Pollution Flashcards
1
Q
What are 3 properties of pollutants
A
Toxicity
Persistence
Solubility in water
2
Q
What is mutagenic action and its two effects?
A
Mutagenic action cause changes in the chemical structure of DNA - ( mutations)
- Gonadic effect ( cells in ovaries and testes )
- Somatic effect ( general body cells )
3
Q
What is the difference between carcinogenic action and teratogenic action?
A
Carcinogenic action - Carcinogens are mutagens that cause cancer.
Teratogenic action - cause birth abnormalities by preventing normal gene expression.
4
Q
What is the term bioaccumulation mean?
A
- process by which the amount of a substance within an organism increases.
5
Q
What does the term biomagnification mean?
A
Substances become more concentrated as they pass along a food chain.
- Organisms in the later trophic levels are more at risk.
6
Q
What are the 5 factors that affect degradation?
A
- temperature ( rapid breakdown )
- light levels ( activation energy for chemical reactions )
- oxygen ( aerobic bacterial decomposition of sewage )
- pH ( solubility )
- pollutant interactions
7
Q
What are the two factors that affect dispersal
A
- wind and water currants - this can also affect dilution.
- temperature inversions ( warm pollutant gases are more buoyant than the cooler surrounding air causing them to rise and disperse )
However if effluent becomes colder than air it cannot rise.
8
Q
What can temperature inversions cause?
A
smoke smogs and photochemical smogs
9
Q
What is the purpose of the Critical Path Analysis?
A
- involves identifying
the most likely route a material will take, based on its properties and features of the environment, - asses severity and location of the pollution that may occur.
- monitor harmful discharges like radioactive materials, heavy metals and
persistent organic pollutants
10
Q
What are three factors taken into consideration when conducting critical path analysis ( think abiotic factors)
A
- wind and water current velocity and direction
- geology and hydrology
- food chain pathways.
11
Q
What factors of environmental sampling can be used to identify the pathway? (4)
A
- atmospheric dust
- soil
- water
- seaweeds, molluscs, fish
- milk, vegetables, meat.
12
Q
What is critical group monitoring?
A
- to identify
members of the public most at risk - monitoring the health risks caused by
pollutants such as radioactive discharges and heavy
metals.
13
Q
What factors would be considered in identifying the critical group?
A
- where individuals live in relation to the source
- time spent outside, for example farmers
- sources of food, for example local food i.e seafood, milk, seafood
- sources of water i.e local well
14
Q
What is it meant by emission location?
A
Increased concentrations in valleys, enclosed water
bodies.
15
Q
what is it meant by emission timing?
A
Restriction of activities during temperature inversions.
16
Q
What are the 4 strategies to control pollutants based on their properties and
features of the environment
A
- Critical path Analysis
- Critical group monitoring
- Emission Timing
- Emission location
17
Q
What is the main source of hot water that causes thermal pollution?
A
- Hot water from steam turbine power station
condensers.
18
Q
What are the effects of thermal pollution
A
- Deoxygenation of water.
- Aquatic organisms killed by the high temperatures due to the denature of enzymes.
19
Q
What is the control of thermal pollution
A
- cooling towers are used to cool power station effluent water so that it does not cause deoxygenation
20
Q
what are the 4 properties of organochlorines?
A
- high toxicity to insects
- low toxicity to invertebrates so farm workers unlikely to suffer acute effects
- high persistence
- high liposolubility
- low solubility so not easily washed off from fields
21
Q
What is are 2 examples of an organochlorine?
A
- DDT
- Lindane
22
Q
What properties do organophosphate persticides have?
A
- low persistence
- low liposolubility reducing biomagnification
- ## high mammalian toxicity so risk to farmer of acute exposure
23
Q
What is the effect of organophosphates?
A
- neurotoxins that inactivate the enzyme acetylcholinerase so nerve function is damaged.
24
Q
What are is an example of organophosphates?
A
Ethion
25
What are 2 effects of pesticides in general?
- direct toxic impacts to non target species
- indirect effects like food chain impacts and interspecies relationships
26
What are pyrethroids?
-Synthetic insecticides
27
What are three properties of pyrethroids?
- high insect toxicity and to fish but low mammal toxicity
- not persistent so they do not bioaccumulate or biomagnify
28
what are three methods of reducing pesticide pollution?
- Use of systematic pesticides
- Application timing
- use of non persistent pesticides i.e organophosphates
29
What are the effects of noise on non living objects?
- acoustic fatigue (stress cracking and structural failure)
- vibration damage (repetitive vibration can cause structural damage to buildings)
- shock impacts (a sudden very loud noise)
30
What are the 4 effects of noise on humans?
- hearing damage
- stress related health problems i.e ulcers and high blood pressure
- communication issues
- behavioural changes i.e lack of concentration.
31
What are the 4 effects of noise on other organisms?
livestock injuries
* disturbance of breeding birds
* reduced feeding success: bats, owls, dolphins
* hearing damage/behavioural
changes: cetaceans (whales)
32
What the sources of noise from aircraft?
- air turbulence
- engine noise, especially at high thrust.
33
What are three factors that can be controlled to reduce noise pollution in terms of airport design and location?
- location away from major population centres
- taxi areas away from residential areas
- provision of acoustic insulation ( double glazing windows)
- land-use restrictions ( allow industry not housing )
- baffle mounds/acoustic insulation.
34
How can the aircraft design be altered to reduce noise pollution?
- aerodynamic surfaces i.e fairings covering wing flap hinges.
- high by pass ratio engines ( smoothing the flow of the exhaust air )
- chevron nozzles used on top of hy bypass engines.
35
what are 3 examples in which airport operation can change to reduce noise pollution?
* night flight restrictions
* noisy aircraft banned
* fines for excessive noise
- constant descent angle ( no periods of high thrust
- flight path planning (avoiding residential areas)
36
What is the Quota count system?
- aircraft types are allocated points depending on their noise level
- each airline is allocated a certain number of points.
37
What are the 5 sources of noise by railway?
- wheel vibration
- engine noise
- pantograph turbulence
- wheel squeal on corners
- braking squeal
38
What are the 5 controls of noise pollution by railway?
- Wheel vibration – track polishing, sound
absorbing ballast.
* Engine noise – sound
absorbing suspension.
* Pantograph turbulence – aerodynamic fairing.
* Wheel squeal on corners – lubrication of wheels/track.
* Braking squeal – use of composite material
brakes i.e steel fibres.
39
What are three sources of noise pollution by road traffic?
- Wheel vibration/tyre noise
* Engine noise
* Air turbulence
40
What are three controls of noise pollution by road traffic?
- wheel noise - sound absorbing road surfaces like asphalt.
- Engine noise - acoustic insulation around the engine; quieter exhaust pipes.
- Improve vehicle aerodynamics i.e paint.
41
What are 4 sources of noise pollution from industry?
* Air compressors.
* Pile drivers, stamping machines.
* Drills.
* Mine blasting, military sonar.
42
What are 5 controls of noise pollution by industry?
* Worker ear protection/remote operation.
* Acoustic insulation/mats/baffle mounds.
* Restrictions on timing of operations.
* Alternative procedures, eg pressing instead of
stamping.
* Drilling instead of pile-driving.
43
What are 6 uses of ionizing radiation.
* Nuclear weapons ( fission and fusion )
* Nuclear electricity.
* Ship propulsion
* Manufacturing industry
(thickness of paper)
* Healthcare ( X rays )
* Agriculture (pest control)
44
Why do ships use nuclear fuel?
- high energy density
- therefore reactors rarely need to be filled up
- useful for submarines
45
what is it meant by half life?
- the time it takes for half of the unstable nuclei in a sample to decay or for the activity of the sample to halve
- longer half life (dangerouse long term)
- shorter half ( dangerous short term)
46
What are the 3 types of radiation and which poses the most dangerous?
- Beta
- Alpha (dangerous if ingested as can't penetrate out)
- Gamma ( only dangerous if continuously exposed)
47
What does RBE stand for?
- A measure of the biological damage caused by a
particular type of ionising radiation
Depends on the distance over which the energy is
absorbed
-Gamma radiation has the lowest RBE of 1
-Internal alpha sources have the highest RBE of 20
- absorbed over short distances
- produce higher concentrations of free radicals
- more damage than beta or gamma radiation
48
What is the difference between exposure and contamination
- Exposure involves the absorption of ionising radiation
- Contamination refers to physically carrying radioactive materials which when they release may cause exposure
49
What are activation products?
- used in structures of nuclear reactors
- exposure to neutrons can cause a previously stable nuclei to become radioactive.
50
What does the Becquerel, Gray, and Sievert measure?
- Becquerel - the activity of the source
- Gray - measure of absorbed dose
- Sievert - measure of effective dose that allows for the differing effects of the different types of radiation.
51
What are 3 sources of radiation exposure?
- cosmic radiation (altitude)
- medical exposure (X ray)
- occupational exposure ( flight crew, radiographers, miners)
52
What is the difference between somatic effects and gonadic?
- Gonadic effects - damage to cells in ovaries or testes
- Somatic effects - damage to general body cells and organs
53
What is the chronic effects vs acute effects?
- chronic effects appear slowly.
- acute effects appear quickly
54
What does ionizing radiation cause to the DNA?
- Mutation - this can lead to cancer
55
What do free radical production lead to?
- the unstable molecules build up in cells causing damage to other molecules i.e protein
56
What are the 3 principles of control?
- * Exposure should be: As Low As Reasonably
Achievable (ALARA).
* Equipment should be: Best Available
Technology Not Entailing Excessive Cost
(BATNEEC).
* The use of Risk:Benefit analysis.
57
What is the risk benefit analysis?
- the analysis to identify the risks of engaging in the activity compared to the benefits.
- can the risks be reduced?
58
What are three problems with creating a risk,benefit analysis for ionising radiation?
- symptoms may take a long time to develop ( chronic )
- alternative causes of the symptoms
- accurate data on the impacts on humans is often not available
59
5 methods of control of ionizing radiation
* Closed sources to prevent contamination.
* Radiation absorbers
* Distance from source: the inverse square law.
* Reduced period of exposure.
* Worker monitoring at work/on leaving work.
60
What is are examples of a radiation absorber material?
-Single-walled carbon nanotubes
-Lead absorbs radiation.
61
What is an example of a closed source?
Nuclear fuel is enclosed in sealed metal tubes. This
prevents the release of gaseous fission products.
62
Whats the storage mechanism for high level waste i.e uranium fuel rods?
- vitrification
- dried powdered solid waste with molten glass - allowed to solidfy in stainless steel containers
63
What is the storage mechanism for intermediate waste?
- mix with cement and stored in stainless steel drums.
-
64
What is the storage mechanism for low level waste - solid?
- solid ( sealed in thick polyethene bags, inside steel drums.
65
What is the storage mechanism for low level waste - liquid?
filtered, including ion exchange, then discharged
66
What is the storage mechanism for low level waste - gas?
- filtered and then released
67
What are sources of organic pollutants?
Organic wastes:
- sewage
- manure
- silage fluids
-effluent from processing of wood and paper
68
What are the effects of organic nutrient pollution?
- Deoxygenation caused by microbial aerobic
decomposition
69
What are the 5 main stages in treatment of organic wastes?
* pre-treatment
* primary treatment
* secondary treatment
* tertiary treatment
* anaerobic sludge digestion.
70
What is the role of pre treatment and what does it consist of?
- the removal of solid objects such as paper, plastic, road grit.
- consists of screens (metal grills) and grit traps
71
What is the role of primary treatment?
- the separation of most organic solids from fluids
72
What does primary treatment consist of?
- primary sedimentation
- this is where effluent is left to stand
- faecal solids sink to the bottom so they can be removed
73
What is sludge treatment after primary treatment?
- the sludge removed from primary treatment is put in an anaerobic digestor
- kills remaining pathogens
74
What are two uses of sludge?
- agricultural fertiliser
- biogas
75
What is the role of secondary treatment?
- the digestion and breakdown of remaining organic matter in the fluids
76
What does secondary treatment consist of?
* aeration tanks enabling aerobic bacterial decomposition.
* secondary sedimentation tanks - return the suspended bacteria back to aeration tanks
77
What is the final product from secondary treatment?
- clear effluent which is discharged into the river
- it could cause eutrophication due to potential inorganic nutrients
78
what is the role of the tertiary treatment?
- additional treatment to remove phosphates or bacteria
79
what does tertiary treatment consist of?
* phosphate removal ( by adding a solution of iron sulfate producing insoluble iron phosphate.
* bacterial microfilters (remaining bacteria killed by UV light or addition of chlorine)
80
what are two examples of inorganic nutrients?
- phosphate and nitrate
81
How can these inorganic nutrients cause pollution?
- nitrate = leachate or runoff
- phosphate = sewage effluent
82
what is the effect of inorganic pollution?
- eutrophication
83
what are the effects of nitrates on human health?
- blue baby syndrome
- Possible human carcinogen.
84
what are control mechanisms for phosphates?
- use of phosphate free detergents
- sewage tertiary treatment- phosphate removal ( adding iron sulfate - insoluble iron phosphate - fertiliser
- timing when applying phosphate rich fertiliser = iron phosphate precipitation.
85
what are the control mechanisms for nitrate?
- nitrate vulnerability zones
- use of low solubility fertilisers
-
86
What are 3 examples of sources of oil pollution?
- waste engine lubricating oil
- oil pipeline leaks
- ship accidents especially oil tankers
87
what are 3 effects of oil pollution?
- toxicity to organisms in particular aquatic species
- less time to feed young ( too busy cleaning the oil off)
- loss of insulation ( cause birds feathers to stick together)
88
what are 3 controls of oil pollution?
- Reduced leakage: equipment maintenance.
- recycling of waste lubrication oil
- bund wall (an embankment or wall of brick, stone, concrete)
89
what are 3 treatments of oil pollution?
- dispersants ( break up the oil to produce an emulsion )
- polymerising agents ( cause oil molecules to join together )
- booms (inflatable tubes that restrict movement of floating oil)
90
What are 3 ways an oil tanker can improve its operation to prevent oils spills?
- better shipping routes
- better navigation systems i.e GPS
- inert gas systems ( prevent explosions occurring when unloading oil)
91
What are 3 ways an oil tanker can improve its design to minimise risk of oil spills?
- double hull ( damage to outer hull prevents damage to the hull containing the oil)
- twin engine (if one breaks down)
- separate oil and ballast tanks)
92
what are three sources of solid wastes?
- mining wastes i.e overburden heap
- domestic waste i.e domestic appliances and equipment
- packaging
93
what are properties of solid wastes?
- toxicity
- release of radioactivity
- flammability
- conditions that affect degrability
94
How has affluence had a significant effect on solid waste?
- throw items away rather than fix them
- purchase more disposable items
- built in oblescence
95
what are factors that affect waste disposal methods?
- waste properties (how well it can degrade)
- land availability (land shortage for landfill)
- infrastructure for recycling
96
what are the 4 treatment options for solid wastes?
- landfill
- incineration
- recycling
- composting
97
what are the advantages of landfill?
- low cost
- less labour intensive
- low transport cost as bulk
98
what are 3 disadvantages of landfill sites?
- loss of material use
- pollution for landfill site including leaching into ground
- land use require deforestation
99
what are 3 features of a good landfill management site?
- methane collection - energy source for local area
- fences to stop litter
- leachate collection and treatment - prevent percolating into aquifers
100
what are 3 management of spoil heaps?
- landscaping - increase aesthetics
- collect toxic leachate and treat
- slope control of the spoil heap to prevent landslides
101
what is it meant by incineration and what is it used for?
- a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of substances.
- used for flammable waste materials like paper, card
102
what are the advantages of incineration?
- volume of waste is reduced
- less land area needed compared to landfill
- heat produced can be harnessed - district heating.
103
what are the disadvantages of incineration?
- resource value of the material is lost.
- atmosphere pollution risk
- dioxins may be released if temp below 100 degrees
104
what are advantages of recycling?
- saves finite resources like aluminum
- diverts waste away from landfill
- saves energy
105
what are the disadvantages of recycling?
- requires public cooperation
- labour intensive
- separation of i.e alloy metals
106
how can asbestos be treated?
- double wrapped in heavy duty polyethene bags
- in a specialised landfill site
107
how can cyanide wastes be treated?
- incineration
108
how can radioactive wastes be treated?
- vitrification - process of changing into glass
109
How can heavy metals be treated?
- mix with alkaline - becomes insoluble
110
what are the properties of lead?
* Neurotoxicity.
* Liposolubility.
* Bioaccumulation.
* Biomagnification.
111
what are the controls of lead pollution?
* Discontinued uses, eg paint, petrol additives,
lead pipes, solder for water pipes, lead fishing
weights.
* Waste storage at high pH to reduce solubility.
112
What are the properties of Mercury?
* Neurotoxicity.
* Liposolubility.
* Bioaccumulation.
* Biomagnification
113
what are the three forms of Mercury?
- elemental mercury (liquid)
- inorganic mercury (mercury oxide)
- organic mercury ( methyl mercury )
114
what are the effects of each of the three mercury forms?
- elemental mercury ( not easily absorbed by the gut)
- inorganic mercury (absorbed fairly by the gut)
- organic mercury (almost 100% absorbed by the gut)
115
what are the sources of acid mine drainage?
* Oxidation of sulfide ores in mine spoil/rocks.
* Drainage water/leachate.
116
what are the effects of acid leachate?
* Reduced pH can cause acidification of water sources
* Increased solubility and mobilisation of toxic
metals
117
How do you control the acid mine drainage?
Collection of drainage water and neutralization with
crushed lime.
118
what are the main causes of acid rain?
* SOx: sulfurous and sulfuric acids
* NOx: nitric acid
* ozone involved in production of
secondary pollutants.
119
what are the sources of the chemicals that cause acid rain?
* Combustion of fossil fuels.
* Smelting of sulphide ores.
120
What are the effects of acid rain?
* Non-living objects: damage to limestone
buildings, metal structures.
* Living organisms.
* Direct effects of acids.
* Damage to proteins.
* Damage to exoskeletons.
* Respiratory effects in humans.
121
What are the controls to the chemicals being released causing acid precipitation?
SOx:
* fuel desulfurization
* Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) wet FGD and
dry FGD.
NOx:
* catalytic converters
* urea sprays.
Ozone: control of NOx
reduces ozone formation
122
How can you monitor acid rain?
- universal indicator solution/ papers
- electronic meter calibrated
- percentage cover of lichens
123
What are the two types of smogs?
- smoke smogs
- photochemical smogs
124
what are the sources of PM 10/ smoke?
- Incomplete combustion of coal, diesel ( urban areas)
- wood, crop waste. ( rural areas)
125
What are the effects of PM10?
* Respiratory disease.
* Increased albedo of atmosphere.
* Smoke smogs during temperature inversions.
126
What are the controls of PM10?
* Legislation: Clean Air Act (1956).
* Coal treatment: heating to remove tar (urban)
* Electrostatic precipitators (urban)
* Cyclone separators (urban)
* Bag filters (urban)
- ban of burning crop waste (rural)
127
What are electrostatic precipitators?
- effluent gases with suspended smoke p pass through a chamber containing electrical charged wires
- smoke particles attract to the wires and clump together
- wires are shaken and clumbed particles fall off an collected
128
What are cyclone separators?
- effluent smoky gases pass into cyndrical chamber where they rotate and pass down the cyclinder
- smoke particles are thrown to the outside and are collected at the base
- gas at the centre has fewer smoke particles and removed by pipe
129
what are bag filters?
- air pollution control devices and dust collectors that use fabric bags to capture particulate matter from gas streams in industrial processes
130
What are the sources of oxides of nitrogen?
* Reaction of nitrogen and oxygen in hot
combustion processes.
* NOx
release due to fertiliser use.
131
What are the effects of oxides of nitrogen on the atmosphere
* Photochemical smogs.
* Global climate change.
132
What are the controls of oxides of nitrogen?
* Catalytic converters.
* Urea sprays.
* Control of fertilizer use.
133
What are the sources of hydrocarbons?
* Unburnt hydrocarbon fuels.
* Gaseous emissions from fossil fuel exploitation.
* Solvents.
* Aerosol propellants.
134
What are the effects of hydrocarbons?
* Greenhouse gases.
* Photochemical smogs.
135
What are the controls of hydrocarbons?
* Catalytic converters.
* Improved combustion efficiency.
* Vapour collection and incineration.
* Activated carbon filters.
136
what is the source of carbon monoxide?
Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons.
137
what is the effect of carbon monoxide?
- If inhaled reduced carriage of oxygen by
haemoglobin.
138
what are the controls of carbon monoxide?
* Catalytic converters.
* Improved combustion efficiency.
139
what is a photochemical smog?
- a type of air pollution, forms when sunlight reacts with nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere
-creating a brown or grey haze, particularly in urban areas with heavy traffic and sunny climates.
140
what is a smog?
- a type of air pollution characterized by a mixture of smoke and fog
- often containing harmful substances like nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter
- can be either sulfurous (London smog) or photochemical.
141
what are the controls of photochemical smogs?
- legislation i.e annual mot
- transport system change i.e electric hybrid vehicles
- fuel vapour collection using activated carbon
- catalytic converters (nox reduced to nitrogen and water.
142
what happens in a temperature inversion?
- layer of cold air collects near the ground
- pollutants released into the layer of cold air become more cold and dense resulting in it less able to rise up into the warmer air above
- due to them being less buoyant
- pollutants accumulate below the inversion layer
143
what factors make temperature inversions more likely?
- valley topography
- low wind velocity
- clear skies ( heat from the ground is re radiated - cooling the air near the groun
- mist or fog during the day
144
