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AP Biology > POL sections 7.1 - 7.3 > Flashcards

POL sections 7.1 - 7.3 Flashcards

1
Q

Cell division

A

A process by which a parent cell duplicates its genetic material and then divides into two similar cells

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2
Q

Two Strategies of Reproduction

A

Asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction

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3
Q

Asexual reproduction is __________; offspring are _____

A

a rapid and effective means of making new individuals common in nature; clones of the parent organism: genetically identical to each other and parent

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4
Q

Mutations

A

Alterations in DNA sequence caused by environmental factors or errors in DNA replication

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5
Q

Single-celled prokaryotes reproduce by ___________

A

binary fission

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6
Q

Sexual reproduction

A

Involves fusion of two specialized cells called gametes

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7
Q

Meiosis

A

Process of cell division resulting in daughter cells with only half the genetic material of the original cell; usually occurs in diploid cells; increases genetic diversity

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8
Q

Chromosome

A

Consists of a double-stranded molecule of DNA and associated proteins

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9
Q

Somatic cells

A

Body cells that are not specialized for reproduction; contain two sets of chromosomes and occur in homologous pairs (one from female parent and the other from male parent)

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10
Q

Homologous pair

A

Homologs bear corresponding, though not identical, genetic information

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11
Q

Gametes

A

Contain only a single set of chromosomes; n chromosomes; haploid cell

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12
Q

Zygotes

A

Contain two sets of chromosomes; 2n chromosomes; diploid cell

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13
Q

Fertilization

A

Two haploid gametes fuse to form a zygote

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14
Q

Essence of sexual reproduction

A

Random selection of half of the diploid chromosome set to make a haploid gamete, followed by fusion of two haploid gametes from separate parents to produce a diploid cell

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15
Q

Events that must occur for any cell to divide

A

Reproductive signals, DNA replication, DNA segregation, Cytokinesis

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16
Q

Reproductive signals

A

Initiate cell division and may originate from inside or outside the cell

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17
Q

DNA replication

A

Replication of the genetic material; Each of the new cells will have a full complement of genes to complete cell functions

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18
Q

DNA segregation

A

Process of distributing the replicated DNA to each of the two new cells

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19
Q

Cytokinesis

A

Process in which cytoplasm divides to form two cells, each surrounded by a cell membrane and sometimes a cell wall

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20
Q

Binary fission

A

Occurs in single-celled prokaryotes; process by which cell grows in size, replicates its DNA, and separates the DNA and cytoplasm to two cells

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21
Q

Binary fission: reproductive signals

A

Environmental conditions and nutrient concentrations

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22
Q

Binary fission: DNA replication

A

Single chromosome is circular; DNA is threaded through a “replication complex” of proteins near the center of the cell; Begins at ori and ends at ter; Two daughter DNA molecules separate and segregate to opposite ends of the cell

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23
Q

Ori

A

The site where replication of the circular chromosome starts (the origin of replication)

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24
Q

Ter

A

The site where replication of the circular chromosome ends (the terminus of replication)

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25
Binary fission: DNA segregation
As replication proceeds, ori move toward opposite ends; DNA sequences adjacent to ori region bind proteins necessary for segregation; active process (ATP is hydrolyzed);it makes use of prokaryotic cytoskeleton to move ori regions and associated proteins (structurally actin, functionally tubin)
26
Binary fission: cytokinesis
Pinching in of cell caused by contraction of ring of fibers on inside surface of membrane (major component: structurally tubulin, functionally actin); As membrane pinches in, new cell wall materials are deposited, which finally separate the two new cells
27
Eukaryotic cells: reproductive signals
Unlike prokaryotes, signals are related to the function of the entire organism
28
Eukaryotic cells: DNA replication
Multiple chromosomes; long strands are threaded through replication complexes; occurs only at a specific stage of the cell cycle
29
Eukaryotic cells: DNA segregation
More complex because of nuclear envelope and multiple chromosomes; pairs of replicated chromosomes initially attached, become highly condensed, and pairs are then pulled apart
30
Cell cycle
The period from one cell division to the next
31
Mitosis
The set of processes in which the chromosomes become condensed and then segregate into two new nuclei; Divided into prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
32
M phase
Refers to mitosis and cytokinesis
33
Interphase
Cell nucleus is visible and typical cell functions occur (e.g. DNA replication); has three subphases called G1, S, and G2
34
G1 phase
Cell carries out specialized functions
35
S phase
DNA is replicated
36
G2 phase
Cell prepares for mitosis (synthesizes components of microtubules that will segregate chromosomes
37
Prophase
Beginning of mitosis, where condensed chromosomes, reoriented centrosomes, and the spindle appear
38
Sister chromatids
After DNA replication, each chromosome has two DNA molecules
39
Centromere
Region where chromatids are held together
40
Kinetochores
Specialized protein structures that assemble on centromeres, one on each chromatid; help with chromosome movement
41
Karyotype
Number and sizes of the condensed chromosomes; karyotype analysis used to identify organisms and detect chromosomal abnormalities
42
Humans have ______ chromosomes (___ homologous pairs)
46; 23
43
Centrosome
Organelle in cytoplasm near nucleus that determines orientation of spindle apparatus; Consists of a pair of centrioles
44
Centriole
Hollow tube formed by nine triplets of microtubules
45
Reoriented centrosomes
S: centrosome is duplicated; G2-M: Centrosomes move to opposite ends of nucleus creating "poles"
46
Spindle
Tubulin dimers from centrosomes aggregate into microtubules that extend into the middle region of the cell; forms during prophase and prometaphase
47
Three types of microtubules in spindle
Polar microtubules; Astral microtubules; Kinetochore microtubules
48
Polar microtubules
Overlap in middle of cell and keep two poles apart
49
Astral microtubules
Interact with proteins attached to cell membrane
50
Kinetochore microtubules
Attach to kinetochores on chromosomes;
51
Daughter chromosomes
What sister chromosomes become after separation
52
Prometaphase
Nuclear envelope breaks down; chromosomes attach to kinetochore microtubules
53
Metaphase
Chromosomes line up at mid-line of cell (equatorial)
54
Anaphase
Chromatids separate
55
Chromosome movement
Kinetochores contain molecular motor proteins like kinesin and dynein (ATP hydrolysis energy); Kinetochore microtubules shorten
56
Telophase
Nuclear envelope forms; nucleoli appear; chromosomes decompactify; two nuclei in a cell
57
Cytokinesis in animals
Furrowing of cell membrane; Contractile ring produces a contraction, pinching the cell into two; microfilaments assemble from actin monomers present in interphase cytoskeleton controlled by calcium ions released from storage sites in center of cell
58
Cytokinesis in plants
Vesicles from Golgi apparatus appear along plane of cell division; fuse to form new cell membrane and cell plate (beginning of new cell wall)
59
Contractile ring
Composed of microfilaments of actin and myosin, which form a ring on the cytoplasmic surface of the cell membrane; Proteins interact to produce a contraction
60
Growth factors
Mammals produce a variety of substances that stimulate cell division and differentiation
61
G1-S Transition; R point; restriction point
Cell will proceed with the rest of the cell cycle and divide
62
Protein kinases
Class of enzymes that are common in cell signaling
63
Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)
Catalyze the phosphorylation of target proteins that regulate the cell cycle; activated by binding to protein cyclin Cell cycle regulator + ATP ---->(CDK) Cell cycle regulator-P + ADP
64
Cell cycle checkpoints
Points of transition between different phases of the cell cycle, which are regulated by cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdk’s)
65
G1, G2 checkpoints
Triggered by DNA damage
66
S checkpoint
Triggered by incomplete replication or DNA damage
67
M checkpoint
Triggered by a chromosome that fails to attach to the spindle
68
After the CDK acts, the cyclin is broken down by a _______
protease
69
Chain reaction for cell cycle
Growth factor → cyclin synthesis → CDK activation → cell cycle events

AP Biology (3 decks)

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