Poli 347 Midterm Flashcards
The Gaza War
What is meant when people say “Gaza is the world’s largest open-air prison”?
- There is heavy Israel presence within Gaza and in the surrounding ocean
- Israel uses control of goods as a means of controlling Palestenians
- Israel controls and restricts land and air travel
- Example: Israel blocked the import of cement to prevent
- Hamas from building tunnels but simultaneously prevented things such as houses from being built as a result
The Gaza War
What are key facts about Gaza?
1) One of the most densely-populated territories in the world (approx 2.3 M people living in 139 square miles.
2) One of the highest birthrates in the world; nearly 40% of the population is under the age of 15
3) Since the war’s outbreak, the entire population is in a food and water shortage crisis, with 576,600 people at starvation level.
- This is a grave consequence, possibility for more deaths from starvation than bombing
The Gaza War
What was a key turning point in Gazan history?
- The year 1948
- Hundreds of thousands of Palestinian refugees flee or are evicted by Israel to Gaza during the 1948-9 Nakba (“disaster”)
- Palestine had no status prior, making this a key turning point
The Gaza War
What year did Egypt those administration over Gaza and why?
- Beginning in 1949 the administration was challenged but in 1967 it was lost
- Gaza under Egyptian administration but was captured by Israel in 1967
- Arab-Israeli War
- Palestinian refugees were protected in Gaza under Egyptian administration
The Gaza War
What is the Oslo negotation?
- Civil administration by Palestine Authority begins under Oslo negotiations between Palestine Liberation Organization and Israel (hand shake in order to affirm)
- Israel retains several settlements and military presence, controlling sea and air.
The Gaza War
What is the Second Intifada?
- Leading up to 2005 there were numerous failed peace negotiations
- Amidst Second Intifada violence, Israel evacuates settlements, unilaterally withdraws military forces to “freeze” peace negotiations.
- Wanted to remove Israelis from Palestine
- This was to Israel’s benefit as they could just let Palestine destroy itself
The Gaza War
What year did Hamas win the election and why was it significant?
- 2006
- Hamas wins elections in Gaza attribute to corrupt Palestinian Authority
- Hamas did not want to negotiate but did win the election thanks to Israel’s wantingness to maintain status quo
The Gaza War
What characterized the state of Gaza from 2006-2023?
- Successive Israeli governments favour status quo with Hamas
- Israel was willing to engage in quid pro quo such as approving international aid
The Gaza War: Hamas Overview
What does Hamas stand for?
- Hamas is the acronym for Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiya (Islamic Resistance Movement)
The Gaza War: Hamas Overview
When was Hamas founded?
- Founded in late 1987 under Israeli military occupation of Gaza, modeled after Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood; initially promoted by Israeli authorities as counterweight to PLO
The Gaza War: Hamas Overview
What characterizes Hamas historically?
- Historically opposed to any negotiations with Israel, but willing to respect a hudna (“cease-fire”) at various points
Cease-fires did not change the goals
Attacks first started with suicide bombings in the 1990s
The Gaza War: Hamas Overview
What was a key change made in 2017?
- 1988 Charter calls for Muslims to kill Jews to hasten Day of Judgment; revised in 2017 to specify fight is against “Zionist occupation”
The Gaza War: Hamas Overview
How is Hamas financed?
- Administered Gaza with help of foreign aid, mainly from Qatar ($1.49B in aid, 2012-21)
- Developed armed wing with help from Iran
The Gaza War: Hamas Overview
How did Hamas prepare for the Oct.7th attack?
- Hamas militants practiced maneuvers jointly with other Palestinian militant groups since 2020, including “hostage-taking, raiding compounds and breaching Israel’s defences during these exercises, the last of which was held just 25 days before the attack” (BBC)
- Hamas used sophisticated surveillance of Israeli defenses; Israeli defense establishment doubted Hamas would attack
The Gaza War: Hamas Overview
What encompassed “Operation Al-Aqsa Flood”?
- 7 Oct. 2023: In “Operation Al-Aqsa Flood,” 3,000 militants from Hamas and allied groups breached Israel’s border fence and quickly overran military bases and civilian towns and settlements
- Hamas maintains rocket fire to give militants cover
The Gaza War: Hamas Overview
What was the outcome of “Operation Al-Aqsa Flood”?
- Hamas militants killed approx. 350 members of Israeli security forces (army and police) and 840 civilians
- They also took approx.240 hostages – some soldiers, but mainly civilians
- Evidence of mass rape by Hamas forces
The Gaza War: Hamas Overview
What were the objectives of “Operation Al-Aqsa Flood”?
1) Key leaders Yehya al-Sinwar and Mohammed De’if had spent time in Israeli prisons; De’if had lost family members to Israeli airstrike
2) Hamas apparently hoped to trigger wider war, including Palestinian uprising in West Bank and within Israel
3) Hamas did not coordinate with allies Hezbollah or Iran, who have been unwilling to commit to war
The Gaza War: Israel
What was the political landscape of Israel leading up to the operation?
- Late 2022 Benjamin Nettanyahu wins Israeli elections by forming coalition with extreme right-wing politicians (Ben Gvir – Otzma Yehudit and Bezalel Smotrich – Religious Zionism)
- Introduces legislation to weaken authority of Israeli Supreme Court (“The overhaul”) at a time when Netanyahu is under investigation for corruption charges
- Anti-overhaul protests consume and divide Israel; soldiers refuse to report to duty; analysts warn domestic divisions increase vulnerability to external enemies
- Israel’s foes are “rubbing their eyes in disbelief” (Amos Gilad)
The Gaza War: Israel
What was Israel’s military response?
- 8-9 Oct. 2023: Israel begins aerial bombing campaign on Gaza
- “Dahiyeh Doctrine” of bombing civilian targets, population centers to shock and weaken Hamas
- Repeated bombing of zones Israel’s own military had designated for Palestinians as sanctuaries
- 30 Oct. 2023: Israel begins ground invasion of Gaza, seeking to cut it in 2; orders civilians to evacuate northern Gaza
The Gaza War: Attempted Resolutions
Was there a deal made between Israel and Hamas?
- Yes, but a temporary one.
- 22 November: Israel and Hamas agree to four-day cease-fire, which is then extended
- Hamas releases 105 hostages (women and children); Israel releases 3 imprisoned Palestinians for every hostage
The Gaza War: Attempted Resolutions
What was the outcome od the four-day cease-fire?
- 1 Dec: Cease-fire collapses; war resumes, even more destructive than before
The Gaza War: International and Regional Dimensions
What role has the International Court of Injustice played?
- South Africa has brought charges of genocide against Israel at the ICJ
- Israeli bombing has killed 23,000 Gazans so far (1/100), the vast majority civilians
- Statements by Israeli cabinet members have indicated their aim to kill as many Palestinians as possible, clear
- Gaza for Israeli settlement
The Gaza War: International and Regional Dimensions
What role has Hezbollah played?
- 8 Oct: Hezbollah begins firing rockets at Israel in support of Hamas; cycle of strikes and counterstrikes begins
- US aircraft carrier battle group deployed to East Mediterranean
- 18 Oct 2023: US Pres. Biden visits Israel
- 195 Hezbollah militants and 9 Israelis killed so far
- Houthi militants backed by Iran have targeted shipping bound for Israel; US and UK navies have responded
- Iran as a “reluctant escalator”
- Netanyahu’s vast unpopularity and crippled credibility make him a dangerous decision-maker
Introducing the Conflict
What terms have been used to delineate the Arab-Israeli conflict?
- The conflict has been referred to variously as Arab-Jewish, Arab-Zionist, Arab-Israeli, or Israeli-Palestinian
- None of these names provide the whole picture of the conflict
Introducing the Conflict
How has the dispute been called?
- The territory in dispute has been referred to variously as Palestine; Israel- Palestine; Greater Israel; Israel, Judaea and Samaria; or Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territories (the West Bank, and Gaza) this is loaded
Introducing the conflict
What is the most accurate name for the conflict?
- Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territories (the West Bank, and Gaza)
- This term is geographically and historically more accurate because it acknowledges the military occupation of Palestine
Introducing the conflict
What were the shortcomings of the United Nations 1947 proposed solution?
- The solution created ungovernable states
- Land itself was already riddled with violence and solution would not stop it
- Palestine was made into an archipelago (series of islands) which does not take into consideration the contiguous territory.
- Even those who were committed to peace (left leaning) continued the construction of settlements in the West
Bank by Israel never stopped
Introducing the conflict
How can Israel’s relationship with the Arab League be described?
- Not all states in the Arab league are hostile
- Jordan had tried to resolve the issue however, the king was assassinated
- 22 states ultimately hate Israel
- We must also think about the roads not taken because of failed negotiations.
Introducing the conflict
What is the early religious history of the conlift?
- Some trace the conflict between Jews and Arabs to the Biblical rivalry between Isaac and Ishmael, sons of Abraham
- Hebrew tribes crossed Jordan River in the 13th and 12th Century BCE
- They ruled over hilly areas of modern-day West Bank: Hebron, Nablus, Jerusalem, from 1250 BC-135 CE
- This was known as ancient Judaea and Samaria
- Many of the 250,000 (approx.) Jewish Israeli settlers in the West Bank today see themselves as fulfilling a return to this land and regard the entire territory as theirs by divine right
Introducing the conflict
What is the history of conquest which characterizes the conflict?
- Philistines, a seafaring people, settled along the coast in the 12th Century BC in present-day Gaza, Ashkelon, and Jaffa
- Philistines ruled the coastal plain along the Mediterranean Sea from 1150 BC- 586 AD, and fought frequent skirmishes with the Hebrews
- In 586 AD, the Babylonians conquered the entire region; the Hebrews and Philistines were exiled
- Hebrews returned under Persian King Cyrus, who defeated the Babylonians
- The area was then conquered by the Greeks, and then by the Romans
Introducing the conflict
What led to the formation of Palestine?
- After crushing a 2nd Century AD Jewish revolt, the Roman occupiers re-named the Land of Israel “Palestina” derived from Philistia, to de-Judaize it
Introducing the conflict
What characterized the newly established Palestina?
- Following this the diaspora of Judaism began
- The area was conquered by the Prophet Muhammad and his Caliphs in the 7th century; Muslims formed the majority until the 20th Century
- About 7% of Palestinians are Christian
- Palestine was part of the Ottoman Empire, 15-17-1917
- Under the rule of the British Mandate 1920-1948
Introducing the conflict
How did Prophet Muhammad treat the Jewish populations during the conquest?
- As the Prophet Muhammad began first wave of conquests in 7th Century, Jewish tribes in Mecca and Medina refused to submit to Islam, and were conquered
- Islamic rule extended outward across most of the Middle East and North Africa
Introducing the conflict
How did Jews live under Islamic law?
- Jews living under Islamic rule, from the Prophet’s time until the fall of the Ottoman Empire, were denied full rights but, with Christians, enjoyed certain protections – they were known under Islamic law as dhimmi (“protected persons”)
- They believe in the “same God” due to Abrahamic lineage therefore Jews were extended rights
Introducing the Conflict
What were the conditions under the Ottoman Empire?
- Under the Ottoman Empire (1517-1917), Jewish and Christian communities were granted some local autonomy under the millet system
Zionism
What is Zionism?
- Zionists believe in and support the quest by Jews to ‘return to Zion’ (i.e., Jerusalem and the Holy Land); in the modern period, this implied also support for the creation of a Jewish state in that area” (Caplan, p.4).
Zionism
What were key factors in the development of Zionism?
- Context: Modern nationalism surged across 19th century Europe after the French Revolution of 1789
- Nationalism: groups should unite around a common identity and seek territorial sovereignty and political independence within a nation-state
Zionism
What were the first groups to embrace Zionism? And why?
- Politically oppressed communities embraced this idea as emancipatory; by 1848, Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Poland, and Romania had gained independence from Ottoman Empire and Russia
Zionism
What were early issues that Zionism faced?
- The basic premise of Zionism was the same as for other nationalisms: territorial sovereignty and political independence
- Zionism tends to view Judaism as an ethnic identity as well as a religion
- But were the Jews a nation? And where could a Jewish state be established?
- Ethnic identity comes a nation, “imagined communities”
- It is a normative statement, the Jews “ought” to have a nation
Zionism
What are the three branches of Zionism?
1) Labour
2) Revisionist
3) Religious
Zionism
What is the labour branch of zionism?
- Emphasized a secular Jewish nationalism, tending to promote coexistence with Palestinian Arabs
Zionism
What is the revisonist branch of zionism?
- Emphasized a militaristic approach to the conquest of Palestine; did not value or seek coexistence with Palestinians
Zionism
What is the religious branch of zionism?
- Prioritized Jewish settlement in the Biblical Land of Israel as a fulfillment of the divine promise to the Jewish people
Zionism
Why is “Zionism” a loaded and volatile word?
- The use of the term can recall the anti-Semitic forgery, “The Protocols of the Elders of Zion” (Caplan)
- Idea that Jews are behind the scenes pulling the strings so things go there way.
- In 1975, the United Nations overwhelmingly passed a motion equating Zionism with racism- rescinded in 1991
- In some contexts, the term “Zionist” implies that Israel is supported by “the mythological powers supposedly available to world Jewry” (Caplan, p.6)
- Post-Second Intifada, “Zionist” (or “Zio”) has often been deployed as a slur outside the Middle East
Zionism
How does early Jewish emigration relate to the birth of Zionism?
- In small numbers, Jews had been emigrating to Palestine from Europe and the Middle East for centuries for religious reasons
- The four “holy cities,” Hebron, Safed, Tiberias, and Jerusalem, had Jewish populations dating back to antiquity
- Jews in Palestine numbered approx. 10,000 in 1880, about 7% of total the population
- By 1880s, Jewish emigrants fleeing anti-Jewish pogroms in Eastern Europe established settlements and sought to buy land from Arab neighbours
- Hovevei Zion (“Lovers of Zion”) settler movement was established
Zionism
What was the first Zionist Congress?
- It was in Basle, Switzerland
Zionism
Why is the congress of significance, what was its goal?
- Affirmed that Zionism seeks to establish a home for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under public law.
Zionism
How did the congress hope to achieve its goal?
1) The promotion by appropriate means of the settlement in Palestine of Jewish farmers, artisans, and manufacturers
2) The organization and uniting of the whole of Jewry by means of appropriate institutions, both local and international, in accordance with the laws of each country
3) The strengthening and fostering of Jewish national sentiment and national consciousness
Introducing the Conflict
What is the significance of Article 20 of the Palestine National Charter of the Palestine Liberation Organization?
- It declares “claims of historical ties of Jews with Palestine are incompatible with the facts of history and the true conception of what constitutes statehood.
- Judaism, being a religion, is not an independent nationality. Nor do Jews constitute a single nation with an identity of its own; they are citizens of the states to which they belong” (in Caplan, p.18)
Introducing the Conflict
How can and has PLOs declaration been criticized?
- Yet Judaism in its text, prayers and traditions preserved a connection to the biblical Land of Israel
- And Jewish communities, especially in Europe, faced systematic discrimination which often turned deadly-full citizenship was impossible.
Introducing the Conflict
Who is Theodor Herzl?
- An Austrian journalist, Herzl covered the 1894 trial of French Army officer Alfred Dreyfus, wrongly convicted of spying for Germany
- French mobs demanding Dreyfus’ execution chanted “Death to the Jew!”
Theodor Herzel
Why was he a Zionist?
- Anti-Semitism in a modern European democracy convinced Herzl that Jews would never live free of oppression in Europe
- Early Zionists considered various options, including Jewish settlement in Argentina or Uganda, but Palestine resonated more
Theodor Herzl
What was his manifesto?
- In 1896 he wrote Der Judenstaat (“The Jews’ State”), envisioning the creation of a Jewish homeland
Conflict Origins and Background: Arab Nationalism
When did Arab Nationalism emerge?
- At the beginning of the 20th Century, Arab nationalism began to emerge, reflecting
- European notions of nation-states rooted in national identity
- Not a direct revolt against the West but towards the Ottoman Empire
Conflict Origins and Background: Arab Nationalism
What movement did Zionism emerge as a backdrop to?
- Note, that zionism emerged as a backdrop
Conflict Origins and Background: Arab Nationalism
What exacerbated Arab Nationalist sentiments?
- Arab resentment of the Ottoman Empire grew after the 1908 “Young Turk” revolution sought to centralize Ottoman rule
- Wanted to reassert power of the Ottoman Empire (modernize bring empire to the 21st century)
Conflict Origins and Background: Arab Nationalism
How did the Arab Revolt stabilize Arab nationalism?
- The Arab Revolt (1916-17) against Ottoman rule helped to crystalize a sense of Arab nationalism based on a vision of self-determination
- Formed on the basis of revolts
- Ottoman Empire contract but failed
Conflict Origins and Background: Arab Nationalism
What characterized Arabs relationshjip with the British at the turn of the 20th century?
- By the early 20th Century, some Arab nationalists foresaw a clash with Zionism
- Arab rebels love the British -> even prior though they knew Zionism would create a us versus them mentality
Palestinian National Identity
What were critical years for the establishment of the Palestinian national identity?
- The years 1917-23 proved critical for the formation of a distinct Palestinian national identity
- Once independent= develop narrative centralized of its history -> helios foster national identity
Palestinian National Identity
How did the lack of a nation impede development?
- The lack of a Palestinian nation-state has proved critical in shaping overlapping “historical” narratives, rather than an official one
- It has also prevented the emergence of a linear historical narrative culminating in successful statehood
- The Palestinian narrative is “intimately intertwined” with that of Israel and the Jewish people (Khalidi, p.146)
- Having collective history = important for identity building
Palestinian National Identity
What are the religious components of palestinian nationalism?
- Muslims and Christians alike viewed Palestine as the Holy Land
- The Greek Orthodox and Latin Patriarchates and the Protestant Episcopate of Jerusalem all included all of Palestine
- Qua Palestine its own with pre existing ruling
- Palestine is referred to as the Holy Land directly in the Qur’an
Palestinian National Identity
Given shared holy land did Muslims and Christians get along?
- Muslims fought Christian Crusaders over control of the Holy Land and Jerusalem, underscoring its value
- Local Arab resentment of European (Christian) imperialism reached back centuries
- People were aware, immediate threat (conscious resent of European Imperialism)
Palestinian National Identity
What led to the hardening of the Palestinian identity?
- Before WWI, elements of national identity were present: “Arabism, religious sentiment, higher levels of education and literacy”
- Many Arab inhabitants of Palestine felt strong local attachment and pride to their city or village of origin
- Possessed a consciousness of belonging to the territory
Palestinian National Identity
What role did the British Mandate play in fostering Palestinian nationalism?
- The British Mandate brought Arab residents to “imagine” themselves as part of a single community
- The British asserted control over Palestine bringing a sense of Palestinian identity
- Urbanization, wage labour, the spread of the printed press and education, all contributed to this
- How identity became fortified contributing to a sense of modern nationalist Palestinian identity
Palestinian National Identity
What characterized the Palestinian Identity during Ottoman rule?
- Predicting “momentous conflict” between Zionism and Arab Nationalism
- They knew that Zionism was a threat
- ‘Azuri advocated for Palestine to be a separate province of the Ottoman Empire
- Many Arabs already envisioned Filastin as its own entity by then
- Its own nation/country
- Palestinian newspapers warned of an emerging Zionist threat by 1914
- Coexistence not a solution or option
- Contest with Zionism could become existential
The McMahon-Husayn Correspondence (1915-16)
What started the correspondence?
- As British fought Ottoman Turks, Sharif
- Husayn of Mecca wrote to the British High Commissioner in Cairo, Sir Henry McMahon
- Setting in motion events that would have a very fateful impact on the region.
- Central to talking about the emergence of independent states
The McMahon-Husayn Correspondence (1915-16)
What were the contents of the letter?
- Husayn expressed the national aspirations of Arab peoples and sought British support for their independence struggle
- The British are natural allies and send weapons
The McMahon-Husayn Correspondence (1915-16)
How did the British (McMahon) respond? And why?
- McMahon resisted Husayn’s territorial claims but committed Great Britain to assisting Arab peoples
- The British wanted to encourage a general Arab revolt against the Turks to assist their war effort
- They hoped to safeguard the Suez Canal
- Suez Canal is a valuable strategic conduit
- Plays a role continuously
The McMahon-Husayn Correspondence (1915-16)
What was McMahon’s pledge to Husayn (24 Oct.1915)?
1) Subject to the above modifications, Great Britain is prepared to recognize and support the independence of the Arabs
2) Great Britain will guarantee the Holy Places [i.e., Mecca, Medina also Jerusalem?] against all external aggression
3) Great Britain will give to the Arabs her advice and will assist them to establish suitable forms of government in those various territories
4) It is understood that the Arabs have decided to seek the advice and guidance of Great Britain only
Sykes-Picot Agreement, May 1916
What is the Sykes-Picot Agreement?
- As the Ottoman Empire fell, the UK and France made a secret pact to carve up their respective spheres of influence in the Middle East
- This is key to understanding the McMahon-Husayn Correspondence
- The Ottoman Empire had not even fallen yet, but the territory had been divided
Sykes-Picot Agreement, May 1916
What was reflected in the agreement?
- This reflected British and French colonial expansion worldwide
- The French wanted Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey (did not get Turkey because of Turkish revolts)
Sykes-Picot Agreement, May 1916
What was decided in regard to Palestine under this agreement?
- Palestine came under British control,
- The UK was given control over Palestinian ports Haifa and Acre
Sykes-Picot Agreement, May 1916
What were its contents?
1) Proclaimed British and French readiness to “recognize” and “protect” independent Arab states, separately or in a confederation
2) Opened up the Middle East as a market for British and French goods, to be imported via ports (Haifa, Basra) and railways (the Baghdad line)
3) Committed both countries to prevent any other power from pursuing strategic interests in the region
4) Acknowledged Russian and Italian interests in the region
5) Designated Palestine as an area of joint British, French, and Russian control (Jerusalem is an international city)
The Balfour Declaration
How did the declaration come about?
- The result of Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann negotiating with the British government
- Represented a turning point for Zionist aspirations
The Balfour Declaration
Why was the Balfour agreement pivotal?
- It made Zionism political
- “Up until the Balfour Declaration, Zionism‘s main function was cultural-psychological: it sustained the faith of its believers but was of no political importance” (Lacqueur, p.590)
- Stood no chance of some sort of independent state
The Balfour Declaration
What was the purpose of the declaration?
- Key British policymakers debated whether the Balfour Declaration contradicted promises made in the McMahon-Husayn agreement
- Afterward, Husayn himself called upon the Arab population to “welcome the Jews as brethren and cooperate with them”
The Faisal-Weizmann Discussion, 1918
What occured at this discussion?
- At the Versailles Peace Conference, Sharif Husayn’s son the Emir Faisal demanded independence for Arab peoples
The Faisal-Weizmann Discussion, 1918
What was agreed upon in this discussion?
- Faisal also agreed that “Palestine should be given separate status as the prescribed area of the Zionist Jews”
- Faisal called Arabs and Jews “cousins in race” and said “the Jewish movement is national and not imperialist”
The Faisal-Weizmann Discussion, 1918
How did Faisal interact with Zionist?
- Faisal met with Weizmann; corresponded with World Zionist Organization representative Felix Frankfurter
- These peaceful ideas were mainly expressed in letters written in English, which Faisal could not read
- In 1929, as King of Iraq, Faisal denied having ever said these things
The Versaille peace conference and the King Crane Commission, 1919
What was the goal of the conference/commission?
- In keeping with the broader aim of promoting self-determination worldwide, the Versailles Conference addressed the Palestine question through the King- Crane Commission
- It determined that a European power should govern Syria (including Palestine) as a “sacred trust” under the League of Nations, pending its eventual independence
The Versaille peace conference and the King Crane Commission, 1919
How did the conference conclude?
- After meeting with Zionist leaders, the Commission concluded: “the Zionists look forward to the complete dispossession of the present non-Jewish inhabitants of Palestine, through various forms of purchase”
- The Commission found: “the extreme Zionist Program must be greatly modified” and recommended limiting Jewish immigration
The British Arrival
Why was WWI a significant period?
- WWI brought economic and cultural upheaval to Palestine, as Ottoman Turks fought the British
- Jerusalem fell to British forces in November 1917
- Palestinians became aware of Sykes-Picot Agreement (made public by Trotsky) and British support for Zionism
The British Arrival
Did Palestinians support Arab nationalism?
- They stood in solidarity with Arab nationalism as the British and French took over from the Ottomans across Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, and Palestine
General Overview of the British Mandate
What characterizes the British Mandate?
- British seizing control and saw the fulfillment of the Sykes Picot Agreement
- British had control of a vast territory
General Overview of the British Mandate
What role did the League of Nations play?
- The League of Nations awarded the trusteeship of Palestine to the British at the San Remo Conference, 1920; it came into operation in 1923
General Overview of the British Mandate
What was the Mandatory government of Palestine?
- The Mandatory government was given “full powers of legislation and of administration”
- Even though Zionist and Palestinians Nationalists had institutions they were minimal intermediaries and did not have much power
- Used violence to maintain power
General Overview of the British Mandate
What was the British Mandates aim?
1) It aimed to safeguard the “civil and religious rights of all the inhabitants of Palestine”
2) Aimed to establish such “political, administrative, and economic conditions as will secure the establishment of the Jewish national home”
- Overt intention to gain control of Suez Canal
- Showdowns seen at the outset
General Overview of the British Mandate
In what sense were the British contradictory throughout the various agreements? What were the consequences?
- With the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence, Sykes-Picot Agreement, and Balfour Declaration, the British made a series of contradictory promises to different parties
- “These competing wartime promises led to exaggerated and incompatible expectations among Arabs, Palestinians, and Zionists alike, aggravating already existing tensions and mutual suspicions” (Caplan, p.59)
Early Dynamics of Palestinian and Zionist Political Organizations
When did Zionist political organizations become centralized?
- As the British established their rule and Zionist political organization became centralized, the Palestinians developed their own organizations
Early Dynamics of Palestinian Political Organizations
What organizations were established in the early 1920s?
- The Palestine Arab Congress and Supreme Muslim Council were founded in the early 1920s
Early Dynamics of Palestinian Political Organizations
What was the purpose of the Palestine Arab Congress and Supreme Muslim Council?
- These served as intermediaries with the British, and sent delegations abroad
Early Dynamics of Palestinian Political Organizations
Why was an intermediary needed?
- There were thus two “states within a state”
- There are the Zionist institutions and Palestinian institutions
- Not air tight entities but they are national institutions
Early Palestinian-Zionist Clashes
Where did the first tensions arise?
- There were frequent tensions between Zionist settlements and Arab villages in the Galilee region; each side had its armed militias
Early Palestinian-Zionist Clashes
How do other conflicts exacerbate clashes?
- In the context of the 1920 Franco-Syrian War, Arab militias suspected the Jews of siding with the French
- As Arab militias insisted on searching Jewish settlements for French spies, clashes broke out
- On 1 March 1920, 8 Jews and 5 Arabs were killed in a clash at the Jewish settlement of Tel Hai, which was then burnt down
Early Palestinian-Zionist Clashes
What role did the Mandate play in the violence between Palestinians and Zionists?
- On 4-7 April 1920, rioting killed 5 Jews and 4 Arabs and injured hundreds during the Palestinian Nebi Musa festival (“the Jerusalem Riots”)
- The Franco-Syrian War took on regional dimensions -> French loved the Zionists (disproven)
- British troops did not intervene, undermining Jewish and Arab trust in them
Early Palestinian-Zionist Clashes
How did the Palestines view of the British differ from the Zionists?
- From a Palestinian perspective, the British Mandate favored the Zionists and advanced Britain’s own imperial aims by promoting them
- Zionists regarded the British as unreliable, and often pro-Arab
British Mandate 1920s
What is the significance of the Churchill white paper?
- 1922 Churchill White Paper specified that “a Jewish national home in Palestine” did not encompass control over all of Palestine, but rather, the ”further development of the existing Jewish community” of 80,000
British Mandate 1920s
How did the United Kingdom attempt to ease the anxiety of Arabs?
- To assuage Arab fears, UK govt. pledges to “foster the establishment of a full measure of self-government in Palestine”
- If promises made in the agreements were conflictual, the British continued to play both sides to get the Mandate established.
British Mandate 1920s
Did the actions of the United Kingdom ease anxiety?
No:
- Episodes of inter-communal violence continued throughout the 1920s
- Zionist leadership pressed ahead with immigration, land purchase, and military preparedness
British Mandate 1920s
What was the Zionist argument?
- Zionists argued that they were helping to develop the land, bringing benefits to all its inhabitants; Arabs rejected this notion
1929 British Mandate
How did placement of places of prayer exacerbate tensions?
- Disputes escalated over Jews praying the Wailing Wall in Jerusalem, adjacent to the Al-Aqsa mosque
- Note: for a long period there was coexistence between the two
1929 British Mandate
How did language exacerbate tensions?
- Fear and loathing between Jews and Arabs was exacerbated by inflammatory statements and publications on both sides
1929 British Mandate
How did placement and language lead to more violence?
- This culminated in the violence of August 1929: Arab rioters attacked Jewish neighborhoods and settlements across Palestine; Jews retaliated; British police intervened , mainly on Jews’ behalf
- 67 Jews killed in Hebron (ending the Jewish population there); 18 in Safed; Arab neighbors rescued hundreds more Jews (first mass violence)
- In all, 133 Jews and 116 Arabs were killed; hundreds more were injured
The Shaw Commission of Inquiry (1929)
What was the commission’s conclusion?
- The Arab feeling of animosity and hostility towards the Jews consequent upon the disappointment of their political and national aspirations and fear for their economic future.
The Shaw Commission of Inquiry (1929)
Why does Arab fear exist?
The feeling as it exists today is based on the twofold fear:
1) Of the Arabs that by Jewish immigration and land purchases they may be deprived of their livelihood
2) Time passes under the political domination of the Jews.
The Passfield White Paper (1930)
How did the British respond to the violence in 1929?
- As a result of the 1929 violence, the British government issued a “White” (policy) paper limiting Jewish immigration to Palestine
- It imposed restrictions on the Jewish purchase of Arab property, finding that this disenfranchised Arab peasants
- The British government “clarified” the White Paper in a letter to Chaim Weizmann, which Arabs derided as the “Black Letter”
The 1936-39 Revolt
What characterized the revolts?
- Following mass immigration of Jews fleeing Nazis, various clashes broke out as Jews made up more of the population
- There were violent interactions, general strikes and increased British presence and not absence in taming the conflicts
- Approximately 5,000 Palestinian dead and 10,000 injured
Aftermath of the Revolt
What were the conclusions of the Peel commission?
- 1937 Peel Commission: Found the Mandate to be unworkable and recommended partition of the land between Arabs and Jews
Peel Commission 1937
How did Arabs and Zionists respond?
- Arab leaders and organizations rejected the idea unanimously
- Zionist leaders were more receptive to partition, as it brought them closer to an Israeli state
Aftermath of the Revolt
What were the contents of the 1939 White Paper?
- 1939 White Paper: Called for the establishment of an independent Palestine within ten years; limited Jewish immigration to 75,000 over 5 years; further immigration would be subject to Arab veto
- No country wanted to accept Jews due to possible of prosecution
Aftermath of the Revolt
What were the responses to the White Paper?
- Hajj Amin Husseini rejected it; moderate Palestinian Arab leaders accepted it; Jewish leadership rejected it unanimously
- Met with Hitler:
Protocol of the meeting: “The Fuehrer replied that Germany stood for uncompromising war against the Jews and that naturally included active opposition to the Jewish national home in Palestine.”
Key 1920s figure
Who is Izz ad-Din al-Qassam?
- 1882: Born in Jableh, Syria
- 1916-1920: Supported Libyan rebellion vs. Italians, led Syrian rebellion vs. French
- 20/11/1935: Killed by British forces after a manhunt
Key 1920s figure
What did Izz ad-Din al-Qassam accomplish?
- Moved to Palestine after French victory
- Organized armed bands striking at British, Jewish targets
- He is the face and legacy of the Hamas group
Militirization: British Mandate to 1948
When did militarization begin?
- After the 1936-39 revolt, both sides became increasingly militarized
Militirization: British Mandate to 1948
What is the main Zionist Militia? How did it gain its strength?
- The main Zionist militia was the semi-clandestine Haganah (Defense)
- A well-organized force that gained strength with the return of Jewish soldiers from the British 8th Army
Militirization: British Mandate to 1948
Was the Haganah the only Zionist militia?
- No, Smaller extremist Zionist militias, the Irgun (IZL) and Stern Gang, perpetrated terror attacks against Arabs and British
- Example: 1938 Jaffa bombings, 1946 King David hotel bombing)
Institutionalization of Zionism: British Mandate to 1948
How was Zionism institutionalized?
- Zionist political institutions- the Jewish Agency (Sokhnut) and the General Federation of Jewish Labour (Histadrut) formed institutional structure
Institutionalization of Zionism: British Mandate to 1948
How did Zionist institutions differ from Palestinian Arab counterparts?
- These were more unified than their Palestinian Arab counterparts, the Arab Executive Committee and Arab Higher Committee
World war II and Jewish homeland (Partition 1938-47)
What was the initial reaction to Jews fleeing Nazi persecution?
- In 1938 at the Evian Conference, world powers agreed to do nothing in response to Jews fleeing Nazi persecution
World war II and Jewish homeland (Partition 1938-47)
How did Britain respond to the Holocaust?
- 1946-7: Britain restricts Jewish immigration from Europe with a naval blockade, interns Jewish refugees in Cyprus
World war II and Jewish homeland (Partition 1938-47)
What altered international reaction? How did it result in support of Zionism?
- 1945: The Shoah (Holocaust) was a turning point, bringing international sympathy to the Zionist cause and creating massive Jewish refugee flow
World war II and Jewish homeland (Partition 1938-47)
What was the United Nations role in attempted partition?
- 15 May 1947: UN creates United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP), sends delegation to Palestine to investigate; boycotted by the Arab Higher Committee
1940: Emergence of Arab States
Why were the 1940s significant for Arab nationalism?
- Various states gained independence
1940: Emergence of Arab States
How did independent states respond to Zionism?
- 1941-48: anti-Jewish riots, many motivated by anti-Zionist sentiment, kill hundreds in Iraq, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen
UN Resolution 181
What did resolution 181 recommend?
1) 29 Nov. 1947: Based on UNSCOP plan, UN recommends partition of Palestine between Arab and Jewish populations
2) Recommends an economic union, as well as protections for minority rights
UN Resolution 181
How was land to be allocated under resolution 181?
- The plan allocated 56% of land to the Zionists, although Jews owned 6% of land and comprised 33% of Palestine’s population at that point
UN Resolution 181
How did the Jews and Arabs respond?
- The Jewish Agency accepted the plan; Palestinian Arab leaders and organizations, as well as Arab states, rejected all partition
End of British Mandate and War
What was the Jewish population in Palestine by the end of the British Mandate?
- 1948: Jewish population of Palestine (the Yishuv) reaches 650,000 (37% of population)
End of British Mandate and War
What occurred subsequently following the end of the mandate?
- 14 May 1948: The British Mandate set to end;David Ben-Gurion declares Israeli independence, becomes PM
- 15 May: Armies of Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Transjordan, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and irregular Arab Liberation Army launch an invasion – forces total 23,500
End of British Mandate and War
Was the invasion of Israel in 1948 successful? Why not?
- No
- Arab armies undermined by lack of unity, mutual suspicions
- Haganah forces, numbering 16,000, are poorly armed
War of 1948
What characterized the conflict?
- Both Zionist,Palestinian and Arab militias took part in a variety of attacks
- Certain Jewish communities objected to the action of Zionist militias however, Arabs did not accept sympathies
- Egypt was a powerful source however, Jordan took possession of West Bank
War of 1948
What “started” the war?
- Arab Liberation Army blocked Jerusalem (forces evacuation and kills Jews)
- Jewish communities did not initially react, Egypt thought they could win the war in two weeks
- Jordan takes most of West Bank
War of 1948
What was the goal of the 1948 war for Israel?
- Initial Israeli objective was to survive war vs. combined Arab armies
War of 1948
Did the UNs 1948 4 week ceasfire work?
- No, Israel used the ceasefire to Israel procures weapons shipment from Czechoslovakia; improves soldiers’ training; centralizes army command; plans next phase of war
War of 1948
What characterized Israel’s advancement post ceasefire?
1) Actively took control of designated Palestinian land: Dec. 1948, Haganah (now the Israel Defense Forces - IDF) controls entire area designated for Jews under UN Res. 181, plus 60% of Palestinian areas – British threaten to intervene
2) Expelled and caused Palestinians to flee: Around 700,000 Palestinians flee or are expelled, most to refugee camps in Jordan, Gaza, Syria, and Lebanon
Engaged in ethnic cleansing : Historians debate whether IDF “Plan D” aimed at systematic ethnic cleansing or expulsion of Arab communities that took up arms
War of 1948
How did the UN react to “Plan D”?
- UN Resolution 194 affirms refugees’ “right of return”
Negotations Leading Up to the 1956 Suez Crisis
What was the outcome of the 1948 Armistice agreement?
- The 1948 Armistice agreements left Israel and Arab states in state of war
- Israel now sought to preserve the status quo – esp. its Jewish demographic majority (716,000 Jews and 92,000 Arabs in 1949)
- This began the framing Israeli-Arab conflict in question of Palestine
Negotations Leading Up to the 1956 Suez Crisis
What did the UN attempt to do in 1949?
- 1949: UN sponsored negotiations b/w Israel and Arab states at Lausanne –went nowhere
Negotations Leading Up to the 1956 Suez Crisis
How did Palestinian’s refugee status interfere during negotiations?
- Palestinians are refugees with not much voice on the international scene making Israel’s wantingness to have a religious ethnic graphic state more predominant.
Failed Negotations Leading Up to the 1956 Suez Crisis
What is the significance of the Israel and Transjordan negotiations?
- 1949-1951: Israel and Transjordan negotiate– Israel willing to allow Jordanian corridor to Mediterranean, Jordan willing to recognize Israel
- They were not successful though because it ended with Abdullah’s assassination on 20/7/51 (made sure no settlement was made)
Failed Negotations Leading Up to the 1956 Suez Crisis
Was Syria’s negotiations with Israel successful?
- In early 1950s, Israel and Syria also undertook serious (but unsuccessful) peace talks
Failed Negotations Leading Up to the 1956 Suez Crisis
How did Israel’s internal division contribute to failed negotiations?
- Israeli leadership divided: seek security through territorial control (PM Ben Gurion militarization) or through acceptance abroad (FM Sharett international image).
Note: this characterizes the trajectory of Israel’s policies 1948 onward
1949 Truce and 1956 Suez Crisis
How did the 1949 truce agreement between Arab States and Israel (except Iraq) impact the conflict?
Conflict switches from inter-communal to inter-state
- 1950-56: cross-border raids into Israel by Fedayeen (loosely-organized Palestinian militants) from Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, mainly on civilian targets)
- Israel launches retaliatory cross-border raids
- 1953 IDF assault on West Bank town of Qibya kills 69, mainly women and children, draws UN, US condemnation
United States Position Leading up to the 1956 Suez Crisis
What characterizes the United States foreign policy during this period?
- They supported early on the creation of Israel
- Smuggled arms to Israel
- It was the first time the United States blatantly took sides
Cold War and the 1956 Suez Crisis
What occurred immediately following the onset of the Cold War?
- Into the 1950s, the Cold War and Arab-Israeli conflict both intensified
- The rival superpowers US and USSR competed for allies across the world
Cold War and the 1956 Suez Crisis
How did Egypt play a role in the escalation?
- 1952: a coup by army officers overthrows Egypts King Farouk; Neguib is named President (Nasser was involved)
- 1956: Gamal Abd-el Nasser formally becomes President
Cold War and the 1956 Suez Crisis
How did Nasser’s ideology impact escalation?
- Nasser promoted pan-Arabist ideology, a secular Arab nationalism that was very influential through the Middle East (primarily Christian Arabs)
- He viewed Arab monarchies with ties to the West such as Jordan, Saudi Arabia, the Gulf countries, Iraq, Morocco, as ideological adversaries
1954-55 Conflict and the 1956 Suez Crisis
What characterized the relationship between Egypt and Israel during the conflict?
- 1954-55: Nasser conducts secret dialogue with Israel, concludes that peace is impossible – views Israel as “expansionist” and disdainful of Arabs
- Nasser also fought in combat and noticed that unity was required
- 1955: In response to Fedayeen raid, Israel attacks Egyptian army base in Gaza, inflicting heavy losses
- Fearing Israeli military power, Nasser doesn’t retaliate
1954-55 Conflict and the 1956 Suez Crisis
What is the significance of the 1950 Tripartite Declaration?
- 1950: US, UK, and France sign Tripartite Declaration agreeing to preserve 1949 borders in the Near East and refraining from big arms sales to region
Egypt Leading up to the 1946 Suez Crisis
How did the Tripartite Declaration alter Egypts foreign policy?
- Nasser thought Egypt needed to be able to match Israeli military; Eisenhower wouldn’t sell him weapons
- Nasser concluded a deal with Czechoslovakia (stand in for Soviets) for over $250M worth of Soviet weapons: tanks, jet fighters, bombers, transport planes, armored vehicles, artillery (Soviet made)
- Egypt became the strongest military power in the Arab world, and the most important Soviet client outside of Warsaw Pact
Egypt Leading up to the 1946 Suez Crisis
How did Egypts arms deal alter the context of the Cold War?
- The deal set off an arms race in the Middle East, and started a pattern of great power arms sales to Global South clients in conflict zones
Nasser was emboldened to assert Egyptian power, especially over Suez Canal
Egypt Leading up to the 1946 Suez Crisis
How did foreign powers react to Egypts arm deals?
- Israel’s main weapons suppliers were UK and France
- Israel saw Egypt as an existential threat; began preparing for war
- Britain feared threats to its interests in the region
The 1956 Suez Crisis
What set the tone of the conflict?
- 1950: Egypt blocked Suez Canal to Israeli shipping
- This is grounds for war under international law (casus belli)
The 1956 Suez Crisis
What was Nasser’s nationalization project?
- 26 July 1956: Nasser announces decision to nationalize Suez Canal, owned and operated by UK-French consortium; blocks Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping
The 1956 Suez Crisis
How did foreign powers respond?
- France also resented Egyptian support for rebels in Algerian War
- The UK, France and Israel made a secret plan to attack Egypt
The 1956 Suez Crisis
When was the Suez War invasion? What was its outcome?
- 29 Oct. 1956: Israeli troops advanced into Sinai Peninsula
- 31 Oct. UK and French planes bombed Egyptian airfields
- Israeli forces rapidly advanced, capturing Sinai Peninsula
British and French forces landed in Port Said, secured it by 7 Nov
International Response to Suez Crisis
How did the United States respond to foreign powers’ invasion of the Suez War?
- US President Eisenhower was furious with British, French and Israeli adventurism, and feared Arab states’ reactions if he stayed silent-
- Eisenhower helped build an electric dam to help modernize
- Threatened to sink UK economy by selling off UK government bonds
- Forced immediate withdrawal by all 3 armies
International Response to Suez Crisis
What epitomizes the United States positioning during this conflict?
- The United States voted with USSR on UN resolution condemning the invasion, demanding withdrawal, and creating a peace-keeping force, UNEF (UN Emergency Force)
International Response to Suez Crisis
How did Russia respond?
- Khrushchev’s USSR condemned the attack, threatened a nuclear response (Paris and London)
International Response to Suez Crisis
How did the response of the United States and Russia impact the image of the British and Egypt?
- Marked a decline in British power
- Nasser’s popularity rose in Egypt and throughout Arab world for standing up to European powers
International Response to Suez Crisis
What was the outcome of the Suez Crisis?
- Israel regained shipping lane through Straits of Tiran
Impacts on the Arab Israeli Conflict
What were the 5 main impacts on the Arab-Israeli conflict?
1) USSR became far more influential in the region
2) USSR became Syria’s superpower patron and weapons supplier
3) Israeli-French relations strengthened: France became Israel’s main weapons supplier and secretly provided Israel with key nuclear weapons technology
4) Regional arms race escalated -> represents key step in escalation
5) Cross-border skirmishes continued between Israel and Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan with weapons from Soviets
Security Dilemma
What causes a security dilemma?
- States have incomplete information about each other’s capabilities and motives
Security Dilemma
What actions arise from incomplete information?
- In the absence of perfect information, states are forced to fear the worst about each other’s intentions: Launch surprise attack and they have to prepare troops for the best, prepare for the worst
- This causes them to prepare for the worst-case scenario: War
- This explanation is based on perception of decision makers: whatever the objective reality it is the subjective perception that matters more
- Hobbes: even the weakest opponents can defeat you
Conflict Spiral
Why do states prepare for war?
- States usually prepare for war for purely defensive purposes (only rogue states go to war)
Conflict Spiral
Where does the security dilemma arise?
- Yet their adversaries may perceive their defensive moves as being offensive due to lack of information
- You never know what potential rival is planning for
- Statements and continual caution
- Neither side trusts the other, or knows the other’s intentions; both sides prepare for war
Conflict Spiral
What is paradoxical about a conflict spiral?
- This can trigger a war even when neither side wanted one
- Rational choice theory: try to predict the opponent’s next move, and then decide which strategy is the best with the least sacrifice
June 1967 Conflict Spiral
How did Arabs and Israel confront the security dilemma?
- In weeks before June 1967 Arab- Israeli war, both sides took steps to escalate tensions:
- Egypt sent army divisions to the border with Israel; closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping; Israel mobilized its army
- Fearing heavy losses if forced to defend, Israel attacked first
Series of events which increased Arab-Israeli tensions
What characterized the lead up to the war?
- Using waterways to weaken Israel
- Armed invasions
- Aerial battle
- Israel was going to strike regardless
- Egypt joined up with Jordan (Arab unity)
- False information (USSR)
- Overreaction due to lack of information: USSR tells Egypt that Israel is concentrating 11 to 13 brigades on Syrian border
Arab-Israeli War and Soviets Lie
Why would the Soviets give Egypt false intelligence?
Parker suggests several reasons:
1) Soviets wanted Nasser to challenge Israelis, deter them from attacking Syria
2) The Israelis spread disinformation to scare Syria; Soviets believed it and warned Egypt
Other scholars:
1) USSR feared Israel’s nuclear program and sought to provoke Israel into war (Ginor and Remez 2008)
2) USSR was wrong about Israeli mobilization but correct that Israel was planning war with Syria (Popp 2006)
Nasser and the June 1967 Arab-Israeli War
Did Nasser want war?
- “The Jews threaten war; we tell them welcome, we are ready for war”
- “We felt we are strong enough, that if we were to enter a battle with Israel, with God’s help, we could triumph…. The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel”
- He maybe did not wanted it but acted as though he did
Nasser and the June 1967 Arab-Israeli War
What was Nasser’s misperception?
- Egyptian generals believed their numerically superior forces would beat Israel (James)
- Nasser and his advisors saw Israel as a creature of the US, helpless on its own
- Nasser saw escalation as win-win: Egypt would either win at war or gain a strategic advantage if peace held
- Much of his propaganda was that Israel was Britains and the Americans bitch
June 1967 Arab-Israeli War and International Response
How did the French respond as tensions rose?
- As tensions mount, French President De Gaulle warns Israel against attacking first
June 1967 Arab-Israeli War and International Response
How did the United States respond as tensions rose?
- US President Johnson tells Israel it “would not be alone unless it decides to go it alone”
- 24 May: Chief of Mossad (Israeli foreign intelligence service) secretly flies to Washington and gets ”amber light” from Johnson, implying that Israel can attack first but the US won’t join if Soviets intervene
- Pivotal because it needs US permission
Lead Up to the June 1967 Arab-Israeli War
What are key themes the night before the war?
- There were diplomatic attempts to avoid war however, mistrust in the “kind” actions of Israel (security dilemma) led to a conflict spiral.
Lead Up to the June 1967 Arab-Israeli War
What are key themes of the war?
- Israel, despite its efforts to avoid war were the most aggressive.
- Mass airstrikes
- Targeting Palestinian territory
- Refuses ceasefire (ulterior motive)
Israel forces others to cease
