Pompeii And Herculaneum Flashcards
Geographical setting
Campania near Bay of Naples
Natural features
- fertile land due to rich volcanic soil
- two main rivers used for fishing and making trades
Resources
Olive oil -> cooking and basic ingredient for perfume
Wine, wool and textile production + fishing industries
Volcanic material used for building and paving roads
Insulae
Dividing of streets and roads into rectangular blocks
Roads of Pompeii
- roads deep wheel grooves caused by constant heavy wagons
- poor drainage = large stepping stones so ppl could walk without getting dirty
Roads of Herculaneum
- smaller quieter town -> streets less marked by traffic
- storm drains + efficient underground sewage
Process of eruption
August 79 AD
- small tremors ppl paid no attention
- morning volcano erupted raining ash in countryside lava flowed onto farms
- some fled some stayed in houses for protection
- died by falling buildings/ poisonous gas/ buried by heavy falling ash
Economy of Pompeii
based on agriculture, land divided into farms most ppl worked in businesses, commercial centre made profit = wealth
Economy in Herculaneum
less understood (less evidence) little discovery about manufacturing, quieter resort town
Economy- trade
- varieties of wine and posted imported from Spain
- export trade was minimal
- remains of 20 warehouses (boats and fishing gear) = aspects of trade
Fullers
processed raw wool, handled spinning, weaving, dyeing and washing
Guild of Fullers = powerful org used camel urine to clean cloths
Evidence of economy
Images of Mercury God of commerce (shop, sales counter)
Bakery of Modestus- 81 loaves of bread recovered still in the oven where they were placed
Graffiti- “Cheers! We drink like wineskins!” heavy drinkers
Dolia/ amphorae
large base or container used for storage or transportation of goods
Garum
Fish sauce
Marcellum + pristina
market + bakery
Tabernae
Shops - 200 public eating and drinking places identified in Pompeii
Thermopolium
Snack bar
Cauponae
taverns
Influences on social structure
There was no middle class but strict hierarchy Factors: place of birth, citizenship status, wealth and city
Roman social structure
Upper strata: power and privilege
Lower strata: great diversity, life was hard
Clothing- distinguished social classes privileged wore togas others wore loosely belted tunics
Slaves could become freed citizens
Freedmen (liberti)
- freedom could be granted by owner/ purchase
- formed a significant amount of the pop many ran workshops, small businesses often with salves they had purchased
Women
- more freedom allowed to engage in public life
- role = look after husband, children and control finance
- not allowed to vote
- working women: servants, cleaners, prostitutes
Eumachia- business women, large building in forum political leverage for her son
Slaves
- made up 25% of pop at the time
- educated slaves = tutored owners children
- could be bought and sold as recorded on wax tablets/ passed on as inheritance
Municipal
Self-governing comprised of Roman citizens (P and H)
Tabularium
place where gov business was recorded
Basilica
Law courts, Office of Magistrates all around Forum
Comitium
Peoples assembly (electoral assembly)
Patronus
Town patron- represents citizens of the town in dealings with the gov of Rome
Evidence of local political life
200 pieces of graffiti- electoral notices for candidates
- employed slaves to whisper their names “To hell with the Aediles!”
Leisure activities
Gambling
Show/ entertainment at amphitheatre
Public baths
Brothels
Theatre
- better ppl sat at the front generally men
- 5000 could be seated
- wealthy acted as “patron” and paid for the play
Amphitheatre
- 11000-20000 people at a time
- popularity of gladiators
- took place to honour the Gods/ celebrate significant days
- gladiators privately owned by rich Pompeians
Food and dining
Simple ingredients 3 meals a day
- breakfast = simple meal of bread, fruit, cheese
- lunch = meat, eggs, bread, veggies
- dinner = eggs, veggies, meats + fruits
Clothing
- not much survived just pieces of fabric and shoe leather
- men = tunics reaching to knees
- women = ankle length dress (stola) and veil to cover her head in public
Paintings and statues show what ppl wore but problematic bc most artistic representations do not show everyday clothing worn
Public baths
- baths lasted for several hrs
- men and women separate
- food and prostitution brought in for pleasure
Apodyterium
Changing room
Caldarium
Hot room
Tepidarium
Warm room
Frigidarium
Cold room
Sanitation and water supply
Aqua Augusta (aqueduct) built by Augustus and brought water into pipes and stored water in water towers Public baths provided with adequate water from aqueduct
Public fountains 42 found in P, 3 found in H
Forum (fora) at Pompeii
- large rectangular open space games and ceremonies held
- economic, religious, political, social centre
- no vehicles allowed
Basilica
Law courts
Rooms- used for office and storage area for archived
Unknown whether it had a roof
Palestra
Exercise yard- part of Greek athletic tradition
- form of public gymnasium + exercise ground
- sports: swimming, running, wrestling and discus
Herculaneum has a large crossed shaped pool for swimming
Temple of Lares
Connected with the protection of crossroads in the countryside
Sanctuary where the Pompeians consecrated with solemn ceremonies
Lares
Patron God of Pompeii, guardian spirit of house and fields
Lararium
Used to display a small number of small statuettes of divinities given honour by the fam
Temple of the Genius of Augustus or Temple of Vespasian
- statue of emperor Vespasian at one end
- marble sacrifice altar in temple carvings show priest sacrificing a bull
- dedicated to worship of emperor
Fauces
Entrance corridor
Vestibulum
Entrance hall
Atrium
Reception room
Compluvium
Opening in roof
Impulvium
Shallow pool collecting rainwater
Tablinum
Receive clients and conduct business
Peristyle
Walkway in garden
Cubiculum
Small bedroom
Triclinium
Dining room and three long couches around table
House of Sallust
Had bakeries and two rooms
Shops at the front
Appears to have been converted into an inn in Roman times
Shops/ villas
- residential and commercial areas lived together
- shops located in most insulaes
- owners of large houses rented out street facing rooms as shops, taverns or workshops
Influences of Greek culture
Architecture -> theatres, palaestra, columns
Religious -> gods- Apollo, Demeter, Temples, Cults
Art -> statues, frescoes, mosaics
Drama -> papyrus scrolls from H written in Greek
Egyptian influences
Decoration -> Egyptian style decorative use of the Sphinx in household
Religious -> temple of Isis at Pompeii, evidence in household shrines
Art -> scene of the Nile and Egyptian landscape in mosaics
Household gods
- public temple to Lares in forum
- any God worshipped in lararium
- gods were depicted on wall paintings and other places
Temple of Apollo
- 28 corinthian columns supported it
- functioned independently
- evidence of shrine 7th c BC
Temple of Jupiter
- Dominates northern side of forum and politics temple
- underground rooms = public treasury and precious objects belonging to the temple itself
- 3 typical niches (openings) inside at the end occupied by the triad Juno, Jupiter and Minerva
Bacchus/ Dionsysis
Greek God of wine and fertility
- offered mystic communication with God and promised a blessed life after death
- cult spread “like a contagious disease” (Titus Livius)
Evidence: Villa of Mysteries
Tombs
- no tombs uncovered at Pompeii
- death + burial not allowed within the city walls 30m outside
- family members wore mask of the ancestors retaining link between past and present
Guiseppi Fiorelli (1816-77)
Imposed system of uncovering houses from top to bottom = help with restoration of ancient buildings
Introduced method of numbering houses and buildings = solved confusion of building having multiple names and easier to identify
Recognition of significance of cavities in victims bodies = poured plaster in bodies capturing the moment of death and burial
Amedeo Maiuri (1926-1961)
Installed as chief archaeologist of Pompeii = exposed many remains and proposed chronologies
Excavated House of Menander/ Julia Felix and restored public buildings such as the Basilica
Digital technology
- collect and store large tracts of info about the site
- researches access to maps, plans and photos
Chemical and physical scientists
Composition of organic ingredients, composition of glass, ceramics, metal, mortar, plaster, and pigments for cognitive and conservation purposes
Anthropologists, genetics, DNA experts
Composition of pop, diseases, nutrition, study of bones
Botanists, zoologists, agricultural scientists, dendrochronologists
Natural environment- species of flora and fauna and their uses, identification and state of preservation of wooden remains
Poor restoration work
- without adequate roofing frescoes exposed to sunlight and drainage problems
- mortar crack = water, vegetation, fungi penetrate leads to decay of stonework and more damage
- some places incorrect construction methods used (new timber roof on House of Meleager in Pompeii poorly designed + could not support weight of tiles and collapsed)
Damage from vegetation
- weeds invade ruins and hasten decay (ivy, fennel,fig)
- grow on top of walls, crack in ruins, destroying mosaics and floor surfaces
- infestations of algae, fungi and lichen in poor areas of drainage
Environmental factors
- frequent earth tremors shakes ancient sites further damaging them
- exposure to sun and rain = paintings fade and deteriorate
- pigeons nest in ruins threat to site as their droppings contain a level of acidity that damages wall decorations and floors
Impact of tourism
- no special walkways have been constructed as tourists walk on it wearing down roads
- ancient lead water pipes under footpaths exposed and damaged
- mosaic tiles, pieces of pottery picked up and pocketed by tourists
Ethical issues of human remains part 1
Tourists greatly assist in maintaining museums as they help pay for maintenance but the threaten site by picking up fragments of pottery or marble and keeping them
Moral obligation that archaeologists and scientists have a right to share their knowledge and stories about the remains
International Council of Museums (ICOM) “human remains should be displayed… Taking into account the interests and beliefs and members of the community”
Ethical issues of human remains part 2
Indigenous Australians may find if offensive- solution = signs ppl can make their own choices to view the remains
Human remains left at P and H
- unethical go disturb the resting place of the dead
- but some skulls are half buried with weeds growing over them
- human remains in warehouses are susceptible to environmental changes where they could be damaged
Ethical issues of human remains part 3
Past- human remains poorly treated and damaged as some were left forgotten in basements wrapped in newspaper
National Archaeological Museum in Naples- due to lack of funds the museum was not protecting the remains thoroughly- lack of personnel to clean and maintain the remains and artefacts and failure to guard items also resulted in theft
