Political Regimes

Question 1

Explain the idea of Plato’s ‘ship of fools’. What does Plato suggest as a remedy to this?

Answer 1

The ship of fools revolves around the idea that giving people the vote over who should ‘captain’ a ship means they will not elect the most competent, but the most popular. Instead, a Leviathan-type figure is needed, to govern strongly with people’s best interests at heart.

Question 2

Why did Aristotle fear completely open democracy?

Answer 2

Aristotle feared completely open democracy as it would place the poor in a majority and allow them to dominate decision-making. Meaning that mob rule would develop.

Question 3

Describe elements as part of Robert Dahl’s procedural definition for democracy (based around freedoms)

Answer 3

• freedom to join organisations
• freedom of expression
• right to vote
• everyone eligible for public office
• right of leaders to compete for votes
• alternative sources of information exist
• free and fair elections
• institutions for making policy are chosen by the people, in order to serve the interests of the people

Question 4

Describe the alternative procedural definition of democracy presented by Przeworski, Alvarez, Cheibub and Limongi (focussing more on electoral process/features)

Answer 4

• elected chief executive (therefore the UK does not classify as democracy)
• legislature is elected (again, with unelected upper house, UK does not classify as democracy)
• more than one party competing in elections
• an alteration of power must occur under identical electoral rules to how previous government came to power

Question 5

Explain Freedom House’s approach to defining a democracy. How do they go about measuring this?

Answer 5

Freedom House argue that democratic procedures and constitutional measures are insignificant… instead, outcomes and freedoms that people have in practice are vital to define a democracy.
Observes political rights and civil rights available to citizens.

Question 6

Explain Samuel Huntingdon’s theory of waves of democratisation

Answer 6

Democracy advances and retreats in waves:
- 1st wave sees expansion of democracy in Europe and settler colonies
- 1st reverse wave sees fascism and collapse of many European democracies
- 2nd wave sees restoration of EUR democracies, expansion to Japan, Latin America, India
- 2nd reverse wave sees breakdowns in Latin America, Africa, Asia, etc.
- 3rd wave sees democratisation of MED EUR, Latin America, East Europe, Asia, Africa

Question 7

How are we potentially seeing a reverse 3rd wave of democracy today?

Answer 7

A 3rd reverse wave is arguably occurring today with democratic backsliding in India, Hungary and Slovakia.

Question 8

Explain reasons why economics supposedly causes the proliferation of democracies

Answer 8

Economics supposedly creates new democracies as a growing middle class through economic development means there is more demand for a say in governance. Middle classes vote for moderates that favour democracy, meaning it is sustained.

Question 9

What is Lipset’s explanation of the relationship between economic prosperity and democracy?

Answer 9

The better off a nation is, the greater the chance it will sustain democracy (Lipset, 1960)

Question 10

Explain modernisation theory - how does this link to democracy?

Answer 10

Modernisation theory explains that as an agricultural economy with low education becomes an advanced economy, with high education and a middle class, this breeds democracy.

Question 11

Explain the 2 main hypotheses that explains why richer countries become democracies

Answer 11

• H1 - Democracy is more common in rich countries than poor ones
• H2 - backsliding becomes less likely in richer, more prosperous countries

Question 12

What explains why India is a democracy despite its relative poverty? What caveat is there to this?

Answer 12

India is believed to have remained democratic despite its relative poverty as due to post-colonial institutions, political culture, fragmentation of government and SIZE, it has become hard for democracy to waver here.
However, India is arguably now experiencing democratic backsliding under Modi.

Question 13

What explains why the Arab World has not converted to democracy despite having economically developed?

Answer 13

In the Arab world, there is little need for democracy, as economic development, innovation and enterprise sustains autocratic regimes amidst wealthy conditions. Government not reliant on tax base, essentially they can be bought off/guaranteed certain things without needing to tax population, which would require democratic accountability

Question 14

Explain why authoritarian, wealthy states can avoid democratisation through coercion?

Answer 14

Highly repressive states can spend far more on law enforcement, which means that these regimes are incredibly resistant to protest and dissent. They can coerce a population into accepting authoritarianism.

Question 15

What is a rentier state?

Answer 15

A rentier state is a country where its government is not reliant on a tax base, essentially means people can be bought off/guaranteed certain things, and hence democratic reliability is not demanded.

Question 16

What is Huntingdon’s argument in the clash of civilisations on why particular states will never democratise?

Answer 16

Huntingdon in ‘The Clash of Civilisations’ believed that particular cultures could not handle democracy… essentially that Arab, African, Asian countries would not cope

Question 17

What 2 hypotheses are there around the relationship between culture and democracy? How does one of these involve an economy?

Answer 17

• H1 - democracies more common in certain cultures. Values on freedoms, secularism, expression, are found more so in the West than elsewhere
• H2 - Cultural modernisation theory:
  Economic development creates cultural change, which leads to democracy. It is not that economic development directly creates democracy

Question 18

How do Inglehart and Norris revise Huntingdon’s thesis on why culture is important in forming a democracy?

Answer 18

Inglehart and Norris believe culture to be important, but not within regions and civilisations - instead it is a ‘sexual clash of civilisations’.
Countries more liberal on rights of women, LGBT, etc, are more likely to be democratic than those that are not. The ‘sex’ line is what generates the clash. Gender equality explains level of democracy better than anything else

Question 19

What examples dispute the ideas of Huntingdon?

Answer 19

Taiwan, Botswana as stable democracies/Arab Spring developing

Question 20

What are potential causes for the rise of authoritarianism in previously democratic countries?

Answer 20

War on Terror and instability this has created, claims of the rise of the deep state, the 2008 Financial Crisis, Nationalism, Populism, groups feeling as though they have been left behind, the success of alternatives to democracy.

Question 21

What features are there of totalitarian regimes?

Answer 21

• ideology that explains world as it is, and how it should be
• a single party, with a dominant leader
• no opposition
• a mobilisation of support for the party and leader
• state control of media
• use of coercion, violence, terror
• economic control by the state

Question 22

How does totalitarianism differ from authoritarianism?

Answer 22

Totalitarianism is IDEOLOGICAL in nature… whereas authoritarianism disregards any political narrative.

Question 23

What are the 3 types of authoritarian regimes?

Answer 23

Monarchies that are autocratic: Saudi Arabia
Military: Myanmar
Single/dominant party regimes: China

Question 24

What is Linz’s (1964) definition of an authoritarian regime?

Answer 24

Authoritarian regimes are systems with limited pluralism, without a guiding ideology, limited political mobilisation, leader or small group exercises power.

Question 25

How does Glasius revise Linz’s definition of authoritarian regimes?

Answer 25

Glasius believes any regime without free and fair elections, and which violates freedom of expression/association/access to info is authoritarian.

Question 26

What are the historical/value-based causes of authoritarian government?

Answer 26

Authoritarianism may develop from long-permeating ideals. Some states are opposed to pluralist democracies and favour strong leaders.

Question 27

What are the institutional causes of authoritarian government?

Answer 27

• many states had weak or non-existent institutions, history of small-group/single leader rule
• institutions in these states built to maintain autocracy?
• postcolonial states have often done away with nominally ‘democratic’ institutions post-independence, favouring autocratic governance

Question 28

What economic reasons may there be for authoritarian government? (Distinguish between richer and poorer states)

Answer 28

• Idea of rentier state at richer end? Also benefits of authoritarianism and strong state in creating economic growth.
• But generally poorer nations are authoritarian in nature, larger middle classes tend to want a say in governance.
• Literature says that when /capita income reaches $20,000, a country becomes democratic.

Question 29

What are the geopolitical reasons for authoritarian government? How did this begin to collapse after the Cold War?

Answer 29

Often, prominent states have sponsored authoritarian regimes for their own benefit (as the US frequently did and still do). After the Cold War, authoritarian regimes that were sponsored in order to support a particular side collapsed (especially US-supported ones, who were forced to democratise or lose their support).

Question 30

How are authoritarian regimes often presented as crucial to democracies? Give examples

Answer 30

Many authoritarian regimes present themselves as being crucial to democracies due to the stability they provide in particular regions. For instance, the US tolerates the Saudi regime due to the stability it provides, and that without it there would be a vacuum.

Question 31

How is Paul Kagame seen as an example of an authoritarian leader who is tolerated due to creating stability?

Answer 31

Kagame managed to put a stop to the Rwandan genocide, maintaining a status as President of Rwanda since in an authoritarian state that does hold elections, but which guarantees him victory. The West provides aid to Rwanda to prevent a return to instability, however this correspondingly preserves autocracy.

Question 32

How do single party regimes tend to operate? What examples are there of these?

Answer 32

Single party regimes tend to reduce in ideological strength over time, holding elections but to elect personnel within a party. They will trial different policies across a country before implementing the most successful ones nationwide.
Examples include the Communist Party of Vietnam, the CCP in China.

Question 33

What are dominant party regimes? How are these modern compared to single party regimes? What are examples of this?

Answer 33

Dominant party regimes will contest elections with other parties, but they will win all elections. Essentially non-existent or very weak opposition. These use a veneer of democracy to increase legitimacy, yet in reality are authoritarian. Examples include Singapore, Russia, Rwanda and Kazakhstan.

Question 34

What role can institutions play in the preservation of a democracy?

Answer 34

Institutions can be significant in preserving a democracy, as they can avert attempts to de-democratise through the structure they create for a democracy.

Question 35

What role does national identity play in the preservation of democracy?

Answer 35

The formation of new democratic states that cut across national identities often mean that a state is constructed around a weak identity, making it liable to fall to authoritarianism or into collapse. However, nations which maintain national identity often have an easier time remaining as democracies.

Question 36

How does Robert Dahl describe authoritarianism?

Answer 36

Dahl believes authoritarianism to be not only the absence of free and fair elections, but also the pursuit of actively illiberal policies, infringing on basic freedoms.

Question 37

How has globalisation weakened any argument that governments are democratically accountable?

Answer 37

Globalisation has meant that governments are now having to follow forces outside of the domestic sphere when making decisions. Hence, it is even dubious now whether they are fully accountable to a domestic electorate.

Question 38

What has happened to the importance of economic variables in determining whether a country is democratic since 1990?

Answer 38

Since 1990, the importance of economic variables in determining whether a country is democratic has fallen.

Question 39

What is ‘feckless pluralism’? Where has this been seen across the world?

Answer 39

‘Feckless pluralism’ is the situation where power shifts, guided by elections yet there is little participation beyond this. Venal party elites pull the strings instead. This has been seen in Latin America, Albania, Bangladesh and Thailand.

Question 40

What is ‘dominant power politics’? Where has this been seen?

Answer 40

‘Dominant power politics’ is the situation whereby the lines between the state and the ruling party become increasingly blurred. Few elements of elections are free and fair, with ruling parties looking to ensure their victories. Seen in Subsaharan Africa, Russia and other post-Soviet states.