative stuff: floor mosaics, wall paintings, statues, fountains
• presence & quality of wall paintaings in P houses relate to size & no. rooms
• some P gardens had fruit trees, flowers, statues, ponds, fountains
• found carbonised seeds,
  Colonnaded garden (columns)
  Usually 1 but up to 3 colonnaded area enclosed garden inside house
  Statues, water foundation, running water, murals, ponds, seating, gardens
  Central hub of house, verandah area surrounded it
  Poorer houses smaller peristyle, basic plants
  Replaced og kitchen garden where vegs & fruits oil & wine provided for family
  Light into house, place of contemplation
  Essential for homes of ppl holding public office
  Houses w/o, room next to small garden decorated w/ nature eg. paintings of gardens

Question 135

problems with housing evidence

Answer 135

• no standard house in P/H
• room functions interprative, reflect historical context
• material removed from their context makes room function almost impossible to determine
• resident changed room usage according to seasons
• attributing single room function inaccurate bc couldve been multifunctional
• assumptions abt dwelling/owner relationship is only conjecture (guess), diff to knwo if 1 family/several occupied
• evidence for tenement/apartment housing/upper floor use almost non-existent in P bc upper storeys collapsed
• previous analyses housing focused on wealthy bc artistic & architectural value (misrepresents type of accommodation for large prop of pop)
• past archaeologists only focus on wealthy homes, domuses, villas bc most decorated

Question 136

domus (+ for businessmen)

Answer 136

house of wealthy Roman

for senator/businessman, met bus clients in morning where owner & wife entertained clients, political colleagues over meals
* seats outside entrances & in corridor so clients could wait
* where wealth, power, hospitality of owner dispalyed to impress visitors

Question 137

what does housing show

Answer 137

• info daily domestic life
• changes in housing 7 urban life
• regular plan & systamtic space usage
• grand houses in P, competitive society where quality & luxury of hosue & decor = social standing
• wealth & status demosntrated by size, multi-roomed dwellings & decor of houses
• poorer citizens lived in 1 room apartments/cramped spaces at rear of bus premises/ floor above
• no. visitors indicate social importance
• refer to greek culture affirm social status & interior decor = culture eg. mosaics, frescoes
• building materials (limestone, rock from mt vesuvius)
• public & private spaces & activities (front public, back private), also workspace
• morning, HH’s clients salutatio (morning reception) in atrium
• slaves present in homes (narrow corridors & smaller windows maybe slave quarters) & if not, assumed lived w/ owners,
• many houses didn’t have strict differentiation of space into areas for slaves
• evidence of rented upstairs apartments!
• 350 small independent dwellings in p, various types & SOL within 1 block likely ordinary citizens who lacked property & rented
• loft livign areas on mezzanine floors above shops hwo ordinary lived (loft = attic)
• most private & public buildings constructed from limestone, tufa brick & wood

Question 138

design of a Roman house

Answer 138

• elaborate houses plain on outside (paint w/ white & red) but front foors could be large –> owner’s wealth & status
• grandest houses on commercial streets aka Via dell’Abbondanza
• typical atrium-peristyle house –> simple symmetrical layout, few windows (small & high to keep out sun heat),
• stairways mean some houses had 2 storeys

Question 139

food & dining in everyday life

Answer 139

• abundant natural resources –> fruit & veg (figs, almonds, grpes, raisins, lentils, pomegranats) determined by carbonised remains of seeds
• evidence vineyards, mosaics, frescoes, plaster casts made of plant roots

seafood

• fish (bones, fish hooks, frescoes, mosaics,)
• scallops & cuttlefish (Shells)
• octopus (mosaic)
• human bone analysis

sheep, pigs, cattle, eggs

• animal bones & egg shells

bakeries (pistrina)

• wheat breaed sig part diet, other grains too

home cooked meals

• some houses had kitchen (culina, often wealtheir)
• others cook on portable stove top
• evidence dining rooms (triclinia) sometimes sumemr & winter made of couches w/ tables for food & drink

bought food (tavens, thermapolia)

garum (many labels found in P & throughout Campania recording Scaurus’ name),

• olive oil (oil presses)
• wine (wine presses, frescoes, PTE)

Question 140

nature of dining in roman world

Answer 140

Breakfast (ientaculum)
Basical meal (bread, fruit, cheese)
Lunch
Meat, eggs, vegs, bread
Dinner
Many courses ending with fruit, drink wine
Wealthy ppl held banquets with many courses
Dining for elite class based, diff seating for diff classes in the triclinium
Gardens integral part everyday life
Grow figs & olives, flowers (ornamentation), several purposes
Salted fish from spain
Shellfish not nativeto italy
Mineralised remnants of sea urchin
Butchered leg joint of giraffe (exotic food, only giraffe bone found in roman italy)
Less wealthy less variety, more common inexpensive foods (grains, fruits, nuts, lentils, olives, local fish, chicken eggs)
Wealthy imported foods
Ready-cooked food in thermapolia

What sources reveal
Types of foods, carbonised remains & bones (sewers)
Garum prolific, bread,
produced/cooked in domestic (kitchens in wealthy homes) & on go (bakeries & thermapolia)
Trade → giraffe
Social status (exostic foods + variety)
Banqueting for elites (frescoes, tricliniums) how they ate

Question 141

5 activities for RELAXATION/ ENTERTAINMENT/ SPORT

Answer 141

BATHS (municipal thermae)

• 3. cold (fridgidarium), 1. warm (tepidarium), 2. hot (calidarium) baths
• oil massage, exfoliate, sauna
• had social meetings
• decor: painted stucco walls, mosaic floor
• daily pleasure & necessity
• diff entrances & facilities for men & women, private ones catered each at diff times

THEATRE

• P 2 theatres: one was Odeon (recitals, lectures, 1200 ppl)
• religious festivals & plays (comedies, mimes)
• copied Greek ideas
• all actors male, wore face masks

PALAESTRA (sports ground aka gym)

• boxing, wrestling, javelin, discus throwing mostly men used
• big swimming pool in middle of open sports ground

AMPHITHEATRE

• spectacles: gladiatorial contests, animal hunts
• gladiators often prisoners of war, slaves, criminals, or very poor, each fight usually to death but audience could decide (thumbs up = die)

TAVERNS, BROTHELS

• gambling, drink, prostitutes
• brothels only found in P

Question 142

greek (Hellenistic) & egyptian cultural influence

Answer 142

art, architecture, religion –> regular contact w/ cultures bc major trading partners

RELIGION

• greek religion but diff names, worship same gods but diff titles (Adapted olympian gods and goddesses (triad) (Zeus → Jupiter)
  Polytheistic (worship multiple gods)
  Temples
  Rituals)
• Herculaneum named after Hercules
• Temple of Isis in P one of 1st strucutres rebuilt after 62AD earthquake
• carbonised remains around altar of TOI –> sacrifices to gods & goddesses
• H limited evidence for Egyptian religious influence

ARCHITECTURE

• both cities, Greek architecture very influential
• grid patterned, wide, straight streets surrounding Forum
  streetscapes (grid pattern)
• columns: Pompeiian basilica all 3 column styles Doric (plain), Ionic (scroll at top), Corinthian (ornate decorated w/ leaves, flowers, scrolls at top)
• layout of villas & houses : peristyles, theatres, palaestra
• egyptian influence in P of animals & plant life
• building of Eumachia in P

ART

• in P, statues of Greek, Greek mythology in mosaics & frescoes (Three Graces frescoe in P, Neptune Mosaic in H)
  Frescoes & mosaics (originated Ancient Greece)
  Subject matter (depict Hercules, mythology)
  Style of statues
• Egyptian imagery in P’s Alexander Mosaic (river Nile), TOI Egyptian mythology scenes
• H small statues of E goddess Isis (but more evidnece in P)
• villa of papyri in H: art & architecture very greek

Question 143

religion (unfinished)

Answer 143

• Romans were polutheistic (worship many gods) based on 12 olympian greek gods
• archaeological & written evidence
• HH shrines (lararia) where guardian spirits of the hose worshipped
• cult of the lares for ancestors, protect house
• State religion basedo n the Capitoline Triad, worshipped in the Capitolium in rome, Jupiter (protector of the state & greek equivalent to zeus), Juno (carer of women & greek equivalent of hera) & minerva (patroness of craft-workers, greek equivalent of athena)
  Pompeii favoured patron goddess venus (of love, beauty, fertility) over time associated with greek aphrodite
  Herculaneum favoured hercules (god of victory & commercial enterprise) based on greek god heracles (son of zeus)

Question 144

private religion

Answer 144

• Largely concerned with ritual
  Not necessarily with faith
  Ppl aimed to please/appease the gods, hoping for some favour in return (reciprocal relationship)
  Religion connected with politics, part of both public & private life
  Served political function, esp in public cults & imperial cult

Question 145

HH gods

Answer 145

ensure prosperity, fertility, protection of family
Paterfamilias (chief priest) conducted all family ceremonies & all religious observances in home
Led his family in prayer & made offerings eg. fruit crops & incense
Some HHs performed animal sacrifice (eg. charred bones of lambs and burnt remains of nuts, figs, dates)

Question 146

Lararia (HH shrines/altars) types: HH gods

Answer 146

Temple-like strucutres/paintings usually found in atrium of houses (some shops too)
* Wall niche found in poorer homes w/ painted back wall & figurines
Aedicule, 3D miniature temple on a podium, lined with marble/painted stucco with statuettes found in richer homes
Wall painted to look like an aedicule w/ HH gods painted
* At least 20 lararia images of Isis discovered in Pompeii

Question 147

4 HH gods

Answer 147

Lares, (worshipped at the lararium)
Associated with the home, headed by the family spirit lar familiaris
Had their own shrine in a cupboard
Food dropped at meals offered to em
Usually depicted as dancing youths in tunics, holding a horn of plenty (rhyton) 1 hand and ceremonial dish (patera) or wine bucket in other
Found as statues or painted in lararia
Most lararia in p&h missing their statues of lares → priority/protection when fleeing eruption
Genius, (male line of descent)
Worshipped on the bday of the paterfamilias
Their statuettes placed on table at meal times
Represented as snake believed ‘gentle bringer of peace & good luck’ to HH
Often depicted in lararia
Vesta (goddess of the hearth)
Penates (gods of the larder) aka food store
Statuettes placed on table at meal times

Question 148

amulets in religion

Answer 148

Pompeians & herculaneums appeased(gain favour of) gods for good luck & fertility using amulets as objects/paintings
Mani pantee: votive hand usually in bronze with thumb, index, middle finger raised in sign of benediction, symbols of deities (snakes, toads, beetles)
Snakes regarded as bringers of peace & prosperity
Erect phallus was symbol of fertility found in houses as decorative b

Question 149

public religion

Answer 149

Temples: of apollo, jupiter, vanus, isis, vespasian,
Imperial cult existed
ope n with columns, when priests performed rituals and sacrifices, public could see
Raised platform → gods importance
Cults (the imperial cult)
Foreign cults (cult of isis)
Rituals

Question 150

tombs in religion

Answer 150

Eumachia had a big tomb bc she was patroness of the fullers guild, & a priestess (valued priestesses if tomb like that)
Tombs for slaves buried elsewhere not in same cemetery, still existed when master liked if there’s ornate tombstone
Mamia’s tomb (pompeii) priestess large ornate tomb
Important ppl in towns honoured n death with large statues and tombs eg. duumvir
Overlap religion and politics

Main source of info abt death & burial in P
No tombs in H uncovered
Amt graffiti suggests high frequency visitors to cemeteries not exclusively for 1 social class
After roman colonisation, most cremated & ashes placed in urns that were buried/placed in tomb
Urns that were buried often marked by a herm, (a sculpture of the head of deceased)
Often coins & pottery buried with deceased

Symbol of wealth & status
Larger, elaborately decorated = wealthy family
Small headstones & inscriptions for children, slaves, less prominent members society
Some had statues of ind’s for passers to view
Others had tricliniums within em for mourning families to hold banquetsi n their honour

Inscriptions on monuments give name & rank of person, vital info abt lives, public works, activities
Inscriptions evidence how tomb owners want to be remembers not necessarily true
Very few children/slaves represented, many of freedmen & women

Question 151

3 types of tombs

Answer 151

Seat tombs
Curved stone seats for several ppl to sit & pay respects
Citizens tombs
Varied in size depending on ind’s importance
Altars, paintings, statues, official inscriptions abt family bg, occupation, official positions
Family tombs
Popular among rich families
Can be distinguished by no. statues at front of tomb

Question 152

health in P&H

Answer 152

Teeth cavities, plaque, gum disease
Evidence old age, arthritis
No lead poisioning
Generally good health
Some fractures, tuberculosis, some dental decay
* non skeletal evidence: medical equip

Question 153

bones for studying health

Answer 153

Most survived kept, disarticulated skeletons not systematic storage of complete skeletons
Fled to seashore to escape eruption,
Skeletal remains rare bc romans cremated their dead
Pompeiians healthy similar size to ppl living Naples today
Females 153cm 167 males
Suggestl lived well into 50s & 60s (arthritis)
Teeth cavities, others plaque bad breath, signs gum diseas & abscesses decaying teeth
No dental intervention eg. extractions, false teeth
Adults active lives
Medical knowledge & practice sophisticated at time
Lead poisoning, water pipes & utensils
Minimal evidence of surgical intervention in P skeleton sample, discovered medical implements → practices widely
P medical instruments as home medical kits, treat minor injuries
Range of instruments scalpel, tweezers,
Injuries maybe sustained in geographical region where medical attention not available
Inds maybe couldnt access medical practitioners for financial/social reasons
Bones tell us
How old person at death
Diseases
Muscles attached to bones, bones change shape to create more surface for muscles
What kind exercise person did

Question 154

leisure in P&H

Answer 154

59 days of roman yr were holidays,
Many activities Gambling, dining, partying at home
Communal, community spirit, social cohesion
Public baths, theatre entertainment, arena, palaestra,
Taverns, inns, thermopolia, brothels (dine, drink)
Forum
Open area to socialise, markets, men participated
Within home,
Read, write, draw, entertain guests, dice & board games, play music

Question 155

theatres for leisure

Answer 155

Lavish patronage by members of seeking popular support
H seat 2000 ppl
Lower rows wide & spacious enough for magistrates & important citizens to have own seats set out
Next block seating was avg citizens, top for women
Standing room for poor
Seat magistrates who finance theatrical entertainments
Divided by class → acknowledge hierarchical structure of society
Rulers could interact w/ people, share entertainment in daylight
Dunno what entertainments performed on stages, prob slapstick humour to appeal to all sections of populace
Entertainment free but entry tokens required
Amphitheatre, theatre, small theatre (odeon)
Odeon for poetry & music recitals (performance but more intimate bc small theatre)
Theatre for theatrical performances (Some dramatic, others comedic, farces)
Amphitheatre largest, for gladiator contests, etc
Gladiatorial contests associated with funeral rites honouring dead sometimes
Sacrificial death ritual associated with god Saturn
Could be staged honouring the gods on emperor’s bday
If q on leisure, categorise, talk abt theatres in 1 paragraph then other eg. bathhouses
Bathhouses (thermae) not just cleanse themselves, not that hygienic bc didnt change water and no chlorine
Also to bathe and socialise, dine, sauna, massage, library in some
Only wealthy had own toilets and baths
Within pools of bathhouses, 3: cold, warm, hot pool
Frigidarium (cold), tepidarium(warm), caldarium(hot)
Sometimes in particular order, physician would assign order

Question 156

challenges using human remains as health evidence

Answer 156

Disarticulated,
Bans on investigations
Sample sizes
Limited info can be concluded

Question 158

imperial cult

Answer 158

Cult gave citizens opps to publicise their loyalty to the emperor & mvoe upwards socially
Augustus role in imperial cult helped advance their social standing when other public officed denied them
Linked with temples

Question 159

ETHICAL ISSUES in the excavation vs conservation of human remains

Answer 159

• Archaeological ethics → primary goal to identify, protect, CONSERVE archaeological finds
  Methods for conservation & restoration governed by international code of ethics ‘Venice Charter for the Conservation & Restoration of Monuments & Sites”
  Endangered sites priority
  1999, the Superintendent at the time, Pietro Giovanni Guzzo, declared a moratorium on all further excavations at P & H. → debate on conserve vs excavate
  P 44 of 66 ha’s urban area visible, generally agree other ha’s unexcavated to preserve for future

Some argue continuing excavations necessary to find more texts revealing ancient roman life
Villa of the Papyri at H centre of this debate
Contains only library survived intact from ancient Roman world
Volcano may erupt again, scarcely do more damage to what’s buried bc exposed parts most risk

Question 160

ethical issues: reasons to study & display human remains

Answer 160

Archaeologists gather more info on victims
(Health, cuases of death, diet, demographics, height)
^ interest → tourism → revenue for conservation
Empathy for victims
Usual for italy to display human remains (monasteries)
No direct descendants of victims alive today
Can make casts/holograms > display actual remains → og ones conserved & studied
Remains ~2000 yrs old far from modern world

Question 161

ethical issues: why we shouldnt study & display human remains

Answer 161

Show respect to & dignity for victims
(Remains shouldnt be displayed w/o consent)
Recent yrs pressure to have some human remains returned for reburial
Taboo in certain cultures to display human remains
Bones & casts need to be conserved
Many already displayed are in poor conditions → deteriorate
Spread misinfo w/ incorrect displays for narrative effect

Question 162

human remains from P&H treated various ways depending on ___ ____

Answer 162

WHEN recovered

Question 163

ethical issues: how human remains treated in pompeii from 1748 to 1860s

Answer 163

1748

• Not insensitive to collect, study, display human remains
  Used to create tableaux in rooms of houses to entertain visitors
  Not recorded & stored as disarticulated bones
  Some early P visitors took skeletal remains as keepsakes

1860s

• Fiorelli created plaster casts of victims, not insensitive to display, attraction to site
  However many casts didnt have skeletal material but reinforced with metal rods

Question 164

ethical issues: how human remains treated in herculaneum 1980s & 21st century

Answer 164

1980s

• Human remains not found in large no’s at H before this time
  Attitudes changed, research appropriate
  Many left in situ for tourists to see but started disintegrated & grew weeds

21st century

• 2009 remaining skeletons scientifically studied
  2015 86 casts scanned to produce 3D models of victims preparing for exhibitiong of just human remains → restored & studied for scientific, archaeological purposes under Great Pompeii Porject

Question 165

new research & technology (focus on IMACT) 10-12-15 markers & choose 3-4 solid projects

Answer 165

• medical imaging, modern forensic techniques, x-rays (not new tech though) & digital scans to carry out non-invasive work on fragile Pompeii casts
• intra-red photograph, spectral imaging –> extract info human eye fails capture with its receptions for red, green, blue
• high resolution digital camera (create 3D models)
• sophisticated computer tech (computer software aka CAD)
• COMPUTERS (Ssince 1960s recording, storing, comparing photographs, plans, maps, tens of thousands of finds
• 3D tech (non-invasive method –> analysis & investigation take place w/o damaging buildings)
• digital cemra (record excavations than relying on drawing)

Question 166

impact of tech

Answer 166

• facilitate conservation & restoration of P&H
• aided greater understanding of sites, change our interpretations

Question 167

scrolls (villa of the papyri) for new tech

Answer 167

• many processes to try read/unravel
• some hacked apart with butcher’s knife
• 1800 scrolls, some 6m length
• 18th century conservator from Vatican, Antonio Piaggio devised machine to delicately open scrolls (1st took 4 yrs to unroll & in pieces, still hard to read)
• 1999 scientists from Brigham Young University examined papyrus using infrared light –> see black in k lines -> show previous readings often wrong
• 2008 multispectral imaging took 16 diff images of each fragment at diff light lvls to create composite image –> text clearer –> multispectral spectrometer –> show writings of Philodemus –> show us elite of these towns adherents of philosophies of Philodemus who was an Epicurrean philosopher (believed life too short, ‘eat, drink & be merry’) –> shows VALUES of time
• many works found are by Greek philosopher Philodemus
• unrolling not best method bc damages scroll in process
• 2008 Dr Brent Seales placed some scrolles in CT scan & tried flattened scans into 2D images but machine couldn’t distinguish ink from papyrus (ink contained no metal) (owner of house was Calponius Piso)

Question 168

italian & international contributions & responsibilities

Answer 168

• heavily criticised not doing enough to conserve P,
• H better bc Hadrill conservation project (better preserved)
• mainly international/sometimes private entities/EU intervene & offer funds to conserve

Question 169

conservation & preservation state of the sites

Answer 169

Conservation & restoration work at H impressive ‘model of best practice’
Until recent yrs, P mismanaged, in poor state
Hence 3011 UNESCO threatened to take away P’s World Heritage Status unless started to reverse site’s vulnerable conditions
Pompeii late 20th century
Henri de Saint-Blanquat: P dying its ‘second death’ 1986
1st eruption, 2nd forgotten, & allowed to deteriorate
2nd death deterioration of site
Nov 2010 part of Schola Armaturarum on P’s main thoroughfare collapsed
Sensationalised, news agencies falsely stated building was House of the Gladiators
Huge sections of a garden wall around House of Moralist collapsed 2 separate occasions later that month
Dec 2010 ancient shop and a house reduced to heap of mortar & column in courtyard of another house collapsed
Disasters led to…slide
Hadrill said collapses happen often over fragile site (15 major catastrophes since 2008)
Most fail catch press attention bc not on major thoroughfares where tourists walk or in frequently visited houses
June 2011 UNESCO Report on 2010 disasters threatened take away P’s World Heritage Status unless trend reversed
Despite allied bombing 1943 & earthquake rocking Campania on 23 Nov 1980
Caused columns, sections of walls, some upper storeys to crash ground
Most destruction in P&H began when sites excavated, exposed, neglected

Question 170

destructive forces as issues facing conservationistsd

Answer 170

Last 2 centuries P&H subjet to destructive forces (natural & anthropogenic) some unavoidable & others preventable

from nature (Wind, rain, sun, earth tremors/eruptions, animals, birds, )& humans (mismanaging funds/steal, poor excavation, tourists)

• weather
• water
• acid rain
• weeds
• parasites & birds
• poor restoration work
• theft
• tourism

Question 171

weather as issue facing conservationists

Answer 171

Some physical remains originally interiors, never meant to expose effects of sun, wind, rain
Light faded vibrant colours of frescoes, carbonised objects deteriorated quick
Strong sunlight in Campania sped up fading & bleaching of paintings & breakdown of organic materials
Airborne substances (gritty particles, carbon particles, oil droplets, bacterial & modl spores) cause untold damage
1957 carried out inventory of all existing wall decorations & discovered almost ⅓ faded completely, none ever being recorded

Question 172

water as issue facing conservationists

Answer 172

Form of groundwater & rain
H Subrurban Baths complex saturated by surface water drained off house above → deteriorate vaulted roof of tepidarium & force authorities to close baths to public
P as of 2012 doesnt have effective drainage system despite H Conservation Project attempts to address
Too much, pools on ground (bc below watertable, H so low)

Question 173

acid rain issue facing conservationist

Answer 173

Since pollution 20th century, acid rain → discolouration, abrasion, corrosion of surfaces
Winter rains penetrate inadequate roofs & run down exposed walls → pool on mosaic floors & cause damp to rise up walls
High calcium content of wall paintings dissolves under moisture & soluble salts surface, bleach & fade paintings

Question 174

weeds as issue facing conservationists

Answer 174

Parasitic plants grow over many ruins esp houses closed to public & in enclosed areas of bare soil eg. peristyles, gardens
Roots undermine foundations of houses, destabilise walls, buckle & loosen mosaic floors
When small mosaic piece lifts from floor, damp encourages growth weeds, algae, lichens
Brambles & ivy penetrate plaster inner walls & cling to outer walls, destroying ancient stonework
Attempts to remove causes walls to crack, break & crumble → allow damp to enter

Question 175

parasites & birds as issue facing conservationsits

Answer 175

Many pigeons at P&H nest in secluded corners of site & acidic excreta corrosive effect on floors & wall decors
Cause irreparable damage by pecking carbonised wooden beams, doors, window frames at H
2004 H Conservation Porject using predatory falcons to discourage birds from nesting in area
Regularly brought to site to stimulate permanent presence ‘territorial deterrence”

Question 176

poor restoration work as issue facing conservationists

Answer 176

Replacing lintels over doors & windows by softwead instead of seasoned hardwood → rot, mould, termite infestation
Cheaper timber instead matching to og,
Rusting iron armatures in reinforced concrete used for repairs mid 20th century split concrete open & cause collapse of restored & ancient structures
Frescoes damaged by applying modern mortars (release salts), paraffin wax & recently Paraloid B72 varnish prevent plaster from breathing
Before Carbonised wood was stabilised, covered with glass/fibreglass now crumbling within microclimate created,
Perspex cases to protect frescoes & graffiti create humidity & dirt trap
Humid ocnditions cause mould growth -> remove perspex shielding & treatment of frescoes w/ antibiotics

Question 177

theft as issue facing conservationists +recovery

Answer 177

1975-200 nearly 600 items stolen from sites
1975 museum at P closed after robbed
1977 14 frescoes cut from walls of Hosue of Gladiators
1990 storeroom robbed at H w/ over 250 artefacts taken
Theft Recovery
Italian paramilitary police recover 60 000 pieces of looted/stolen artwork & archaeological artifacts January 2010, many from P

Question 178

tourism as issue facing conservationists

Answer 178

Approx 3.5 million tourists visit P annually, ½-1 mill visit H (smaller site)
Good: revenue for conservation & help public by educating for awareness & valuing heritage sites
Bad: tourists confined to smaller areas as streets barricaded off & houses braced by scaffolding shut to public. Only small % seen in 1950s experienced today
2006 16 monuments, houses, villas could be viewed compared with 60 in 1956
Millions of feet trample mosaics & street pavements, wearing them down & sometimes exposing lead pipes, eventually crack & break
Hot humid breath & camera flashes deteriorate fading wall paintings
Backpacks & fingers rub walls, columns, frescoes → perspiration & body oils react w/ ancient surfaces
Rubbish dumped, attract vermin & cigarette butts discarded
Fragments of marble & pottery collected as souvenirs
graffiti

Question 179

poor site management as conservation issue

Answer 179

Some improvements recent yrs (rid of feral dogs & introduce system where 1 ticket to visit all Vesuvian sites to take P pressure off)
Poor site management blamed for present state as
Lack of resources, leadership, skilled workforce
Failure to constantly monitor site
Corruption (embezzled funds)
Divided authority betw superintendent and ‘city manager’ (disagreements)
Outsourcing contractors (specialised
Cultural bureaucracy & red tape
Apply to get something done need several gvt bodies for approval (red tape) to achieve anytihng
Once changed, cant reverse to og state eg. concrete in amphitheatre for modern concerts

Question 180

poor funds management in preserving the sites

Answer 180

Total protection from harmful & damaging factors
Close streets, houses, rooms to protect against excessive tourism
Erect roof coverings, glass, plastic over frescoes

Question 181

restoration at the sites

Answer 181

Any process enhances visual/functional understanding of object/building to aid interpretation
Helps public understand how things maybe looked/operated AD 79
Problem is restorers may incorrectly do restoration work & cant be reversed
Poor restoration work continued into modern era
Recent ‘restoration’ of theatre by Marcello Fiori cemented over original stones to turn into modern performance space for Pompeii Viva project, permanently damaging theatre

Question 182

conservation at teh sites

Answer 182

Safeguarding objects & structures comprising material remains of past to ensure they’re available to use & enjoy today & in future
Cautious task w/ careful risk management analysis & strats
Collaborative (& multi-disciplinary) process with experts & specialists around world eg. archaeologists, material scientists
careless conservation & restoration caused damage –> now udner codes of practice in international docs (Venice Charter)

Question 183

improvement in P’s management

Answer 183

Herculaneum much better conserved than Pompeii
Since 2014 Professor Osanna appointed superintendent, slowed P’s spiral of preservation through projects & enhance our understanding of site (rebirth, redemption) ‘not longer time of emergencies’ he said

Question 184

italian & international contributions & responsibilities in conserving & preserving sites

Answer 184

Italian contributions
before 2013 (Great Pompeii Proejct 2013), italy didnt contribute much to conversation of sites except 1995 guzzo superintendent of site & existing ocnvervation efforts revitalised
1999 guzzo declared a moratorium on further excavations of P&H, decided all funds diverted to preserve remains of cities than excavating
P continued problems (degradation, mismanagement, vandalism)
2008 italian gvt declared 1 year state of emergency for site & appointed commissioner to oversee P
Fiori poor restoration & embezzled funds but Osanna (2014) ended P’s emergency state
Joint italian & international contributions
2012, Euro Commission approved funding to secure P as attraction
With money from Italian gvt, funds 105mill euros
Multidisciplinary teams made from experts around world & EU

Question 185

value & impact of tourism (problems & solutions)

Answer 185

Value of tourism
Bring REVENUE since 1997, vital for conservation work at sites
^ public awareness, understanding, appreciation of sites & their ancient past
P 3.5mill, H ½ mill
Double-edged sword
problems of tourism (covered)
Too many tourists
Backpacks grush against ancient walls
Walking on og pathways, some worn away, exposing lead pipes
Touch walls, frescoes, artefacts (transfer oil)
Warm breath, camera flashes affect frescoes
Rubbish attract vermin, stray dogs & pigeons
Vandalism (ancient column pushed)
Modern graffiti
Theft
Solutions
Divert visitors to from P to other sites (H with 1 ticket system)
Visitor quotas for overused parts of site
Rotate which houses accessible to public
Extra security guards
More surveillance cameras
Holograms >displaying fragile objects
Walking boards > og pavements
More signs discouraging flash photography