Political and Economic Governance Flashcards
When and why was the UN established?
The UN was founded in 1945 as an instrument of global governance and a preventor of wars.
What is set out in the preamble of the UN Charter?
goals to ‘save succeeding generations from the scourge of war’, to ‘reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights’ and to ‘promote social progress and better standards of life’
How many active ‘organs’ are there of the UN?
5 - Security Council, General Assembly, ECOSOC, ICJ and the Secretariat
How does the Security Council work?
UNSC Resolutions are binding on all UN member states and, if necessary, enforced by UN peacekeepers
It is made up of 5 permanent members (the USA, the UK, China, Russia and France) and ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms by the General Assembly
Security Council resolutions are passed if 9 out of 15 members vote for them (but if any of the P5 vote against a resolution, it is vetoed)
What are UN peacekeepers?
Soldiers provided voluntarily by UN member states
Who are the current non-permanent members of the UNSC?
As of April 2024, the non-permanent members are Algeria, Ecuador, Switzerland, Slovenia, South Korea, Mozambique, Japan, Guyana, Malta, Sierra Leone
Strengths of the UNSC - arguments
Represents the realities of power
Can act collaboratively
Represents collective security
Weaknesses of the UNSC - arguments
Unrepresentative composition
Internal rivalries cripple efficiency
Difficult to reform
Strengths of the UNSC - represents the realities of power
Does not accurately represent population or states, but it does accurately represent the distribution of economic, military and political power across the globe
e.g. no African P5 member because there is no African superpower
P5 distinguishable by their possession of nuclear weapons (only 4 states outside the P5 also have them - India, Pakistan, Israel and North Korea)
Having the most powerful states dominating the UNSC means that peacekeeping operations or interventions are more likely to succeed because it is backed by global power (the inefficiency of the League of Nations was down to the fact that the USA and the USSR did not participate)
Strengths of the UNSC - can act collaboratively
Has proven itself capable of collaboration through successful peacekeeping operations.
e.g. of recent success is a peacekeeping operation in Cote d’Ivoire after a damaging civil war in 2004. Around 12,000 peacekeepers successfully disarmed nearly 70,000 combatants. Furthermore, they oversaw two peaceful elections and the return of 250,000 refugees
Strengths of the UNSC - represents collective security
UNSC is a representation of the principles of collective security - than an attack on any state is an attack on the global order of sovereignty
e.g. 1990s Gulf War, where Iraq invaded Kuwait and was repelled by a UNSC-authorised forced
Evidence that UNSC is successful in promoting collective security? - almost 300 conflicts since WW2, but less than 10 have been interwars
Weaknesses of the UNSC - unrepresentative composition
A third of the UNSC’s members are from Western countries despite only representing about a 1/7 of the global population
Asia represents 59% of the global population but only a fifth of total seats on the security council
P5 contains 3 ‘Western democracies’ and a further non-democratic European country
Titus Alexander - UNSC = a ‘pillar of global apartheid’
Weaknesses of the UNSC - internal rivalries cripple efficiency
Anything which contradicts the core national interests of one P5 member will be vetoed. This is especially true when one of the P5 feels that a resolution may ‘advantage’ another P5 member relative to themselves
e.g. recent vetoes include the USA (resolutions against Israel), Russia (resolutions against Asaad in Syria) and China (with regards to the Uyghur issue)
Weaknesses of the UNSC - difficult to reform
Issues difficult to solve as members of the P5 would veto any attempt to expand the permanent membership of the UNSC, seeing it as diluting their own power - makes it effectively impossible to add members
Global politics has changed significantly since 1945 and many states feel as though they should be permanent members (e.g. Germany, Japan and India), but they have no viable route to achieving this
How many members are there of the UN?
193 - all of these states must be treated equally according to the UN charter
Current challenges to the UN
Climate change
Nuclear weapons and proliferation
Peace and security
Reducing poverty
Current challenges to the UN - climate change
The UN’s key task has been to get a majority of member states to agree on the existence and impact of climate change - achieving this though IPCC, an objective scientific panel.
Organises key international summits (e.g. 1992 Rio summit at which states agreed to work together to reach further specific agreements to tackle climate change)
Current challenges to the UN - nuclear weapons and proliferation
UN has played a leading role in limiting the proliferation of nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction
Provided a vital forum for states to decide on, codify and sign the NPT (only 4/193 UN member states haven’t signed)
UNGA has a dedicated Disarmament Commission
Within the UN system, there is the IAEA which monitors states and ensures they are abiding by the terms of the NPT
Current challenges to the UN - peace and security
UN peacekeeping activities have expanded in scope and number since 1945 (becoming more active since the end of the Cold War lessened the state of gridlock between Russia and the US)
1990s saw the biggest increase in UN-approved military intervention e.g. Somalia (1992), Rwanda (1994) and Bosnia (1995) - however, some of these were unsuccessful
As of April 2024, currently 11 deployed peacekeeping missions
Current challenges to the UN - reducing poverty
MDGs (agreed in 2000) represented a huge increase in focus and scope for the UN’s development efforts
Continued this through the SDGs when the MDGs met their endpoint in 2025
Examples of aims in MDGs and SDGs
MDGS - eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, to promote gender equality
SDGs - no poverty, zero hunger, affordable and clean energy
Successes and failures of the MDGs
Rates of extreme poverty cut in half (but 1/8 people worldwide still go hungry)
17,000 less children die each day (but 6 million children still die before their 5th birthday each year)
Maternal mortality fell 45% (but only 1/2 of women in developing regions receive prenatal care)
Are the SDGs on track for success?
No
Deputy Secretary-General of the UN Amina Mohammed estimated that 600 million people will still be living in extreme poverty in 2030
Currently a sustainable development financing gap of $4 trillion annually
Explain the function of the UN Secretariat
It is the UN’s bureaucracy, led by the UN secretary-general
Includes branches such as the Department for Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO), the UN Development Programme (UNDP) and the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)
Explain the function of the UNSC
It is the UN’s executive committee, responsible for peace and security, and for passing binding resolutions
It has five permanent members and 10 non-permanent members chosen by regional quotas
Explain the function of the UNGA
Acts as the UN’s Parliament. Every member state can participate in debates and is represented equally.
Its annual meetings allow world leaders to address the UN and there are often votes on major issues (e.g. in 2012, there was a vote about granting Palestine observer status)
Explain the function of the ICJ
Makes judgements principally on territorial disputes between states
Explain the function of the UN Economic and Social Council
Responsible for economic security and development.
Made up of 54 member states, elected by the UNGA for two-year terms
Oversees the work of the WHO and UNICEF
Founding objectives of the UN
Stop war
Advance human rights
Social progress
Strengths of the UNGA
Global forum
Equal representation
Promotes dialogue between states (thus reducing risk of conflict)
Expertise
Weaknesses of the UNGA
Represents states, not people
‘Rewards’ dictatorship
Merely a ‘talking shop’
Strengths of the UNGA - global forum
Global forum for the solving of global issues - it is a space in which problems affecting multiple countries can be discussed
e.g. 31st UNGA special session on the coronavirus pandemic gathered state representatives to discuss how to tackle the economic, social and political fallout of the virus
Proof of effectiveness? - no state has ever permanently withdrawn from the Assembly (Indonesia did so briefly in 1965 but came back the next year)
Strengths of the UNGA - equal representation
One vote per state regardless of population size or economic/military/political power
Encourages participation from smaller states and ensures their voices can be heard - it is not possible for powerful states to veto resolutions and they can be outvoted by developing states
e.g. the Group of 77 (a coalition of developing states) was instrumental in passing the resolution against the apartheid regime in South Africa and continues to be fundamental in supporting initiatives towards global disarmament and demilitarisation
Strengths of the UNGA - promotes dialogue
Promotion of dialogue reduces the chance of conflict
Provides an outlet for verbal, diplomatic sparring, allowing states to communicate their frustrations in a non-violent manner
Even where dialogue is not particularly constructive (e.g. Khrushchev banging his shoe on a table while denouncing the Filipino delegate as a ‘toady of American imperialism’ in 1960), this is still better than war
Number of interstate wars has fallen dramatically since 1945
Weaknesses of the UNGA - represents states, not people
Each state gets a single vote regardless of population size
e.g. at an extreme, it is possible for states representing only 5% of the world to be able to pass a vote on an important issue because the global population is so unevenly distributed (undemocratic?)
UNGA provides forum for state governments to debate and vote based on their interests without any representation for oppressed minorities within states (e.g. Uyghur Muslims in China, LGBT people in Russia)
Weaknesses of the UNGA - ‘rewards’ dictatorship
State governments decide who they want to send as delegates to the Assembly and instructs them on how to vote - this ‘rewards’ dictatorship as an autocratic state is able to cast a vote in the UN on behalf of all their citizens, regardless of whether or not these citizens have democratically consented to their rule
This leads to despotic regimes being able to play a key role in shaping global policy
e.g. Saudi leadership of the UN Human Rights Commission (a sub-body of the UNGA) in 2015, despite the state having beheaded more people than ISIS that year
Weaknesses of the UNGA - merely a ‘talking shop’
UNGA resolutions are not binding
Criticism of it being a talking shop as the same issues are debated over and over again without any progress
e.g. Israel has been condemned in 45 resolutions for activities such as illegal settlement-building in Palestinian territories - yet there have been no moves towards peace in the region, nor any tangible attempt to hold Israel to account
Kofi Annan (former Secretary-General) criticised the UNGA for its ‘watered down’ resolutions
Examples of UNGA committees
Disarmament and International Security Committee
Economic and Financial Committee
Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Committee
Strength of the UNGA - expertise
The UNGA committees are a means of streamlining the work of the assembly into focused committees, providing expertise on particular matters
In a year, each committee will submit as many as 60 recommendations for the UNGA to consider
e.g. in 2015, the UNGA adopted the recommendations of the Economic and Financial Committee on cooperation with middle-income countries
e.g. in 2015, the UNGA adopted the recommendation of the Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Committee regarding the rights of migrants
Examples of special agencies within ECOSOC
WHO
Strengths of the WHO
Provides a forum to tackle the issues of health and mortality
Particular focuses for the WHO include diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis and AIDs as well as research into issues like antibiotic resistance
Biggest successes of the WHO - eradication of smallpox through a vaccination and education programme and the eradication of all polio in all but 3 countries (Pakistan, Nigeria and Afghanistan - areas in which WHO workers were attacked)
59% reduction in child mortality and 44% reduction in maternal mortality due to WHO initiatives
Weaknesses of the WHO
Chronically underfunded, which limits its efficiency (relies on private donors like Bill Gates, who provides 9.4% of WHO funding through his foundation)
Allegations of inefficiency - criticised for incompetency during the 2013-15 Ebola epidemic in West Africa
Cannot impose binding directives on member states
Strengths of the ICJ
Upholds international law
Genuine neutrality
Gives states a way to ‘back down’
Weaknesses of the ICJ
Jurisdiction is conditional
Unenforceable rulings
Inability to solve intra-state conflicts
Strengths of the ICJ - upholds international law
Principal institution which upholds the concept of ‘international law’ by arbitrating disputes between states according to established principles and conventions
Involves conflict resolution (e.g. 2018 case regarding activities by Nicaragua along the border of Costa Rica) but also the regulation of issues like applying the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
e.g. in 2002 the Court determined the land and maritime boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria
Strengths of the ICJ - genuine neutrality
The 15 judges are required to be independent and neutral by the Articles 16-18 of the ICJ Statute
If a case involves the state of a judge on the ICJ, then the other state may select an additional ‘ad hoc’ judge to balance any possible bias in judgement
The representation of states of varying levels of power (e.g. current President is Nawaf Salam, who is Lebanese) means that most states perceive the Court as genuinely neutral
e.g. of its perceived neutrality making its decisions seem more legitimate - ICJ rejected a claim by Bolivia against Chile for coastal land lost in 1883 and Bolivia accepted the judgement as one made by a neutral body
Strengths of the ICJ - gives states a way to ‘back down’
States may not want to back down in disagreements as it implies a loss of prestige and respect - ICJ rulings provide a way for states to respectably draw back from conflict
e.g. Nationalist tensions between Thailand and Cambodia about a 900-year-old temple (Preah Vihear) defused by an ICJ ruling, preventing conflict in the region
Weaknesses of the ICJ - jurisdiction is conditional
ICJ jurisdiction only applies when both states have agreed to abide by a ruling
e.g. in 2018, Iran brought a case against the USA about sanctions imposed upon them. The ICJ ruled in Iran’s favour and issued an order for the USA to lift the sanctions, so the USA simply refused on the grounds that they had not agreed to ICJ jurisdiction
Weakness of the ICJ - unenforceable rulings
No formal mechanisms for the enforcement of its rulings (especially true in the case of powerful states who are able to veto UNSC resolutions)
e.g. despite a ruling in 2016 that China does not have a right to sovereignty in the South China Sea, China has continued to build its naval bases and military presence in the region
Weaknesses of the ICJ - inability to solve intra-state conflict
ICJ can only solve conflicts between states. It has no jurisdiction to intervene in a state’s internal affairs
Renders it powerless to deal with many disputes and conflicts including civil wars/disputes of independence (such as Catalan independence from Spain), any intra-state genocide (such as within Sudan and Myanmar) or human rights abuses (such as in Russia)
ICJ has proven itself unable to deal with the crises of today
Successful international treaties within global governance
Treaty of Rome (formed EEC) (1957)
ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement (1992)
Kyoto Protocol (1997)
Rome Statute (formed ICC) (1998)
Treaties ARE an effective means of global governance
Allow states to form agreements on any issue, ranging from the environment to world health
Targeted and specific, which allows states to retain control over their sovereignty by picking and choosing which agreements suit their national interests
Represent formal international law, increasing likelihood of accountability
Treaties are NOT an effective means of global governance
States can choose whether or not to sign up to them (3/5 UNSC members have not ratified the Rome Statute) and can leave at any time (North Korea on the NPT)
What is NATO?
A collective military security agreement that was signed at the start of the Cold War (1949), with the aim of protecting its members from the threat of military (especially nuclear) attack from the Soviet Union
What is article 5 of the NATO treaty?
An attack on one member shall be regarded as an attack on all member states
When has NATO’s Article 5 been used?
Only once, when NATO allies indicated their support for the USA after the 9/11 attacks
When was NATO established and how many members did it have at its inception?
Founded in 1949 by the signing of the Washington Treaty and originally had 12 members (the USA, Canada and 10 states from western Europe)
How many members does NATO have currently?
32 (most recent addition is Sweden)
What was NATO founded to do?
To provide collective security against the threat of the Soviet bloc and to promote deeper political integration and stability in Europe
What was the early role of NATO?
Its original purpose, according to Lord Ismay (NATO’s first secretary-general) was ‘to keep the Russians out, the Americans in and the Germans down’
What was formed in response to the emergence of NATO?
The Warsaw Pact was formed in 1955 as a rival collective security organisation comprised of the USSR and 7 of its puppet states
