pompeii & herculaneum Flashcards
1
Q
pompeii’s geographic location
A
- built on a volcanic plateau located betw Sarno River (south) and fertile slopes of Mt V (north)
- USE Sarno River to transport goods, onland through Bay of Naples
-
9km south of V
Strategically imp bc only route link north & south & connected seaside area w/ fertile agricultural region of inland
Surrounded by defensive wall
2
Q
H’erculaneum’s geographic location
A
directly under mt vesuvius on a promontory betw 2 streams
3
Q
what are decumani & cardo/cardines?
A
decumani: roads east to west (horizontal)
cardines: roads north to south (vertical)
meet at right angles
often nymphaea (water fountains & shrines) at crossroads
4
Q
campania
A
unstable volcanic area prone to earth tremors, fluctuating watertable lvls, thermal spring s
5
Q
pyroclastic flows & surges
A
Pyroclastic surge low density, turbulent cloud of hot ash & rock billows over terrain barely touching ground travels up to 300km per hour
Pyroclastic flows more denser, hotter, dry avalanche of pumice, ash &gases up to 50km/hr
6
Q
pliny the younger’s eyewitness account
A
- Staying at Misenum 30km from pompeii w/ uncle pliny the elder admiral of the fleet
- During eruption Elder sailed to Stabiae 5km south P to assist, stayed overnight
- Pty stayed behind to gave eyewitness acc of eruption
- Records earth tremors, receding sea, fiery cloud above volcano
7
Q
what are the issues of pliny’s account reliability
A
- Wrote description in form of 2 letters to friend Tacitus (roman historian) 25 yrs after event
- Some exaggeration of elder’s role in events during eruption
- Failed to mention yr of eruption (sig omission)
- description of what occurred at Stabiar based on what slaves & sailors told him
8
Q
contested date of eruption
A
- 24 august AD 79 based on 11th century summary of Cassius Dio Roman from 3rd century AD
- Flawed bc factual errors but at least provides yr
scholars debate autumn or summer
In favour of summer:
- Discovered leaves of deciduous trees
- Evidence of summer-flowering herbs found at Oplontis
- The last batch of garum from P made w/ type of fish plentiful in summer
- autumn bc discovered late autumn ripening fruits eg. pomegranates
Most convincing evidence is hoard of coins found in House of Golden Bracelet 1974, contained silver denarius of Titus recording his 7th consulship, coin dates AD 79
9
Q
impact of eruption on pompeii
A
- Completely buried
- Distance from volcano → escaped 1st 2 surges and 3rd stopped at Herculaneum Gate
- 4th surge reached temp 400 deg
- Maybe toxic gases penetrate entire town
- Amt ash deposited 1.8m in north to 60cm in south
- covered in 5m of volcanic debris –> easier to excavate
10
Q
impact of eruption on herculaneum
A
- Completely buried
- Suffered more horrific fate than pompeii
- 1st stage : Initial explosion, shock waves, earth tremors
- 1st surge arrived 5 mins after collapse of the eruption column dumped 3m hot ash on town
- next surges & flows destroyed buildings, carbonised remains eg. wooden window frames, bread loaves
- Final phase city buried 23m (solidified rock-like) & coastline extended 400m
- much harder to excavate, & bc below water table –> need to pump 24/7 to prevent flooding
11
Q
causes of inhabitant deaths on pompeii
A
- 600/+ perished when roofs collapsed under weight of pumice & rock rained from eruption
- if abandoned buildings & climbed onto roofs caught in 4th pyroclastic surge (which overwhelmed city)
- Some died of asphyxiation, others thermal shock (large, rapid change temp can have dangerous effects on living)
- Majority of pop prob escaped city but couldve died in countryside if didnt realise hwo far to escape surges & flows
12
Q
cause of inhabitant deaths in herculaneum
A
300 remains sheltering beach & possible boathouses in area
* Killed by thermal/fulminant shock (intense heat)
13
Q
phases of eruption
A
- PLINIAN PHASE
- named after pliny the younger bc coincided ‘mushroom cloud’ witnessed
- 18 hrs rain of pumice (pompeii)
- Plume dispersed for umbrella shape, wind pushed towards Herculaneum, instant deaths for habitants phase/flow
- Only 4th surge went over pompeii city walls
- deposits showed 50-80 000 tonnes of pumice per sec discharged by V
- PELEAN PHASE
- pyrclastic flows & surges
- due to direction wind blowing, P mostly affected by ash & pumcie fall(upwind)
- 6 surges & flows
- H hit by both surges & flows, column collapsed under own weight
- travelling ~200km/h, surge of billowing volcanic ash & superheated gases wouldve killed msot immediately
14
Q
features of Herculaneum town
A
- Some see more seaside fishing village or town, main industry fishing bc Rich waters of bay supported thriving fishing & shellfish industry
- Salt pans formed near Herculaneum
- Oily fish eg. tuna, mackerel, anchovies, moray eels → raw materials for garum
- Holiday homes, rich & wealthy
- Rich traders from Rome , many high status Romans had permanent/seasonal residences
- early , waterfront fortified by wall to protect from invaders & waves → dismantled when no longer need defence, built luxurious Suburban Baths
- ‘Marcus’ Nonius Balbus considered patron of H, 30 statues of him,** inscriptions that he paid → popularity**
- Calpurnius Caesonius Piso (Caesar’s father in law) owned Villa of the Papyri
- limited landform but on the coast of Bay of Naples
15
Q
volcanic or pyroclastic eruption:?
A
pyrcolastic
16
Q
ancient sources available
A
Fresco of Bacchus, Pliny the Elder, Martial
Animal bones survived → ate meat
Carbonised loaf of bread survived → had wheat, barley
Strabo
Dio Cassius
17
Q
natural resources/features of pompeii
A
- Very fertile soil → grow crops, fruits, vegs, olive trees, vines, timber
- Sarno River imp for trade, source of water & Bay of Naples also bottles of garum (fermented fish sauce) & fish/sesafood in mosaics
- used volcanic rock for buildings & paving streets
- oil presses forextracting oil from green olives found in houses in P&H and villas in fields around Mt Vesuvius
- Whole campanian region famous for perfume, basic ingredient of olive oil
- pumice stone exported, lava usedi n stone millstones to grind grain & press olives
- volcanic materia eg. tufa
18
Q
crops in P&H
A
- Mediterranean climate for agriculture
- Wheat, barley,
- Veg (cabbage, onions, corn, olives)
- Fruits (figs, olives, Peaches, apricots, lemons, cherries, plums, pears)
- Vineyards grow grapes (eat/ferment for wine)
- Olives grow on trees (oil)
- Material spewed from volcano weathered into deep fertile soils Rich in phosphorus & potash supporting natural vegetation
- Soil spongy nature retained enough of winter rains to produce crops
- Slopes of Vesuvius covered w/ grape vines
- Wine exported to Rome, Spain, North Africa
- Southern end of Bay of Naples, flocks of sheep for fleeces & textile production
19
Q
our knowledge today of the effects of the V eruption come mainly from..
A
- writings of PtY
- stratigraphic study of the V towns by vulcanologist Professor Sigurdsson
20
Q
vulcanologist Sigurdsson
A
conducted 1st systematic examination of V deposits & reached conclusions matching Pliny’s account
- studied stratigraphy of P, H, Oplontis & Stabiae
- identified diff types deposits from eruption
- according to ash & pumice deposits & own ovservations at Mt St Helens verified Pliny’s statement on an enormous column rising above V resembling an Italian umbrella-shaped pine tree
21
Q
summary of surges
A
1. hit H
- killed most inhabitants
- flow hit H moments later, containing larger fragments of volcanic material
2. hit H
- more powerful than 1
- hit H
- reached town wall of P
4. hit H
- covered whole P
- msot lethal surge, killed inhabitants by asphyxiation/thermal shock
5 &6. hit P&H
- surge 6 most destructive, took tops off buildings in P
22
Q
what is a pugilistic pose? what happened to the bodies?
A
boxer
- some plaster casts at P
- contracted muscles due to intense temps
- shattered teeth, fractured bones
23
Q
positive & neg
Giuseppe fiorelli
A
- 1863-75
- Funded by King of Italy
- Uncovered 2 town blocks at H but worked slow bc diff to work around modern houses & cutting into hardened volcanic deposits
POSITIVE
- 1st systematic excavation: worked methodically top to bottom
- Shored up walls to prevent collapse
- Before, it was ‘HAPHAZARD excavations’–> unsystematic, a lot at the same time
- Whole site carefully mapped (9 regions → town blocks (insulae) → each building entrance
- Developed numbering system to indicate building location, used today
- recorded excavations w/ detail using photography, diaries, daily reports
- Encouraged tourism → entrance fees → funds to preserve/excavate further
Created 1st successful plaster casts of P’s victims but controversial
- scholars believe vital info abt vitcims of V at moment of death (how they died)
- argue casts disrespected dead
- Archaeologists cant access skeletal remains within casts eg. DNA testing w/o breaking
- rcent yrs discovered some casts contained metal rods → fabrications to attract tourism to site → contort them into shapes he wanted, more sensational
24
Q
what is provenance?
history of H excavations
A
- 1711 workers constructing well in Resina discovered pieces of marble, sold to guy and bought the land and sponsored 1st excavations, more than treasure hunts & only antiquarians interested in objects old & beautiful, guy used marble from H to decorate his villa
- damage from workers tunnelling through hard volcanic material at site (Prince d’Elkboeuf)
- 1738 Charles 3 sponsored treasure hunting at H using tunnels to excavate,
- Karl Weber 1st systematic excavations, meticulous plans of theatre, basilica and Villa of the Papyri also at P and Stabiae
- Patronage: Charles 3rd was his patron and funded excavations to Karl Weber
- Provenance: context where fthings found to understand what they were (KW)
25
Q
history of P excavations
A
found by chance, didnt know
until found inscription
- 1592 Domenico Fontana cut large irrigation channel through P
- 1689 inscription found name ‘pompeii’
- 1748 Roque de Alcubierre began formal excavations
- 1806-15 French Bourbon (royal family living in area) excavations asap–> werent interested in preserving the site, quickly to find treasures
- 1815-60 Neapolitan (from Naples region) excavations, attempts to preserve & restore site for 1st time to display to increasing no. visitors (frescoes in situ (left it situation where they were found) under shelters to display) –>
- Preserve for visitors to come to attract tourists
26
Q
Excavations by Michele Ruggiero & Giulio de Petra
A
- 1875-1901
- Rebuild ancient walls, roofs –> Good to visualise but not authentic and couldve reconstructed wrong,
- Sculptures left in new replanted garden –> warps perception of sites → to attract tourists
- used Iron and asbestos concrete to reinforce buildings for 1st time (asbestos are carcinogenic → cause cancer, didnt know back then very harmful) (Iron corrodes, today use steel)
27
Q
MAOI
AUGUST MAU
A
- great, painstaking work studied frescoes and developed styles
- Contributed to excavations at P for many years
- Msot well known contribution was his categorisation of wall paintings into 4 styles
- masonry style characterised by simulation of marble (look like), made to look like stonework
- architectural style ‘illusionism’
- ornate style mroefigurative & colourful
- intricate style less ornamented than its predecessor but more complex
28
Q
VITTORIO SPINAZZOLA
A
- 1911-1923, superintendent (in charge, oversaw excavations) of Archaeological works
- Major contribution to rediscovery of P was exploration of ~600m of Via dell’ Abbondanza (main street of Pompeii) aka road of abundance
- Excavations utilised new techniques to reconstruct structures from top down
- He restored the facades of buildings → save inscriptions & graffiti
- Preserved & restored 2nd storeys of buildings as he excavated
- criticised for basing recreations on imagination → forever influenced perceptions of facades
- Once restore, ppl cant visualise other way,
If evaluate his work, some good on road & working top down but restoration work based on his fanciful thinking highly wrong!!!
29
Q
AMEDEO MAIURI
A
- excavated most
- 1924 chief archaeologist at P serving as director until 1961(straight after Spinazzola)
- Undertook extensive systematic excavation & analyse P houses
- Uncovered sig structures ampitheatre & palaestra (sports area, athletes to train)
- Reconstructed buildings he excavated
- archaeological inquiry away from destruction of AD79 and houses of the wealthy but digged deeper to what p was like before (good)
- Interested in how poor lived (good)
- Excavated 4 hectares of H, rediscovered cave
- 1st archeologist interested in pre-eruption layer (For 1st time excavations below destruction lvl 79 AD excavate famous (House of Surgeon))
- Funding became problem at P post war erafast paced exploration continued
- Large portions of city unearthed however criticised by some rushed, poor excavation & restoration techniques bc inconsistent recording methods & incomplete publications (Buildings excavated & restored with techniques Spinazzola used remained in better condition
- Recently realised involvedi n corrupt dealings with fascist party of italy,
- Added lighting to p for night visits & used ancient theatres for dramas (More ppl to see ancient ruins & more incoem from tourists to fund conservation , But change theatre’s structure by adding modern substances eg. concrete disastrous
- Little attention in preserving what already excavated → buildings started deteriorating
- Criticised for tampered evidence eg. skeletons to heighten tourist interests
If kept skeletons kept in situ, context of where found & who found with like early treasure hunters
30
Q
After Maouri
A
- After retired 1961, focus of site management altered to conservation
- many Excavated buildings constantly exposed to elements need sig maintenance, conservation, restoration
- Large scale excavations suspended in favour of smaller, more focused archaeological explorations
- Fausto Zevi decided 1977 to suspend all excavation to devote resources to conservation & recording
- Since 1980 international coop studying sites
P 1997 granted status as UNESCO World Heritage Site → world attention → transformed into autonomous entity with control over its own administration & finances → entrance fees of visitors used in P for maintenace & restoration (Before, moeny from P tourists distributed to italian gvt - Despite resources, exposure to weather, seismic event & millions visitors constantly strains ancient city (H better state)
31
Q
describe the town of pompeii
A
- small (by Roman standards) surrounded by defensive walls
- irregular shape, built on terrain slopes above sea lvl
-
earliest areas developed were around Forum & Via Stabiana insulae, heavily influenced by Greek urban planning
** seen in regular
** street layout & roads dividing town into insulae, some only 1 house others over dozen - grid pattern less precisely applied
- early surrounded by defensive stone walls (12 towers, 8 gateways leading to town) –> became Roman colony –> some sections demolished for housing
- Herculaneum Gate
- roman paving techniques used polygonal blocks of basalt & raised footpaths both sides roads
- stepping stones for pedestrians + access to wheeled traffic so cross roads w/o stepping in sewage & waste
- deep grooves in roads –> volume traffic
32
Q
describe the town of Herculaneum
A
- Greek classical town layout w/ narrow straight streets dividing town into insulae
- sea wall w/ large vaulted chambers for boats
- less traffic, but more efficient drainage & sewerage systems
- main street used as its Forum
- Posts erected as barriers of entry to roads (prevent access)
33
Q
aediles
A
magistrates responsible for maintaining town infrastructure (streets, roads)
34
Q
diff types evidence available to us (physical)
A
- site layout
- streetscapes
- public & private buildings
- ancient writers
- official inscriptions
- graffiti
- wall paintings
- statues
- mosaics
- human, animal, plant remains
35
Q
rolls of the papyri
A
initially didn’t realise carbonised scrolls thought lumps of coal for fuel
- nasa tech to pass through diff light spectrums, effectively read scrolls –> writings of philosopher Philodemus (Epicurean philosopher)
- used AI to read scrolls
36
Q
owner of the villa of the papyri
A
Calpurnius Piso, Julius Caesar’s father in law who was very rich and had opulent villa looking over Bay of Naples
37
Q
graffiti & wall writings (types of public noticesas evidence
A
- electoral (programmata)
- urge citizens to vote for candidate, usually signed by family & friends, women could (but cant vote)
- political graffiti: rogrammata
- electoral notice of someone who tries influence votes of ppl (many in P)
- roman town top politicla spectrum was Rome emperor but town itself had own local gvt
- P&H top of local gvt were 2 duumviri (plural) like magistrates –> next important 2 aediles)
- advertisement
- announce shows coming to Amphitheatre
-
local magistrates responslbe pay all/part expenses of gladiatorial shows
3. personal messages - walls often painted over for new graffiti
38
Q
limitations of evidence provided by a range of sources
A
- not all remains uncovered and if were, some evidence destroyed/not seriously studied
- diff deduce info (ownership, functions of rooms, SOL who used buildings esp when decorations & epigraphy often removed/stolen)
- little literary evidence to cross-check w/ archaeological evidence
- few public buildings in H (forum not excavated) –> understanding political & commercial life in H limited
- some early archaeologists didnt understand evidence (romans didnt see work & home separately, diff concept of room uses, didnt segregate women in house, lived close proximity with slaves, freedmen, client, tenants)
39
Q
ancient writers evidence
A
- PTY’s letters to tacitus
- PTE academic & Roman admiral, ‘natural history’ one of world’s 1st encyclopedias & wrote abt P’s natural reosurces & products
- Strabo wrote abt the geography
- Seneca discussed earlier earthquake, Vitruvius wrote abt architecture, esp features of houses & Greek influence on layout of theatres
- Cassius Dio wrote abt eruption
40
Q
official inscriptions as evidence
A
- epigraphy is study of inscriptions
- writing on city walls prominent form of communication eg. ads for gladiatorial games/promote bus’
- civic charters & regulations on bronze plates fixed to walls of public buildings
- patrons used inscriptions to promote themselves & family usually on pubic buildings/ statues welathy citizens (who recognised patron’s contribution to city)
- funerary inscriptions on tombstones reveal religious & burial customs but also need to be interpreted with caution, reveal how ppl want to be remembered
41
Q
public & private buildings as evidence
A
public
- temples
- bathhouses (thermae)
- amphitheatre (circus)
- palaestra
- Basilica (law courts)
- theatre
- raods
- water towers & fountains
- town walls & gates
- Thermapolia
- Brothels
- Taverns (last 3 at front of houses, attached)
private structures
- insulae, villas (country & suburban)
- palatial/humble town houses
- farm buildings
42
Q
graffiti & wall writings
A
- political slogans & public notices usually painted in red & black than inscribed
- mostly painted by professional scribes on outer walls of buildings
- walls firstly whitewashed with lime & at night scribe wrote message under light of oil lamp, not always done by professional
- quite reliable bc spontaneous form of expression, show range ppl from all classes & bgs thinking
- pompeii dedicated to Venus –> graffiti love, devotion, jealousy, bitterness common
- many related to gladiators
43
Q
wall paintings evidence
A
- guests follow colourful decor while slaves dark corridors
- social orientation (no. frescoes & their quality –> lvl resources & social aspirations of HH)
- frescoes coats of mortar (lime & sand mix), coats of lime mixed with finely powdered marble, pigemnts aplied when plaster still wet
- AUGUST MAU 4 styles wall paintings chronologically & according to traits, not isolated to P
- incrustation
- colourful blocks painted on walls resemble large marble slabs decorating temples & public buildings that inds couldnt afford
- Architectural
- realistic reflects everyday objects & scenery
- illusions of windoes
- Ornamental
- monochromatic, ornamental walls painted with few pieces of architecture, columns to divide wall into sections
- intricate
- all elements of earlier styles
- chaotic, filled to excess
44
Q
statues as evidence
A
many identified P&H
- made of marble, bronze or stone
- aesthetic runners, mythological scenes, prominent figures eg. Marcus Nonius Balbus in H
- some purely artisitc & represent wealth & Greek culture
- others political
45
Q
mosaics as evidence
A
pictures/decors made of diff coloured pieces of stone, tile, glass to form simple/elaborate design
- usually appeared on floor inside/outside but also on walls
- geometric designs, scenes or animals, mythical legends, religious motifs & representations
- storng Greek influence depict Greek gods
46
Q
economic features of P&H
- p trade > h
A
- agriculture
- fishing
- industries (ceramics, olive oil, wine, fulleries to bleach & clean clothes)
- trade
- markets, shops, bars, taverns, inns, thermapolia (commercial life)
- banking
47
Q
commercial centres in p&h
A
- P&H both generally localised ecos (nto always rely on Rome) based laregly on agricultural production & fishing
- P more trading & commercial centre, making profit & accumulating wealth
- H smaller fishing town had farms
- ~600 excavataed privately owned shops, workshops, bars, inns
- Epigraphic evidence of guilds of tradesmen and retailers
- ~20 maritime warehouses (sea) of a port area & buildings lined w/ wine jars (export & import wine)
- Paintings of cargo boats on Sarno and porters carrying products to load onto vessels
48
Q
evidence of commercial activity in p&h
A
- Inscriptions on walls & floors of houses & workshops paying tribute to pursuit of profit’ profit is joy’ found in mosaic entrance way of 2 wealthy men
- ‘Welcome gain’ inscrived around impluvium in carpenter’s house
- Images mercurygod of commerce
- But idea of creation for profit is questionable and not necessarily indicates p as whole bc production of bread, wine, clothing wasnt in bulk for export but some profits still made locally → limitations of evidence
- Debate betw archaeologists abt extent p had ‘textiles’ or ‘wool’ industry
- No. fulleries & farming of sheep used as evidence of export by historian Moeller while Jongman argues more small scale & localised
49
Q
agriculture as a backbone of p&h’s ecos
A
- respectable way of earning living
- ppl w/ large landholding enjoy high status
- many farmsteads & villas associated with farm/vineyard (villa rustica) in Sarno River Plain and market gardens (horti) within P walls provided raw materials (wine, olive oil, grains, fruit, veg, meat, wool) for most retail and industrial workforce
- many Fishing fleets from H on coastline of Bay of Naples provided crustaceans, molluscs, fish also to make garum, exported to south of france, highly prized
- Industries spawned others eg. terracotta & ceramic containers for storage & trade wine, oil, garum –> **pottery **
50
Q
forum in pompeii
A
- Hub of town for eco, commerce, banking, admin, etc
- Vitruvius in his treatise on architecture said roman fora should be built with columns widely spaced to maek transaction of bus more convenient
- Forum buildings once roofed in bright red terracotta tiles with statues surrounding them
- Large rectangular blocks fitted solidly in ground barred access to wheeled traffic
- On any day of week (esp market day) forum & surrounding streets wouldve been filled w/ lively bustle of shopkeepers, merchants, customers, teachers, students, ppl gossiping, attend temples, law courts/hold political office
