Pollution Flashcards
What are 3 properties of pollutants
Toxicity
Persistence
Solubility in water
What is mutagenic action and its two effects?
Mutagenic action cause changes in the chemical structure of DNA - ( mutations)
- Gonadic effect ( cells in ovaries and testes )
- Somatic effect ( general body cells )
What is the difference between carcinogenic action and teratogenic action?
Carcinogenic action - Carcinogens are mutagens that cause cancer.
Teratogenic action - cause birth abnormalities by preventing normal gene expression.
What is the term bioaccumulation mean?
- process by which the amount of a substance within an organism increases.
What does the term biomagnification mean?
Substances become more concentrated as they pass along a food chain.
- Organisms in the later trophic levels are more at risk.
What are the 5 factors that affect degradation?
- temperature ( rapid breakdown )
- light levels ( activation energy for chemical reactions )
- oxygen ( aerobic bacterial decomposition of sewage )
- pH ( solubility )
- pollutant interactions
What are the two factors that affect dispersal
- wind and water currants - this can also affect dilution.
- temperature inversions ( warm pollutant gases are more buoyant than the cooler surrounding air causing them to rise and disperse )
However if effluent becomes colder than air it cannot rise.
What can temperature inversions cause?
smoke smogs and photochemical smogs
What is the purpose of the Critical Path Analysis?
- involves identifying
the most likely route a material will take, based on its properties and features of the environment, - asses severity and location of the pollution that may occur.
- monitor harmful discharges like radioactive materials, heavy metals and
persistent organic pollutants
What are three factors taken into consideration when conducting critical path analysis ( think abiotic factors)
- wind and water current velocity and direction
- geology and hydrology
- food chain pathways.
What factors of environmental sampling can be used to identify the pathway? (4)
- atmospheric dust
- soil
- water
- seaweeds, molluscs, fish
- milk, vegetables, meat.
What is critical group monitoring?
- to identify
members of the public most at risk - monitoring the health risks caused by
pollutants such as radioactive discharges and heavy
metals.
What factors would be considered in identifying the critical group?
- where individuals live in relation to the source
- time spent outside, for example farmers
- sources of food, for example local food i.e seafood, milk, seafood
- sources of water i.e local well
What is it meant by emission location?
Increased concentrations in valleys, enclosed water
bodies.
what is it meant by emission timing?
Restriction of activities during temperature inversions.
What are the 4 strategies to control pollutants based on their properties and
features of the environment
- Critical path Analysis
- Critical group monitoring
- Emission Timing
- Emission location
What is the main source of hot water that causes thermal pollution?
- Hot water from steam turbine power station
condensers.
What are the effects of thermal pollution
- Deoxygenation of water.
- Aquatic organisms killed by the high temperatures due to the denature of enzymes.
What is the control of thermal pollution
- cooling towers are used to cool power station effluent water so that it does not cause deoxygenation
what are the 4 properties of organochlorines?
- high toxicity to insects
- low toxicity to invertebrates so farm workers unlikely to suffer acute effects
- high persistence
- high liposolubility
- low solubility so not easily washed off from fields
What is are 2 examples of an organochlorine?
- DDT
- Lindane
What properties do organophosphate persticides have?
- low persistence
- low liposolubility reducing biomagnification
- ## high mammalian toxicity so risk to farmer of acute exposure
What is the effect of organophosphates?
- neurotoxins that inactivate the enzyme acetylcholinerase so nerve function is damaged.
What are is an example of organophosphates?
Ethion
What are 2 effects of pesticides in general?
- direct toxic impacts to non target species
- indirect effects like food chain impacts and interspecies relationships
What are pyrethroids?
-Synthetic insecticides
What are three properties of pyrethroids?
- high insect toxicity and to fish but low mammal toxicity
- not persistent so they do not bioaccumulate or biomagnify
what are three methods of reducing pesticide pollution?
- Use of systematic pesticides
- Application timing
- use of non persistent pesticides i.e organophosphates
What are the effects of noise on non living objects?
- acoustic fatigue (stress cracking and structural failure)
- vibration damage (repetitive vibration can cause structural damage to buildings)
- shock impacts (a sudden very loud noise)
What are the 4 effects of noise on humans?
- hearing damage
- stress related health problems i.e ulcers and high blood pressure
- communication issues
- behavioural changes i.e lack of concentration.
What are the 4 effects of noise on other organisms?
livestock injuries
* disturbance of breeding birds
* reduced feeding success: bats, owls, dolphins
* hearing damage/behavioural
changes: cetaceans (whales)
What the sources of noise from aircraft?
- air turbulence
- engine noise, especially at high thrust.
What are three factors that can be controlled to reduce noise pollution in terms of airport design and location?
- location away from major population centres
- taxi areas away from residential areas
- provision of acoustic insulation ( double glazing windows)
- land-use restrictions ( allow industry not housing )
- baffle mounds/acoustic insulation.
How can the aircraft design be altered to reduce noise pollution?
- aerodynamic surfaces i.e fairings covering wing flap hinges.
- high by pass ratio engines ( smoothing the flow of the exhaust air )
- chevron nozzles used on top of hy bypass engines.
what are 3 examples in which airport operation can change to reduce noise pollution?
- night flight restrictions
- noisy aircraft banned
- fines for excessive noise
- constant descent angle ( no periods of high thrust
- flight path planning (avoiding residential areas)
What is the Quota count system?
- aircraft types are allocated points depending on their noise level
- each airline is allocated a certain number of points.
What are the 5 sources of noise by railway?
- wheel vibration
- engine noise
- pantograph turbulence
- wheel squeal on corners
- braking squeal
What are the 5 controls of noise pollution by railway?
- Wheel vibration – track polishing, sound
absorbing ballast. - Engine noise – sound
absorbing suspension. - Pantograph turbulence – aerodynamic fairing.
- Wheel squeal on corners – lubrication of wheels/track.
- Braking squeal – use of composite material
brakes i.e steel fibres.
What are three sources of noise pollution by road traffic?
- Wheel vibration/tyre noise
- Engine noise
- Air turbulence
What are three controls of noise pollution by road traffic?
- wheel noise - sound absorbing road surfaces like asphalt.
- Engine noise - acoustic insulation around the engine; quieter exhaust pipes.
- Improve vehicle aerodynamics i.e paint.
What are 4 sources of noise pollution from industry?
- Air compressors.
- Pile drivers, stamping machines.
- Drills.
- Mine blasting, military sonar.
What are 5 controls of noise pollution by industry?
- Worker ear protection/remote operation.
- Acoustic insulation/mats/baffle mounds.
- Restrictions on timing of operations.
- Alternative procedures, eg pressing instead of
stamping. - Drilling instead of pile-driving.
What are 6 uses of ionizing radiation.
- Nuclear weapons ( fission and fusion )
- Nuclear electricity.
- Ship propulsion
- Manufacturing industry
(thickness of paper) - Healthcare ( X rays )
- Agriculture (pest control)
Why do ships use nuclear fuel?
- high energy density
- therefore reactors rarely need to be filled up
- useful for submarines
what is it meant by half life?
- the time it takes for half of the unstable nuclei in a sample to decay or for the activity of the sample to halve
- longer half life (dangerouse long term)
- shorter half ( dangerous short term)
What are the 3 types of radiation and which poses the most dangerous?
- Beta
- Alpha (dangerous if ingested as can’t penetrate out)
- Gamma ( only dangerous if continuously exposed)
What does RBE stand for?
- A measure of the biological damage caused by a
particular type of ionising radiation
Depends on the distance over which the energy is
absorbed
-Gamma radiation has the lowest RBE of 1
-Internal alpha sources have the highest RBE of 20 - absorbed over short distances
- produce higher concentrations of free radicals
- more damage than beta or gamma radiation
What is the difference between exposure and contamination
- Exposure involves the absorption of ionising radiation
- Contamination refers to physically carrying radioactive materials which when they release may cause exposure
What are activation products?
- used in structures of nuclear reactors
- exposure to neutrons can cause a previously stable nuclei to become radioactive.
What does the Becquerel, Gray, and Sievert measure?
- Becquerel - the activity of the source
- Gray - measure of absorbed dose
- Sievert - measure of effective dose that allows for the differing effects of the different types of radiation.
What are 3 sources of radiation exposure?
- cosmic radiation (altitude)
- medical exposure (X ray)
- occupational exposure ( flight crew, radiographers, miners)
What is the difference between somatic effects and gonadic?
- Gonadic effects - damage to cells in ovaries or testes
- Somatic effects - damage to general body cells and organs
What is the chronic effects vs acute effects?
- chronic effects appear slowly.
- acute effects appear quickly
What does ionizing radiation cause to the DNA?
- Mutation - this can lead to cancer
What do free radical production lead to?
- the unstable molecules build up in cells causing damage to other molecules i.e protein
What are the 3 principles of control?
- Exposure should be: As Low As Reasonably
Achievable (ALARA).
- Exposure should be: As Low As Reasonably
- Equipment should be: Best Available
Technology Not Entailing Excessive Cost
(BATNEEC). - The use of Risk:Benefit analysis.
What is the risk benefit analysis?
- the analysis to identify the risks of engaging in the activity compared to the benefits.
- can the risks be reduced?
What are three problems with creating a risk,benefit analysis for ionising radiation?
- symptoms may take a long time to develop ( chronic )
- alternative causes of the symptoms
- accurate data on the impacts on humans is often not available
5 methods of control of ionizing radiation
- Closed sources to prevent contamination.
- Radiation absorbers
- Distance from source: the inverse square law.
- Reduced period of exposure.
- Worker monitoring at work/on leaving work.
What is are examples of a radiation absorber material?
-Single-walled carbon nanotubes
-Lead absorbs radiation.
What is an example of a closed source?
Nuclear fuel is enclosed in sealed metal tubes. This
prevents the release of gaseous fission products.
Whats the storage mechanism for high level waste i.e uranium fuel rods?
- vitrification
- dried powdered solid waste with molten glass - allowed to solidfy in stainless steel containers
What is the storage mechanism for intermediate waste?
- ## mix with cement and stored in stainless steel drums.
What is the storage mechanism for low level waste - solid?
- solid ( sealed in thick polyethene bags, inside steel drums.
What is the storage mechanism for low level waste - liquid?
filtered, including ion exchange, then discharged
What is the storage mechanism for low level waste - gas?
- filtered and then released
What are sources of organic pollutants?
Organic wastes:
- sewage
- manure
- silage fluids
-effluent from processing of wood and paper
What are the effects of organic nutrient pollution?
- Deoxygenation caused by microbial aerobic
decomposition
What are the 5 main stages in treatment of organic wastes?
- pre-treatment
- primary treatment
- secondary treatment
- tertiary treatment
- anaerobic sludge digestion.
What is the role of pre treatment and what does it consist of?
- the removal of solid objects such as paper, plastic, road grit.
- consists of screens (metal grills) and grit traps
What is the role of primary treatment?
- the separation of most organic solids from fluids
What does primary treatment consist of?
- primary sedimentation
- this is where effluent is left to stand
- faecal solids sink to the bottom so they can be removed
What is sludge treatment after primary treatment?
- the sludge removed from primary treatment is put in an anaerobic digestor
- kills remaining pathogens
What are two uses of sludge?
- agricultural fertiliser
- biogas
What is the role of secondary treatment?
- the digestion and breakdown of remaining organic matter in the fluids
What does secondary treatment consist of?
- aeration tanks enabling aerobic bacterial decomposition.
- secondary sedimentation tanks - return the suspended bacteria back to aeration tanks
What is the final product from secondary treatment?
- clear effluent which is discharged into the river
- it could cause eutrophication due to potential inorganic nutrients
what is the role of the tertiary treatment?
- additional treatment to remove phosphates or bacteria
what does tertiary treatment consist of?
- phosphate removal ( by adding a solution of iron sulfate producing insoluble iron phosphate.
- bacterial microfilters (remaining bacteria killed by UV light or addition of chlorine)
what are two examples of inorganic nutrients?
- phosphate and nitrate
How can these inorganic nutrients cause pollution?
- nitrate = leachate or runoff
- phosphate = sewage effluent
what is the effect of inorganic pollution?
- eutrophication
what are the effects of nitrates on human health?
- blue baby syndrome
- Possible human carcinogen.
what are control mechanisms for phosphates?
- use of phosphate free detergents
- sewage tertiary treatment- phosphate removal ( adding iron sulfate - insoluble iron phosphate - fertiliser
- timing when applying phosphate rich fertiliser = iron phosphate precipitation.
what are the control mechanisms for nitrate?
- nitrate vulnerability zones
- ## use of low solubility fertilisers
What are 3 examples of sources of oil pollution?
- waste engine lubricating oil
- oil pipeline leaks
- ship accidents especially oil tankers
what are 3 effects of oil pollution?
- toxicity to organisms in particular aquatic species
- less time to feed young ( too busy cleaning the oil off)
- loss of insulation ( cause birds feathers to stick together)
what are 3 controls of oil pollution?
- Reduced leakage: equipment maintenance.
- recycling of waste lubrication oil
- bund wall (an embankment or wall of brick, stone, concrete)
what are 3 treatments of oil pollution?
- dispersants ( break up the oil to produce an emulsion )
- polymerising agents ( cause oil molecules to join together )
- booms (inflatable tubes that restrict movement of floating oil)
What are 3 ways an oil tanker can improve its operation to prevent oils spills?
- better shipping routes
- better navigation systems i.e GPS
- inert gas systems ( prevent explosions occurring when unloading oil)
What are 3 ways an oil tanker can improve its design to minimise risk of oil spills?
- double hull ( damage to outer hull prevents damage to the hull containing the oil)
- twin engine (if one breaks down)
- separate oil and ballast tanks)
what are three sources of solid wastes?
- mining wastes i.e overburden heap
- domestic waste i.e domestic appliances and equipment
- packaging
what are properties of solid wastes?
- toxicity
- release of radioactivity
- flammability
- conditions that affect degrability
How has affluence had a significant effect on solid waste?
- throw items away rather than fix them
- purchase more disposable items
- built in oblescence
what are factors that affect waste disposal methods?
- waste properties (how well it can degrade)
- land availability (land shortage for landfill)
- infrastructure for recycling
what are the 4 treatment options for solid wastes?
- landfill
- incineration
- recycling
- composting
what are the advantages of landfill?
- low cost
- less labour intensive
- low transport cost as bulk
what are 3 disadvantages of landfill sites?
- loss of material use
- pollution for landfill site including leaching into ground
- land use require deforestation
what are 3 features of a good landfill management site?
- methane collection - energy source for local area
- fences to stop litter
- leachate collection and treatment - prevent percolating into aquifers
what are 3 management of spoil heaps?
- landscaping - increase aesthetics
- collect toxic leachate and treat
- slope control of the spoil heap to prevent landslides
what is it meant by incineration and what is it used for?
- a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of substances.
- used for flammable waste materials like paper, card
what are the advantages of incineration?
- volume of waste is reduced
- less land area needed compared to landfill
- heat produced can be harnessed - district heating.
what are the disadvantages of incineration?
- resource value of the material is lost.
- atmosphere pollution risk
- dioxins may be released if temp below 100 degrees
what are advantages of recycling?
- saves finite resources like aluminum
- diverts waste away from landfill
- saves energy
what are the disadvantages of recycling?
- requires public cooperation
- labour intensive
- separation of i.e alloy metals
how can asbestos be treated?
- double wrapped in heavy duty polyethene bags
- in a specialised landfill site
how can cyanide wastes be treated?
- incineration
how can radioactive wastes be treated?
- vitrification - process of changing into glass
How can heavy metals be treated?
- mix with alkaline - becomes insoluble
what are the properties of lead?
- Neurotoxicity.
- Liposolubility.
- Bioaccumulation.
- Biomagnification.
what are the controls of lead pollution?
- Discontinued uses, eg paint, petrol additives,
lead pipes, solder for water pipes, lead fishing
weights. - Waste storage at high pH to reduce solubility.
What are the properties of Mercury?
- Neurotoxicity.
- Liposolubility.
- Bioaccumulation.
- Biomagnification
