Polarities

Question 1

What is unipolarity?

Answer 1

A distribution of power in which one state exercises most of the cultural, economic and military influence

Examples = USA post-Cold War

Question 2

Unipolarity - Realists (balance of power)

Answer 2

• Can bring peace until another challenges it - ‘favours the absence of war among great powers and low competition levels of prestige and security’.
• The leading state’s power advantage removes the problem of hegemonic rivalry, reducing the salience and stakes of power politics and it can act as a global police man.

Question 3

Unipolarity - Post Cold War example

Answer 3

• Post WW2 = US ideals of f liberalism and the Washington Concensus, were triumphant and global popularity of the US’s economic, political and cultural identity was assured.
• US were seen as a legitimate global leader, especially as the greater cooperation meant a stabilised, global economy - not in a nation’s best interest to challenge its hegemonic status.
• Disputes more likely to be resolved, since the unchallengeable H’s military power can deter aggression and enforce obedience in world order. EXAMPLE = US’s military deterred powers like China from seeking to increase their regional influence.

Question 4

Unipolarity - Liberals (conflict)

Answer 4

• Highly unstable as the hegemonic status can encourage dangerous resentment among emerging powers and is the least durable.
• Being security maximisers, states will protect themselves as they feel constrained by another powers’ claims to global hegemony - the transition to another hegemony makes IR volatile.

Question 5

Realist’s views on unipolarity: Attitude of emerging powers to an existing hegemony

Answer 5

• If the hegemony is resented and emerging states believe they will achieve more by challenging it, it will create the environment for a destabilising power transition.
• China = is prepared to accept US hegemony but it has increased its assertiveness in the near abroad, building reefs in the South China Sea against the US.
• Russia = its annexation of Crimea from Ukraine 2014 was in defiance of an onslaught of Western criticism.

Question 5

Chomsky - realist thinker about unipolarity

Answer 5

• Possession by one state of hegemonic power is dangerous, since a lack of constraints on its activity encourages it to act in defiance of international norms or laws - may become a ‘rogue power’ pursuing its own interests.
• EXAMPLE = the US invasion of Iraq 2003 didn’t have a UN mandate.

Question 6

What is multipolarity?

Answer 6

There are a number of relatively evenly matched powers

Question 7

Multipolarity - liberal view

Answer 7

• More optimistic: in the absence of a global hegemony or a superpower rivalry, the existence of more evenly matched states provides more opportunities to cooperation.
• Relative stability depends on whether leading players are prepared to work through international agencies of government (setting aside state egotism), or to compete within alliance structures (latter more dangerous for peace - shown by WW1/2)

Question 8

Multipolarity - realist view

Answer 8

• Represents the most unstable power as it creates fear and uncertainty for the states involved and, due to the number of players, increases the risk of possible conflicts.
• So, states develop their hard power to gain an advantage as they’re security-maximisers, undermining stability:
  + WW1 broke out possibly because GP became multipolar in the 1930s, so the Axis Powers were willing to risk rebalancing global relations in their favour.

Question 9

Explain bipolarity

Answer 9

The distribution of power in which two states have the majority of economic, military and cultural influence internationally or regionally, often forming spheres of influence.

Example = USA and USSR (Cold War)

Question 10

Summarise the Cold War example for bipolarity

Answer 10

• The UN became largely redundant for, as permanent members of UNSC, the USA and the USSR could veto any perceived threats to their own interests.
• Each had military alliances and client states whose support it could rely on (USA - NATO/USSR - Warsaw Pact).
• Both sought to reduce the other’s influence in non-aligned states.

Question 11

Realist view on bipolarity

Answer 11

• Believed the Cold War promoted peace - the existence of two, evenly balanced powers meant neither were capable of eliminating the other and they appreciated their limits.
• As destabilising the equilibrium created conflict (MAD), it encouraged conflict resolution and cooperation, as it was the best method as power-maximisers.
• Gaddis argued that the Cold War was of relative stability, although there were lesser conflicts, there was no direct conflict between the two main powers.

Question 12

Realist’s view on bipolarity = examples of how the Cold War encouraged cooperation

Answer 12

• Following Stalin’s death in 1953, diplomatic relations improved between Kruschev (USSR) and Eisenhower (USA).
• During the 1970s, Nixon and Brezhnev established a period of detente - a consequence of this was the Strategic Arms Limitations (1972) = slowed arms build up and prevented potential conflict.
• 1975 Helsinki Accords = involved each side, guaranteeing each’s borders and commitments to increase economic, technical and cultural relations between them.

Question 13

Liberals view on bipolarity

Answer 13

• Destabilising and dangerous.
• Each side continually advances their military, diplomatic and economic interests at the expense of the other = creates fear, suspicion and latent hostility and no conditions for lasting or meaningful peace.

Question 14

Liberals view on bipolarity regarding the Cold War

Answer 14

• Defined by very long periods of mutual distrust and antagonism.
• Early 1980 = unstable as P. Reagen dramatically increased spending on nuclear weapons to prove US superiority over the Soviet Union.
• 1983 = the USSR shot down a South Korean airliner which could have provoked a military response form the USA. Came close to a military strike on the west - thought NATO’s military exercise Operation Able Archer was real.
• Both attempted to extend their global influence at the other’s expense through hot wars (proxy wars). E.G Vietnam (1963-75) - no direct combat but took opposing sides (North and South).
• Peripheral wars were fought between a superpower and another country (opposition allied to their rival). E.G Korea (1950-53) = USA fought alongside South Korea to restrict Communist advance in the Korean peninsula.
• Robert S. McNamara = ‘we lucked out’ as MAD wasn’t stable (nearly began a nuclear war during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962).
• No stabilising checks and balances on the superpowers, given the UN’s ineffectiveness at this time.