2. Ecology – Principles and Organizations ....................................................................................................... 8 2.1. Levels of Organizations in Ecology ........................................................................................................ 8 Individual and Species ........................................................................................................................................ 8 Population .......................................................................................................................................................... 8 Community ......................................................................................................................................................... 9 Ecosystem......................................................................................................................................................... 10 Biome................................................................................................................................................................ 11 Ecotone............................................................................................................................................................. 11 Biosphere .......................................................................................................................................................... 12 2.2. Principles of Ecology.............................................................................................................................. 13 Adaptation ........................................................................................................................................................ 13 Variation ........................................................................................................................................................... 14 Speciation ......................................................................................................................................................... 14 Mutation ........................................................................................................................................................... 15 Natural Selection .............................................................................................................................................. 15 Evolution ........................................................................................................................................................... 16 Extinction.......................................................................................................................................................... 16

The term ecology was derived from two Greek words, ‘Oikos’ meaning home and ‘logos’ meaning study. Ecology is the branch of biology concerned with the relations of organisms to one another (energy flow and mineral cycling) and their physical surroundings (environment). 2.1. Levels of Organizations in Ecology Ecology encompasses the study of individuals, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, biomes and biosphere, which form the various levels of ecological organisation. Individual and Species An organism is an individual living being that can act or function independently. Species are a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes (interbreeding). They are considered the basic unit of taxonomy and are denoted by a Latin binomial, e.g., Homo sapiens. Population The population is a community of interbreeding organisms (same species) occupying a defined area during a specific time. Population growth rate can be positive due to birth/immigration or negative due to death/emigration. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 9 Identifying Populations using Pugmarks In large, mobile animals like tigers, leopards, lions, deer etc., the population density may be determined by counting the pugmarks (foot imprints) left by the animals in a defined area. The study of pug marks can provide the following information reliably:  Presence of different species in an area.  Identification of individual animals.  Population of large cats (tigers, lions etc.).  Sex ratio and age (young or adult) of large cats. (Sex of tigers can be determined from pugmarks!) Community Communities are named after the dominant plant form. For example, a grassland community is dominated by grasses, though it may contain herbs, trees, etc. Major Communities: These are large-sized and relatively independent. They depend only on the sun’s energy from outside. E.g., Tropical evergreen forests. Minor Communities: These depend on neighbouring communities and are often called societies. They are secondary aggregations within a major community. E.g., A mat of lichen on a cow dung pad. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 10 Stable Community A stable community means that there is not much variation in productivity from year to year. It is either resistant or resilient to occasional disturbances (natural or human-made) and invasions by alien species. Ecosystem An ecosystem constitutes habitats of various species, usually overlapping with each other. In an ecosystem, the organisms interact with each other and their environment such that energy is exchanged and systemlevel processes, such as the cycling of elements, emerge. Ecological Niche Niche refers to the unique functional role and position of a species in its habitat or ecosystem. In nature, many species occupy the same habitat, but they perform different functions: a) habitat niche – where it lives, b) food niche – what it eats or decomposes and what species it competes with, c) reproductive niche – how and when it reproduces, d) physical and chemical niche – temperature, land shape, land slope, humidity and another requirement. Niche plays an essential role in the conservation of organisms. If we must conserve species in their native habitat, we should know the niche requirements of the species. Difference Between Niche and Habitat The habitat of a species is like its ‘address’. In contrast, niche can be considered its “lifestyle and profession” (i.e., activities and responses specific to the species). A niche is unique for a species, while many species share the habitat. No two species in a habitat can have the same niche. This is because of the competition with one another until one is displaced. For example, many different species of insects may be pests of the same plant, but they can co-exist as they feed on different parts of the same plant. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 11 [UPSC 2013] Which one of the following terms describes not only the physical space occupied by an organism but also its functional role in the community of organisms? a) Ecotone b) Ecological niche c) Habitat d) Home range Explanation: Ecotone  zone of transition between two ecosystems. E.g., grasslands, mangroves etc. Habitat  surroundings in which an organism lives (home). Home Range  A home range is an area where an animal lives and moves on a daily or periodic basis (a little bigger than habitat – home → office → home). Answer: b) Niche Biome A biome is a large, naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a major habitat. E.g., Rainforest biome or tundra biome. Biomes are distinct from habitats because any biome can comprise a variety of habitats. Plants and animals in a biome have common characteristics due to similar climates and can be found over various continents. For example, taiga forests are found beyond the temperate regions of all the continents in the northern hemisphere. Ecotone An ecotone is a zone of junction or a transition area between two biomes (diverse ecosystems). It is the zone where two communities meet and integrate. For example, the mangrove forests represent an ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Other examples are grassland (between forest and desert), estuarine (between fresh water and saltwater) and riverbank or marshland (between dry and wet). Characteristics of An Ecotone An ecotone may be narrow (between grassland and forest) or wide (between forest and desert). It has conditions intermediate to the adjacent ecosystems. Hence it is a zone of tension. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 12 Usually, the number and the population density of the species of an outgoing community decrease as we move away from the community or ecosystem. A well-developed ecotone contains some organisms which are entirely different from that of the adjoining communities. Ecotone regions (transitional zones) like mangroves, wetlands, estuaries, grasslands etc., have far greater productivity than natural ecosystems like a forest ecosystem, ocean ecosystem, pond ecosystem, riverine ecosystem, desert ecosystem, etc. This is because of the wide-ranging species from the adjacent ecosystems being present in the ecotone. Ecocline Ecocline is a zone of gradual but continuous change from one ecosystem to another when there is no sharp boundary between the two in terms of species composition. It occurs across the environmental gradient (gradual change in abiotic factors such as altitude, temperature (thermocline), salinity (halocline), depth, etc.).  Ecotone  Zone of transition between two ecosystems. It has characteristics of both ecosystems.  Ecocline  An indistinct boundary (not-so-sharp environmental gradient of physiochemical factors such as humidity, temperature, salinity, pH, etc.) between ecosystems. Edge Effect and Edge Species Sometimes, due to the more diverse ecological characteristics found in an ecotone, the number of species (biodiversity) and the population density of some species in the ecotone is much greater than in either community. This is called the edge effect, and the species which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are known as edge species. In terrestrial ecosystems, the edge effect is especially applicable to birds. For example, the density of birds is greater in the ecotone between the forest and the desert. Biosphere WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 13 The biosphere is the biological component (supporting life) of the earth which includes the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. It consists of all living organisms, together with the dead organic matter produced by them. The biosphere is absent at extremes of the North and South poles, the highest mountains, and the deepest oceans since existing hostile conditions do not support life. Occasionally, spores of fungi and bacteria do occur at a great height beyond 8,000 metres, but they are metabolically inactive and hence represent only dormant life. 2.2. Principles of Ecology Certain principles govern the evolution of ecosystems. Such principles are discussed in this section. Adaptation An adaptation is the appearance/behaviour/structure/mode of life of an organism that allows it to survive in a particular environment. Adaptation may be: 1. Morphological – when trees grew higher, the giraffe’s neck got longer. 2. Physiological – in the absence of an external water source, the kangaroo rat in North American deserts can meet all its water requirements through internal fat oxidation (in which water is a by-product). It also has the ability to concentrate its urine so that a minimal volume of water is used to remove excretory products. 3. Behavioural – animals migrating temporarily to a less stressful habitat. Examples of Adaptation Morphological Many desert plants have thick cuticles on their leaf surfaces and have their stomata arranged in deep pits to minimise water loss through transpiration. Some desert plants like Opuntia have no leaves – they are reduced to spines (to reduce transpiration), and the photosynthetic function is taken over by the flattened stems (few leaves mean less area is available for transpiration). Mammals from colder climates generally have shorter ears and limbs to minimise heat loss. (This is called Allen’s Rule.) Guess why an elephant has enormous ears? Because elephants don’t sweat. They use their flapping ears to lose heat and keep the rest of the body cool. A hyperthermophile is an organism that thrives in extremely hot environments (60 °C). E.g., Archaebacteria flourish in hot springs and deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Archaebacteria (Archaea) and Eubacteria Archaebacteria (ancient bacteria), eubacteria (true bacteria) and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) belong to the kingdom Monera, which contains the least organised unicellular prokaryotic (genetic material is not stored within a membrane-bound nucleus) microorganisms on earth. The main difference between archaebacteria and other groups in Monera is that archaebacteria can survive in extreme environmental conditions. A special protein helps these organisms form a protective, lipid-linked cellular membrane – a key to withstanding extremely highly salty areas (halophiles), hot springs and acidic habitats (thermoacidophiles). Physiological We need to breathe faster when we are in high mountains. After some days, our body adjusts to the changed conditions on the high mountain. Such small changes taking place in the body of an organism over short periods to overcome minor problems due to changes in the surroundings is called acclimatisation. The WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 14 body compensates for low oxygen availability by increasing red blood cell production, decreasing the binding capacity of haemoglobin, and increasing breathing rate. Behavioural Desert lizards lack the physiological ability that mammals have. They bask in the sun and absorb heat when their body temperature drops but move into the shade when the ambient temperature increases. Some species can burrow into the soil to hide and escape from the above-ground heat. Variation Variations are induced by changes in genetic makeup due to the addition or deletion of specific genes. Mutations, changes in climate, geographical barriers etc., induce variations over a period of time. The difference in the colour of skin, type of hair, curly or straight, eye colour, and blood type among different ethnic groups represents the variation within the human species. Adaptive radiation Adaptive radiation is a process in which organisms diversify from an ancestral species into many new forms when the environment creates new challenges or opens new environmental niches. Speciation Speciation is the process by which new species are formed, and evolution is the mechanism by which speciation is brought about. A species comprises many populations. Often different populations remain isolated due to geographic barriers such as mountains, oceans, rivers, etc. Over a period, geographic isolation leads to speciation (allopatric speciation or geographic speciation). After an extended period, the sub-populations become very different (genetic drift) and get isolated, reproductively (they no longer interbreed). Later even when the barrier is removed, the sub-populations are unable to interbreed, and thus subsequently, the sub-populations become different species. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 15 In sympatric speciation, no physical barriers prevent the same species’ populations from mating. However, a new species, perhaps based on a different food source or characteristic, seems to develop spontaneously. Mutation Mutation (a change in genetic material that results from an error in DNA replication) causes new genes to arise in a population. Further, in a sexually reproducing population, meiosis and fertilisation produce a new combination of genes every generation, which is termed recombination. Thus, members of the same species show ‘variation’ and are not identical. Natural Selection Natural Selection is the mechanism proposed by Darwin and Wallace. It is the process by which species adapt to their environment. It is an evolutionary force that selects among variations, i.e. genes that help the organism to better adapt to its environment. Such genes are WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 16 reproduced more in a population due to natural selection. Those offsprings which are suited to their immediate environment have a better chance of surviving, reaching reproductive age and passing on suitable adaptations to their progeny. Evolution Evolution is the change which gives rise to new species. It happens to make the organism better suitable to the present environment. Evolution involves the processes of natural selection, adaptation, variation etc. Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace propounded a valid theory of evolution in 1859. This theory has been extended in light of progress in genetics and is known as Neo-Darwinism. Extinction The primary reason behind extinctions is an environmental change or biological competition. Extinction occurs when species cannot evolve fast enough to cope with the changing environment. Currently, the 6th Mass Extinction (Anthropogenic Extinction – human-induced) is in progress. Q. Which of the following are true? 1. The presence of specific features or certain habits, which enable a plant or an animal to live in its surroundings, is called evolution. 2. The surroundings where an organism lives is called its habitat. 3. Small changes that take place in the body of a single organism over short periods, to overcome small problems due to changes in the surroundings, is called acclimatization 4. Gradual changes in an organism to survive in an environment is call adaptation Codes: a) All b) 2, 3 only c) 1, 2, 4 only d) 1, 2, 3 only Explanation: The presence of specific features/habits, which enable a plant or an animal to live in its surroundings, is called adaptation and not evolution. E.g., Hibernation. The surroundings where an organism lives is called its habitat. (True) Small changes that take place in the body of a single organism over short periods to overcome minor problems due to changes in the surroundings is called acclimatisation (True). E.g., Soldiers undergo rigorous acclimatisation training before serving in harsh climatic regions like Siachen Glacier. Gradual changes in an organism to survive in an environment is called evolution and not adaptation (adaptation may be gradual or quick). E.g., The evolution of the Giraffes neck over a period of time. Answer: b) 2,3 only Q. Choose the incorrect pairs Characteristic feature Vegetation 1) Sloping branches and needle-like leaves Desert vegetation 2) Deep roots Taiga vegetation 3) Waxy stem, thick leaves or no leaves Tundra vegetation WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 17 4) Canopy Tropical vegetation Codes: a) All b) 4 only c) 1, 2, 3 only d) 2, 3 only Explanation: Sloping branches (prevent snow accumulation) and needle-like leaves (reduce transpiration)  Taiga. Deep roots, waxy stem, thick leaves/no leaves  Desert vegetation Canopy  the characteristic feature of tropical forests – rainforests, deciduous forests etc. Answer: c) 1, 2, 3 only (incorrect pairs) [UPSC 2018] The term “sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction” is often mentioned in the news in the context of the discussion of (2018) a) Widespread monoculture practices in agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate use of chemicals in many parts of the world that may result in the loss of good native ecosystems. b) Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the earth in the near future in the manner it happened 65 million years ago that caused the mass extinction of many species, including those of dinosaurs. c) Large-scale cultivation of genetically modified crops in many parts of the world and promotion of their cultivation in other parts of the world, which may cause the disappearance of good native crop plants and the loss of food biodiversity. d) Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss of natural habitats, destruction of ecosystems, pollution, and global climate change. Explanation: Extinction Events 1. Ordovician-Silurian Extinction (440 million years ago): Small marine organisms died. 2. Devonian Extinction (365 million years ago): Many tropical marine species went extinct. 3. Permian-Triassic Extinction (250 million years ago): The largest mass extinction event in earth’s history affected many species, including many vertebrates. 4. Triassic-Jurassic Extinction (210 million years ago): The extinction of other vertebrate species on land allowed dinosaurs to flourish. 5. Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction (65 million years ago): It wiped out dinosaurs and some 50 per cent of plants and animals. 6. The sixth mass extinction is the Anthropocene/Holocene Extinction — a result of human activity.  The ongoing Anthropocene (since the agricultural revolution 12,000–15,000 years ago to the present) is a proposed geological epoch dating from the commencement of significant human impact on Earth’s geology and ecosystems, including, but not limited to, anthropogenic climate change. Answer: d

3. Functions of an Ecosystem – Succession and Homeostasis....................................................................... 18 3.1. Ecological Succession............................................................................................................................. 18 Stages in Ecological Succession ........................................................................................................................ 18 Primary Succession ........................................................................................................................................... 18 Secondary Succession ....................................................................................................................................... 19 Autogenic and Allogenic Succession................................................................................................................. 20 Succession in Plants.......................................................................................................................................... 21 Succession in Water.......................................................................................................................................... 21 3.2. Homeostasis in Ecosystem .................................................................................................................... 21 Homeostasis ..................................................................................................................................................... 22

The function of an ecosystem includes: 1. Ecological succession or ecosystem development 2. Homeostasis (cybernetic)/feedback control mechanisms 3. Energy flow through the food chain 4. Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles) 3.1. Ecological Succession The process by which communities of plant and animal species in an area are replaced or changed into another over a period of time is known as ecological succession. It occurs due to large-scale changes or destruction (natural or manmade). Stages in Ecological Succession Succession is a directional change in vegetation on an ecological time scale. The process involves a progressive series of changes, with one community replacing another until a stable, mature, climax community develops. The first plant to colonise an area is called the pioneer community. The final stage of succession is called the climax community, which is more complex and long-lasting. The stages leading to the climax community are called successional stages or seres. Each transitional community that is formed and replaced during succession is called a stage in succession or a seral community. Succession is characterised by the following: increased productivity, the shift of nutrients from the reservoirs, increased diversity of organisms, and a gradual increase in the complexity of food webs. Succession would occur faster in an area existing in the middle of the large continent. This is because here seeds of plants belonging to the different seres would reach much faster. Primary Succession Primary succession takes place over an area where no community has existed previously. Such areas include rock outcrops, newly formed deltas and sand dunes, emerging volcano islands and lava flows, glacial moraines (muddy areas exposed by a retreating glacier), slopes exposed by landslides, etc. In primary WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 19 succession on a terrestrial site, the new site is first colonised by a few hardy pioneer species that are often microbes, lichens, and mosses. The pioneers, over a few generations, alter the habitat through their growth and development. [UPSC 2014] Lichens, which are capable of initiating ecological succession even on a bare rock, are actually a symbiotic association of a) algae and bacteria b) algae and fungi c) bacteria and fungi d) fungi and mosses Explanation: Lichen are plant-like organisms that consist of a symbiotic association of algae and fungi. Fungi provide shelter, water and minerals to the algae and, in return, the alga provides food. Answer: b) Algae and Fungai [UPSC 2021] In nature, which of the following is/are likely to be found surviving on a surface without soil? 1) Fern 2) Lichen 3) Moss 4) Mushroom Select the correct answer using the code given below a) 1 and 4 Only b) 2 Only c) 2 and 3 d) 1, 3 and 4 The pioneers, through their death and decay leave patches of organic matter in which small animals can live. The organic matter produced by these pioneer species produce organic acids during decomposition that dissolve and etch the substratum releasing nutrients. Organic debris accumulates in pockets and crevices, providing soil where seeds can become lodged and grow. The new conditions may be conducive for the establishment of additional organisms that may subsequently arrive at the site. As the community of organisms continues to develop, it becomes more diverse, and competition increases, but at the same time, new niche opportunities develop. The pioneer species disappear as the habitat conditions change and the invasion of new species progresses, leading to the replacement of the preceding community. Autotrophic and Heterotrophic succession Succession in which, initially, the green plants are much greater in quantity is known as autotrophic succession, and the ones in which the heterotrophs are greater in quantity is known as heterotrophic succession. Secondary Succession Secondary succession is the sequential development of biotic communities after the complete or partial destruction of the existing community. Explanation WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 20 A mature or intermediate community may be destroyed by natural events such as floods, droughts, fires, or storms or by human interventions such as deforestation, agriculture, overgrazing, etc. This abandoned land is first invaded by hardy grasses that can survive in bare, sun-baked soil. Tall grasses and herbaceous plants may soon join these grasses. These dominate the ecosystem for some years, along with mice, rabbits, insects, and seed-eating birds. Eventually, some trees come up in this area, seeds of which may be brought by wind or animals. And over the years, a forest community develops. Thus, an abandoned land over a period becomes dominated by trees and is transformed into a forest. Difference Between Primary and Secondary Succession Unlike the primary succession, the secondary succession starts on a well-developed soil already formed at the site. Thus, secondary succession is relatively faster. Autogenic and Allogenic Succession When living inhabitants of that community itself bring about succession, the process is called autogenic succession, while change brought about by outside forces is known as allogenic succession. [UPSC 2013] In the grasslands, trees do not replace the grasses as a part of an ecological succession because of a) insects and fungi b) limited sunlight and paucity of nutrients c) water limits and fire d) None of the above Explanation: Grasses have one good trick to monopolise a place. In the dry season, the grasses dry up and cause fires which destroy other plant species and their seeds (autogenic succession). Also, grasslands develop in regions with scanty rainfall where plant growth cannot be achieved. Though forests form the climax community in most ecosystems, in the grassland ecosystem, grasses form the climax community. Thanks to fire and lack of water. Grasslands are almost irreversible once deforestation in water-scarce areas gives way to grasslands. Answer: c) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 21  The biotic components of an ecosystem drive autogenic succession. Allogenic succession is driven by the abiotic components (fire, flood) of the ecosystem. Succession in Plants Succession that occurs on land where moisture content is low, for e.g. on a bare rock, is known as xerarch. Succession that takes place in a water body, like a pond or lake, is called hydrarch. Both hydrarch and xerarch successions lead to medium water conditions (mesic) – neither too dry (xeric) nor too wet (hydric). With time, the xerophytic habitat gets converted into a mesophytic habitat (requiring only a moderate amount of water). Succession in Water In primary succession in water, the pioneers are the phytoplankton. They are replaced by floating angiosperms, then by rooted hydrophytes (aquatic plants), sedges (some monocotyledonous plants), grasses and finally, the trees. The climax again would be a forest. As time passes, the water body is converted to land. Succession, whether taking place in water or on land, proceeds to a similar climax community – the mesic. 3.2. Homeostasis in Ecosystem In ecology, homeostasis is the tendency for a biological system to resist changes. Ecosystems can maintain their state of equilibrium. They can regulate their own species’ structure and functional processes. This capacity of the ecosystem of self-regulation is known as homeostasis. For example, in a pond ecosystem, if the population of zooplankton increases, they consume much phytoplankton, and as a result, food would become scarce for zooplankton. When the number of zooplankton is reduced because of starvation, the phytoplankton population increases. After some time, the population size of zooplankton also increases, and this process continues at all the trophic levels of the food chain. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 22 In a homeostatic system, a negative feedback mechanism (an increase in one factor causes a decrease in another, and vice versa) induced by the limiting resource (here, its scarcity of food) is responsible for maintaining stability in an ecosystem. However, the homeostatic capacity of ecosystems is not unlimited as well as not everything in an ecosystem is always well-regulated. Homeostasis Homeostasis is the maintenance of stable equilibrium, especially through physiological (bodily) functions. E.g., Cooling one’s body through sweating processes. Organisms try to maintain the constancy of their internal environment despite varying external environmental conditions that tend to upset their homeostasis. Regulate Some organisms can maintain homeostasis by physiological means (sweating to cool the body, increase in metabolism to keep the body warm, etc.), and sometimes by behavioural means (animals migrating to under tree shade to avoid the summer heat), which ensure constant body temperature, constant osmotic concentration, etc. All birds and mammals and a very few lower vertebrate and invertebrate species are indeed capable of such regulation (thermoregulation and osmoregulation). The success of mammals is largely due to their ability to maintain constant body temperature and thrive whether they live in Antarctica or the Sahara Desert. Plants, on the other hand, do not have such mechanisms to maintain internal temperatures. Hence their range is comparatively limited. Conform An overwhelming majority of animals and nearly all plants cannot maintain a constant internal environment. Their body temperature changes with the ambient temperature. In aquatic animals, the osmotic concentration of the body fluids changes with that of the ambient water osmotic concentration. These animals and plants are simply conformers. Conformers have not evolved to become regulators Thermoregulation is energetically expensive for many organisms. This is particularly true for small animals like shrews and hummingbirds. Since small animals have a larger surface area relative to their volume, they tend to lose body heat very fast when it is cold outside. Hence, they must expend much energy to generate body heat (a lot of food energy goes into heat generation) through metabolism. This is the main reason why very small animals are rarely found in polar regions. Migrate The organism can move away temporarily from the stressful habitat to a more hospitable area and return when a stressful period is over. For example, every winter, the famous Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) in Rajasthan hosts thousands of migratory birds coming from Siberia and other extremely cold regions. Suspend In bacteria, fungi and lower plants, various kinds of thick-walled spores are formed, which help them to survive unfavourable conditions. They germinate on the availability of a suitable environment. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 23 In higher plants, seeds and some other vegetative reproductive structures serve as means to tide over periods of stress besides helping in dispersal. In animals, the organism, if unable to migrate, might avoid the stress by escaping in time. The familiar case of polar bears going into hibernation during winter is an example of an escape in time. Some snails and fish go into aestivation to avoid summer-related problems – heat and desiccation. Under unfavourable conditions, many zooplankton species in lakes and ponds are known to enter diapause, a stage of suspended development. 4. Functions of an Ecosystem – Trophic Levels A trophic level (trophe means nourishment) represents energy flow in an ecosystem. The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain. Energy flows through the trophic levels from producers to subsequent trophic levels is unidirectional. Energy level decreases from the first trophic level upwards due to loss of energy in the form of heat at each trophic level. This energy loss at each trophic level is quite significant. Hence there are usually not more than four-five trophic levels (beyond this, the energy available is negligible to support an organism). Trophic Levels Autotrophs Green plants (Producers) Heterotrophs Herbivores (Primary consumers) Heterotrophs Carnivores (Secondary consumers) Heterotrophs Top Carnivore (Tertiary and Quaternary consumers) The trophic level interaction involves three concepts, namely: 1) Food Chain 2) Food Web 3) Ecological Pyramids 4.1. Food Chain Transfer of energy from producers through a series of organisms at each tropic level with repeated eating and being eaten link is called a food chain. E.g., Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Eagle. The two types of food chains: 1) Grazing food chain and 2) Detritus food chain Grazing food chain WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 25 The consumers which start the food chain, utilising the plant/plant part as their food, constitute the grazing food chain. For example, in a terrestrial ecosystem, the grass is eaten by a caterpillar, which is eaten by a lizard and the lizard is eaten by a snake. In an aquatic ecosystem, phytoplankton (primary producers) are eaten by zooplankton, which fishes eat, and pelicans (birds) eat fishes. Detritus food chain Detritus food chain starts from organic matter of dead and decaying animal and plant bodies from the grazing food chain. Dead organic matter or detritus-feeding organisms are called detrivores or decomposers. Predators eat the detrivores. In an aquatic ecosystem, the grazing food chain is the major conduit for energy flow. As against this, in a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy flows through the detritus food chain than through the grazing food chain. [UPSC 2013] With reference to the food chains in ecosystems, which of the following kinds of organism(s) is/are known as decomposer organism(s)? 1) Virus 2) Fungi 3) Bacteria Select the correct answer using the codes given below. a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 26 Explanation: Fungi and Bacteria are decomposers. They break down organic matter into simple inorganic substances. Virus represents dormant life. They are metabolically inactive if they are outside a host body. They are not decomposers. They invade host cells and use their nucleus (DNA machinery) to carry out their life processes.  Protists are unicellular organisms. Some protists, such as paramecium and euglena, are not decomposers. While the other protists, like slime moulds, typically grow on dead animals, rotting logs and compost. Humus Bacterial and fungal enzymes decompose detritus into simpler inorganic substances. This process is called catabolism. Humification and mineralisation occur during decomposition in the soil. Humification leads to the accumulation of a dark-coloured amorphous (formless) substance called humus that is highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition at a very slow rate. Some microbes further degrade the humus, and the release of inorganic nutrients occurs through the process of mineralisation. Being colloidal in nature, the humus serves as a reservoir of nutrients. Warm and moist environment favour decomposition, whereas low temperatures & anaerobiosis (lack of oxygen) inhibit decomposition resulting in a buildup of organic matter, and soils become acidic (taiga climate). Answer: b) 2 and 3 only [UPSC 2021] Which of the following are detritivores? 1) Earthworms 2) Jellyfish 3) Millipedes 4) Seahorses 5) Woodlice Select the correct answer using the code given below. a) 1, 2 and 4 Only b) 2, 3, 4 and 5 Only c) 1, 3 and 5 Only d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Explanation: The easiest of the option: 1) Earthworms (detrivores), 2) Jellyfish (marine animals of phylum cnidaria) and Seahorses (small marine fishes) —Biology NCERT. Answer: c) 1, 3 and 5 only 4.2. Food Web Multiple interlinked food chains make a food web. A food web represents all the possible energy flow pathways in an ecosystem. If any of the intermediate food chains are removed, the succeeding links of the chain will be affected. A food web provides more than one alternative for food to most organisms in an ecosystem and therefore increases their chance of survival. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 27 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 28 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 29 Types of Biotic Interactions in a Food Web ‘0’ → no effect ‘–’ → is detrimental ‘+’ → beneficial Interactions Species Effect Comments 1 2 Negative Interactions Amensalism – 0 One species is inhibited, while the other species is unaffected. The bread mould fungi Penicillium produces penicillin — an antibiotic substance — which inhibits the growth of a variety of bacteria. A large tree shades a small plant and retarding the growth of the small plant. The small plant has no effect on the large tree. Predation + – One species (predator) benefits, while the second species (prey) is harmed. Predators like leopards, tigers and cheetahs use speed, teeth, and claws to hunt and kill their prey. Predators help maintain species diversity in a community by reducing the intensity of competition among competing prey species. Parasitism + – Beneficial to one species (parasite) and harmful to the other species (host). Parasitism involves a parasite living in or on another living species called the host. The parasite gets its nourishment and often shelter from its host. Tap worms, roundworms, malarial parasites, many bacteria, fungi, and viruses are common parasites of humans.  The female mosquito is not considered a parasite, although it needs our blood for reproduction. Why? Because it does not live on the host. Competition – – Adversely affects both species. Competition occurs when two populations or species need a common vital resource that is in short supply. Positive Interactions Commensalism + 0 One species (the commensal) benefits, while the other species (the host) is neither harmed nor inhibited. Suckerfish often attaches to a shark. This helps the suckerfish get protection, a free ride as well as a meal from the leftover of the shark’s meal. The shark does not, however, get any benefit, nor is it adversely affected by this association. Another example of commensalisms is the relationship between trees and epiphytic plants. Mutualism + + Interaction is favourable to both species. Sea anemone gets attached to the shell of hermit crabs for the benefit of transport and obtaining new food. The anemone provides camouflage and protection to the hermit crab by utilising its stinging cells. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 30 Some mutualisms are so intimate that the interacting species can no longer live without each other as they depend totally on each other to survive. Such close associations are called symbiosis (symbiosis is intense mutualism – E.g., coral and zooxanthellae). Neutral Interactions Neutralism 0 0 Neither species affects the other True neutralism is extremely unlikely. [UPSC 2014] Which one of the following is the correct sequence of a food chain? a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings b) Crustaceans-Diatoms-Herrings c) Diatoms-Herrings-Crustaceans d) Crustaceans-Herrings-Diatoms Explanation: The food chain starts with a producer and ends with a top consumer. Phytoplankton are the primary producers in the oceans. They include:  diatoms (unicellular algae),  coccolithophores (unicellular, eukaryotic protist),  Cyanobacteria (Bluegreen algae) – Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus, Nostoc, spirogyra, etc., and  Dinoflagellates (flagellated protists). Crustaceans form a large group of arthropods which includes crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, etc. Herrings are fish, and they eat crustaceans. Answer: (a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings (NCERT) [2021] Consider the following kinds of organisms: 1) Copepods 2) Cyanobacteria 3) Diatoms 4) Foraminifera Which of the above are primary producers in the food chains of oceans? a) 1 and 2 b) 2 and 3 c) 3 and 4 d) 1 and 4 Explanation: Copepods are a group of small aquatic crustaceans, and foraminifera are amoeboid protists. Answer: b) 2 and 3 only [UPSC 2013] With reference to food chains in ecosystems, consider the following statements: 1) A food chain illustrates the order in which a chain of organisms feed upon each other. 2) Food chains are found within the populations of a species. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 31 3) A food chain illustrates the numbers of each organism which are eaten by others. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only c) 1, 2 and 3 d) None Explanation: Statement 1 is True. Statement 2 is False — In a food chain, a species occupies a specific trophic level. A food chain illustrates the numbers of each organism which are eaten by others (false – the food web illustrates the number, not the food chain). Answer: a) 1 only [2021] Which of the following have species that can establish symbiotic relationship with other organisms? 1) Cnidarians 2) Fungi 3) Protozoa Select the correct answer using the codes given below. a) 1 and 2 Only b) 2 and 3 Only c) 1 and 3 Only d) 1, 2 and 3 Explanation: Corals and sea anemones belong to phylum cnidaria. Lichen are plant-like organisms that consist of a symbiotic association of algae (usually green) or cyanobacteria and fungi. Protozoans are mostly predators and parasites. 4.3. Ecological Pyramids The pyramidal representation of trophic levels of different organisms based on their ecological position (producer to final consumer) is called as an ecological pyramid. The pyramid consists of several horizontal bars depicting specific trophic levels. The length of each bar represents the total number of individuals or biomass or energy at each trophic level in an ecosystem. The producers forms the base of the pyramid, and the top carnivore forms the tip. Other consumer trophic levels are in between. The ecological pyramids are of three categories: 1) Pyramid of numbers, 2) Pyramid of biomass, and 3) Pyramid of energy or productivity. Pyramid of Numbers WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 32 Pyramid of numbers represents the total number of individuals (population) of different species at each trophic level. Depending upon the size, the pyramid of numbers may not always be upright and may even be completely inverted. It is very difficult to count all the organisms in a pyramid of numbers, so the pyramid of numbers does not completely define the trophic structure of an ecosystem. Pyramid of Numbers – Upright In this pyramid, the number of individuals decreases with each higher trophic level. This type of pyramid can be seen in the grassland ecosystem and pond ecosystem. Pyramid of Numbers – Inverted In this pyramid, the number of individuals increases with each higher trophic level.. E.g., Tree ecosystem. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 33 Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting all organisms occupying each trophic level separately and measuring their dry weight. This overcomes the size difference problem because all kinds of organisms at a trophic level are weighed. Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called the standing crop. The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area. Pyramid of Biomass – Upright For most terrestrial ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass has a large base of primary producers with a smaller trophic level perched on top. The biomass of the base trophic level, i.e., producers (autotrophs), is at the maximum. The highest trophic level has the least amount of biomass. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 34 Pyramid of Biomass – Inverted In contrast to terrestrial ecosystems, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may assume an inverted form. (In contrast, a pyramid of numbers for the aquatic ecosystem is upright). This is because the producers are tiny phytoplankton that grows and reproduces rapidly. Here, the pyramid of biomass has a small base, with the consumer biomass at any instant exceeding the producer biomass and the pyramid assumes an inverted shape. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 35 Pyramid of Energy Energy pyramid is most suitable for comparing the functional roles of the trophic levels in an ecosystem. An energy pyramid represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and loss of energy at each transfer to another trophic level. Hence the pyramid is always upward, with a large energy base at the bottom. Ecological Efficiency Ecological efficiency describes the efficiency with which energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next. The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted as the transfer of energy follows the 10 per cent law — only 10 per cent of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower trophic level. The energy decreases at each subsequent trophic level due to two reasons:  At each trophic, a part of the available energy is lost in respiration or used up in metabolism.  A part of the energy is lost at each transformation. Explanation Suppose an ecosystem receives 1000 calories of light energy on a particular day; some of it is reflected back to space. Of the energy absorbed, only a small portion is utilised by green plants, out of which the plant uses up some for respiration; therefore, only 100 calories are stored as energy-rich materials. When a deer eats a plant containing 100 calories of food energy, it uses some of it for its metabolism and stores only 10 calories as food energy. A lion that eats the deer gets an even smaller amount of energy. Thus, usable energy decreases from sunlight to producer to herbivore to carnivore. Therefore, the energy pyramid will always be upright. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 36 The energy pyramid explains the phenomenon of biological magnification — the tendency for toxic substances to increase in concentration progressively with higher trophic levels. Limitations of Ecological Pyramids Ecological pyramids do not consider the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels. It assumes a simple food chain, which seldom exists in nature; it does not accommodate a food web. Moreover, saprophytes (plant, fungus, or microorganism that lives on decaying matter) are not given any place in ecological pyramids even though they play a vital role in the ecosystem. Biomagnification – Pollutants and Trophic Level Pollutants move through the various trophic levels in an ecosystem. Non-degradable pollutants (persistent pollutants), which detrivores cannot break down, not only move through the various trophic levels but also remain in that tropic level for a very long duration. Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (Perfluoro Chlorides) are the most damaging non-degradable pollutants that are long-lasting. The movement of these pollutants involves: 1) Bioaccumulation 2) Biomagnification Bioaccumulation WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 37 Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of pollutants, chemicals (chronic poisoning) or other substances in an organism. It occurs when the rate of loss of the substance from the body of the organism through catabolism (breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms) or excretion is lower than the rate of accumulation of the substance. As persistent organic pollutants like DDT are long-lasting, the risk of bioaccumulation is high even if the environmental levels of the pollutant are not high. Biomagnification Biomagnification refers to progressive bioaccumulation (increase in concentration) at each tropical level with the passage of time. For biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must have a long biological halflife (long-lived) and must not be soluble in water but be soluble in fats. E.g., DDT. If the pollutant is soluble in water, it will be excreted by the organism. Pollutants that dissolve in fats are retained for a long time. Hence it is traditional to measure the amount of pollutants in fatty tissues of organisms such as fish. In mammals, milk produced by females is tested for pollutants since the milk has a lot of fat in. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - End of Chapter - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Wetlands are transition zones (ecotone) between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Hydric soils (not enough O2), periodic flooding from adjacent deepwater habitats and plant life (hydrophytes) adapted to shallow waterlogged soils are the chief characteristics. According to the definition under Ramsar Convention and Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2017, an area of marsh, fen, peat land or water; whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters, is considered as a wetland. Wetlands include all lakes and rivers, lake littorals (marginal areas between the highest and lowest water level of the lakes), floodplains (areas lying adjacent to the river channels beyond the natural levees and periodically flooded during high discharge in the river), underground aquifers, swamps and marshes, wet grasslands, peatland, oases, estuaries, deltas, tidal flats, mangroves and other coastal areas, coral reefs, and all human-made sites such as fishponds, rice paddies, reservoirs, and salt pans. 7.1. Differences Between Wetlands and Lakes Characteristic Lake Wetland (shallow lake) Origin Tectonic, fluvial, geomorphic, increase in the water table, etc. The largest lakes are due to tectonic forces. Mostly fluvial, residual lakes. E.g., Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh Water turnover Permanent Permanent or Temporary Water level changes Relatively small Relatively Large Thermal stratification Yes No Vertical mixing Thermally regulated (because of depth) Wind regulated Dominant Producers Phytoplankton Macrophytes Food chain Grazing Pathway Detritus Pathway WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 70 Productivity Low High Trophic status Oligotrophic (low nutrient levels; low turbidity; low sedimentation; low population density; low diversity) Mostly Eutrophic (high nutrient levels; high turbidity; high sedimentation; high population density; high diversity) Flood control Negligible Significant Waste treatment Negligible Significant There is no clear distinction between lakes & wetlands. Wetlands are shallow water bodies, whereas lakes can be deep or shallow. Lakes are generally less critical than wetlands from the viewpoint of ecosystem and conservation. National Lake Conservation Programme (NLCP) considers lakes as standing water bodies that have a minimum water depth of 3 m, generally cover a water spread of more than ten hectares and have no or very little aquatic vegetation. Wetlands (generally less than 3 m deep) are usually rich in nutrients (derived from surroundings and their sediments). They have abundant growth of aquatic macrophytes (aquatic plants large enough to be WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 71 seen by the naked eye). They support high densities and diverse fauna, particularly birds, fish and macroinvertebrates, and therefore, have high value for biodiversity conservation.  Excessive growth of macrophytes (both submerged and free-floating) in wetlands affects the water quality adversely and interfere with the utilisation of the water body. However, marginal aquatic vegetation is desirable as it checks erosion, serves habitat for wildlife and helps improve water quality. 7.2. Estuarine Wetland Ecosystem An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area of brackish water (salinity of 0-35 ppt) where a river or a stream opens into the sea (mouth of the river). At the estuaries, freshwater carrying fertile silt and runoff from the land mixes with salty seawater. Examples of estuaries are river mouths, coastal bays, tidal marshes, lagoons, and deltas. Estuaries are formed due to the rise in sea level, movement of sand and sandbars, glacial processes, and tectonic processes. They are greatly influenced by tidal action. They are periodically washed by seawater once or twice a day based on the number of tides. In some narrow estuaries, tidal bores are significant. They cause significant damage to the estuarine ecology. Differences between Lagoon and Estuary A lagoon is a stretch of saltwater separated from the sea by a low sandbank or coral reef. Backwaters in Kerala are lagoons where seawater flows inwards through a small inlet that is open towards the sea. Lagoons (like Chilika Lake in Odisha) are formed due to falling sea levels (coastline of emergence. E.g., Kerala (Malabar) Coast, Odisha (Utkal) Coast and Tamil Nadu (Coromandel) Coast). In contrast, estuaries (like Mandovi and Zuari estuarine systems in Goa) are mainly formed due to rising sea levels (coastline of submergence. E.g., Konkan Coast). Lagoons mostly do not have any fresh water source, while the estuaries have at least one. Hence lagoons are more saline than estuaries. Estuaries are usually deeper, and the water flows fast, while in lagoons, the water is shallower and flows sluggishly. Importance of Estuaries Ecological Importance Estuaries (coastal wetlands) form a transition zone (ecotone) between the river and maritime environments. They are the most productive (more productive than other wetlands) water bodies in the world because of the mixing of freshwater and saline water zone where marine organisms of both ecosystems meet. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 72 An estuary has minimal wave action, so it provides a calm refuge from the open sea and hence becomes ideal for the survival of numerous aquatic species. The vast mangrove forests on the seaward side of an estuary act as a barrier for the coastal habitat to check the wind speed during cyclones and high-velocity landward winds. Precipitation of clay and alluvium particles in the estuarine region is high because of exposure to saline water (quick at precipitating fine alluvium). Mangroves act as a filter trapping suspended mud and sand carried by rivers which leads to delta formations around estuaries. Estuaries store and recycle nutrients, trap sediment and form a buffer between coastal catchments and the marine environment. They also absorb, trap and detoxify pollutants, acting as a natural water filter. Economic Importance Estuaries are the most heavily populated areas worldwide, with about 60% of the world’s population living along estuaries and the coast. Estuaries with their wetlands, creeks, lagoons, mangroves and seagrass beds are rich in natural resources, including fisheries. They are deep and well protected from marine transgressions, and hence they are ideal locations for the construction of ports and harbours. Estuarine Vegetation Estuaries are subjected to large variations in salinity. Only certain types of plants and animals (capable of osmoregulation) adapted to the brackish estuarine waters flourish in the estuaries. Salinity and flooding determine the distribution (diversity and density) of organisms. Estuaries are dynamic productive ecosystems since the river flow, tidal range, and sediment distribution are continuously changing. Hence, they support diverse habitats, such as mangroves, salt marshes, seagrass, mudflats etc. Thye are homes to many terrestrial or land-based plants and animals, such as wood storks, pelicans, coniferous and deciduous trees, and butterflies. Estuaries are also home to unique aquatic plants and animals, such as sea turtles, sea lions, sea catfish, salt grasses, seagrass, bulrush, etc. The estuarian phytoplankton are diatoms, dinoflagellates, green algae, and blue-green algae. Towards the seacoast, there are algae and seagrasses. Near the mouth of the rivers and deltas, there are mangrove forests. Indian Estuarine Ecosystem India has 14 major, 44 medium, and 162 minor rivers draining into the sea through various estuaries. Most of India’s major estuaries occur on the east coast. In contrast, the estuaries on the west coast are smaller (in environmental studies, deltas are subsections of estuaries). Many estuaries are locations of some of the major seaports. E.g., Mormugao Port on the Zuari Estuary. Threats Faced by the Estuarine Ecosystem  Changes in water flow due to modifications of the catchments (E.g., Hooghly, Godavari, Pulicat, etc.).  Pollution through industries and city sewage discharge.  Navigation, dredging and shipping (e.g. Hooghly).  Expansion of urban and rural settlements, mining and industries, agriculture and dumping of solid wastes.  Intensive aquaculture in pens and obstructing the migratory routes of fish and prawns (e.g., Chilka, Pulicat). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 73  Polluting the environment through feeding stocked fish and prawns in pens (Chilka).  Destruction of biodiversity through prawn seed collection through small-meshed nets (e.g., Hooghly, Chilka, Pulicat).  Submergence of catchment areas due to water level rise. 7.3. Mangroves Mangroves are salt-tolerant (halophytes) evergreen shrubs or small trees (vary in height from 8 to 20 m) that represent a characteristic littoral (near the seashore) forest ecosystem. They grow below the highwater level of spring tides. The best locations are where abundant silt is brought down by rivers or on the backshore of accreting sandy beaches. Such locations include brackish waters of sheltered low-lying coasts, estuaries, mudflats, tidal creeks, backwaters (coastal waters held back on land), marshes and lagoons of tropical and subtropical regions. Adaptive Mechanism of Mangroves Mangroves exhibit varied morphological (shape and structure) and physiological (functional) evolutionary adaptations to survive the limiting factors — lack of oxygen, high salinity, and diurnal tidal inundation. Some of the adaptations exhibited by mangroves are:  Succulent leaves (thick leaves adapted to store water and reduce evapotranspiration),  Sunken stomata (to protect from drying winds),  Leaves with salt-secreting glands (to flush out the excess salt)  Aerial breathing roots called pneumatophores,  Vivipary (seeds or embryos begin to develop before they detach from the parent),  Stilt and prop roots (they are fibrous (adventitious) support roots)  Buttresses (large, wide support roots on all sides of a shallowly rooted (mangrove) tree). The adventitious roots (prop and stilt roots), which emerge from the main trunk above ground level, act as support roots. The complex root system helps mangroves overcome the strong wave action and diurnal tidal inundation. The pneumatophores (blind roots), prop roots and stilt roots help mangroves overcome the respiration problem in anaerobic (low oxygen — anoxic) soil conditions (a classic example of adaptation).  Some species (e.g., Rhizophora) of mangroves send arching prop roots into the water. While others (e.g., Avicennia) send vertical pneumatophores (air roots) up from the mud. Mangroves exhibit a viviparity mode of reproduction, i.e., seeds germinate in the tree itself (before falling to the ground). This is an adaptive mechanism to overcome the problem of germination in saline water. Mangroves in India In size, mangroves range from bushy stands of dwarf mangroves found in the Gulf of Kutch to taller stands found in the Sundarbans. On the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the small tidal estuaries and the lagoons support a dense and diverse undisturbed mangrove flora. Mangroves of Sundarbans The Sundarbans received its name from the Sundari mangrove tree. It is the largest single block of tidal halophytic mangroves in the world. The eco-geography is dependent on the tidal effect — deposits silt back on the channels, raising the bed and forming new islands and creeks. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 74 The Sundarbans delta (India and Bangladesh) is the only mangrove forest inhabited by tigers. Sundarbans support 400+ tiger population (88 tigers are in the Indian part). Major fauna of Sundarbans includes Royal Bengal tiger (EN), saltwater crocodile (LC), river terrapin, olive ridley turtle (VU), Ganges river dolphin (EN), hawksbill turtle, mangrove horseshoe crab, etc. Bengal tigers may not survive climate change 70 per cent of the land in the Sundarbans is just a few feet above sea level. In 2010, a study led by the World Wide Fund for Nature projected that a sea-level rise of 11 inches could reduce the number of tigers in the Sundarbans by 96 per cent within a few decades. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 75 Other major Mangrove Forests on the East Coast The mangroves of Bhitarkanika (Orissa), the second largest in the India, harbour a high concentration of typical mangrove species and high genetic diversity. They cover the area of Brahmani and Baitarani river deltas. Mangrove swamps occur in profusion in the intertidal mudflats on both sides of the creeks in the Godavari-Krishna deltaic regions of Andhra Pradesh. Mangroves of Pichavaram and Vedaranyam are degraded due to aquaculture ponds and salt pans. Mangrove Forests on the West Coast On the west coast of India, mangroves, mostly scrubby (stunted) and degraded, occur along the intertidal region of estuaries and creeks in Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka. The mangrove vegetation in the coastal zone of Kerala is very sparse and thin. In Gujarat (north-west coast), mangroves are found mainly in the Gulf of Kutch and the Kori creek region (paleo delta of the Indus River (once upon a time, it was part of the Indus delta)). They are scrubby with stunted growth, forming narrow, discontinuous patches on soft clayey mud. Creeks in the Kutch Region [UPSC 2016] What is/are unique about ‘Kharai camel’, a breed found in India? (2016) 1. It is capable of swimming up to three kilometres in seawater. 2. It survives by grazing on mangroves. 3. It lives in the wild and cannot be domesticated. Select the correct answer using the code given below. a) 1 and 2 only b) 3 only c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 76 Kharai Camel – India’s swimming camels Since 2015, Kharai camels (India’s swimming camels) have been getting protection similar to endangered species. They depend on the mangroves of the Kutch region for their food for eight months of the year. During monsoons, they swim to the mangrove islands in hordes. Kharai camels are the primary source of livelihood for the Jat, Rabari and Maldhari communities of the Kutch region. Along with the kankrej and Banni buffalos, the Maldharis have developed other tolerant breeds of livestock, such as the kharai camel. Answer: a) 1 and 2 only Global Status of Mangrove Cover As per FAO’s Global Forest Resource Assessment, 2020, 113 countries have mangrove forests covering ~14.79 million ha (1% of the tropical forests), primarily in tropical and subtropical regions. The largest mangrove area is in South East Asia (5.55 mha), followed by Africa, the Americas and Oceania (1.30 mha). More than 40 per cent of the total area of Mangroves was reported to be in just four countries: Indonesia (19%), Brazil (9%), Nigeria (7%) and Mexico (6%). The mangrove cover in India is 4,992 sq km (ISFR 2021), which is 0.15% of the country’s total geographical area. Why are mangroves not found beyond subtropics? Mangroves are confined to the tropics and subtropics, occurring mainly in the intertidal regions between latitudes 24° N and 38° S. This is because the mangrove vegetation contains a complex salt filtration system that facilitates high water loss at the root level itself to cope with the brackish conditions. These adaptive mechanisms are energy-intensive and require high solar radiation. Importance of mangroves  Mangroves (ecotone between land and sea) are highly productive ecosystems with rich biodiversity.  They have a complex root system that is very efficient in dissipating the sea wave energy, thus protecting the coastal areas from tsunamis, storm surges (produced by cyclones) and soil erosion.  Mangroves slow down water flow and act as a zone of land accretion by enhancing sediment deposition.  They moderate monsoonal tidal floods and reduce the inundation of coastal lowlands. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 77  They act as a riparian buffer and trap pollutants, including heavy metal contaminants. They enhance the natural recycling of nutrients.  Mangroves are an essential carbon sink.  They provide a safe and favourable environment for breeding, spawning, and rearing several fishes. They act as an essential source of livelihood for the coastal communities dependent on the collection of honey, tannins, wax, firewood, medicinal plants, edible plants, and fishing. [UPSC 2013] Which one of the following is the correct sequence of ecosystems in the order of decreasing productivity? WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 78 a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands, mangroves b) Mangroves, oceans, grasslands, lakes c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, oceans d) Oceans, mangroves, lakes, grasslands Explanation: Productivity = production/unit area/unit time. It depends on the number and diversity of producers. Ecotones (Mangroves, estuaries, and grasslands) have greater productivity than the surrounding ecosystems. Tropical Rainforests and coral reefs are an exception, as they have productivity comparable to wetlands because of their rich diversity of primary producers. Note: Grasslands are not transitional all the time. E.g., Steppe and Savanna grasslands, which are very vast, are non-transitional and have very low productivity because of the minimal diversity of primary producers. (Grasslands become transitional only when they are narrow). So, the order of decreasing productivity will be like Mangroves, ……, ……, …….. Oceans are very deep, and hence productivity is limited to the surface only (deep below in the aphotic zone, productivity is negligible. The Aphotic zone in oceans is a few kilometres thick!). Also, ocean surface water is abysmal (very poor) in nutrients (except near the shoreline). Nutrient-rich cold water flows as a sub-surface flow in the aphotic zone. Sunlight and nutrients are far apart, so primary productivity is very low except in regions with an upwelling of nutrient-rich cold water (cold and warm ocean current mixing zones). So, among the options, the open ocean ecosystem has the least productivity. (Desert ecosystem also has very low productivity, lesser than the oceans). So, the answer will look like Mangroves, ………., ………, Oceans. The only such option is c) Lakes, just like oceans, have low productivity. But due to some plants in the photic zone, lakes have productivity slightly greater than that of oceans. Answer: c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, oceans Threats to Mangroves [UPSC 2019] Discuss the causes of the depletion of mangroves and explain their importance in maintaining coastal ecology. Aquaculture, Agriculture and Salt Ponds  Agriculture and aquaculture pose the greatest threat. Threat  Mangroves are rich in nutrients, which makes them attractive for agriculture. They are also ideal for shrimp farming and mariculture (food production in a confined marine environment). Hence thousands of hectares of mangrove forests have been cleared for the commercial production of shrimp and other species, cultivation of crops, and creation of salt ponds. Consequences  The shrimp and other species in the artificial ponds are fed specific diets that often include chemicals. These chemicals enter the food chain.  Extra nutrients from the concentration of food and animals cause eutrophication, which harms the surrounding marine habitats by lowering oxygen levels. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 79 Coastal Development and Lumbering Threat  The direct use of mangrove wood and leaf products and the conversion of wetland habitats for coastal development projects like hotels, resorts, infrastructure, desalination plants, port facilities, etc. lead to deforestation.  Mangrove wood is used for building materials, fencing, and fuel. It also yields valuable, high-quality charcoal. In places where fishing has declined, people have turned to charcoal production, which furthers the cycle of habitat loss and fishery decline. Consequence: Habitat loss and climate vulnerability  The delicate tidal regimes are interrupted, and the balance between fresh and saltwater is lost. It inevitably leads to altered hydrology, erosion, and pollution. Rivers that once travelled through the mangroves before emptying into the sea are blocked or re-routed, causing changes in flooding, drainage, filtration, sedimentation, temperature, and salinity. These changes, in turn, affect the aquatic species, including subsistence fish species for coastal communities.  Loss of species and genetic diversity: The trees and associated species (e.g., birds, snakes, crabs) are visibly lost, but so too are the specific genotypes and phenotypes that have evolved in microhabitats to withstand insects, tidal fluctuations, precipitation patterns and salinity regimes. The Curious Case of Mumbai’s Coastal Road Project Mumbai, Guangzhou, Jakarta, Miami, and Manila are on the list of cities endangered by climate change. The anthropogenic climate change, coupled with trends in coastal development, will inundate sections of Mumbai by 2050 and will increase annual flood damages by 2-3 times by 2100. Despite the need for action, the city is ignoring climate adaptation programs. Mumbai’s Coastal Road Project is an example. The 29.2 km long Mumbai’s Coastal Road Project is being constructed on 90 hectares of reclaimed land prone to flooding and frequent tidal inundation. The road will cost the public Rs 11,300 crore. But it will serve only 2% of the populace. The project will extend tens of meters into the sea, and 1,000 mangrove trees, which act as a natural storm/flood barrier, will be cut for the project. Ecological and Economic Damage The project will exacerbate the flooding situation (heavy rains + high tide) during the SW monsoon season. Changes in the tidal pattern will lead to the erosion of Mumbai’s beaches. Tidal inundation will block the natural drainage systems. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 80 Cutting mangroves will deplete fishing grounds. While the amendment to coastal rules mandates planting new mangroves three times the size of the destroyed mangroves, the new ones will take several years to grow. Also, since they will be at a different location, the replanting will not replace the storm protection services of the old mangroves. Climate Change  Coastal wetlands, including mangrove forests, absorb a significant amount of GHG emissions. When these forests are cleared, it compounds the climate change problem by releasing even more carbon into the atmosphere.  For mangroves, sea-level rise is the biggest climate-related threat, with some tree species unable to tolerate the influx of saltwater or escape the surging tides. Replantation Does not Produce Optimum Results  In comparison with other tropical forests, mangroves are not species-rich. And in the areas where replanting is attempted, it is often done with seeds of one species rather than the mix of species that initially existed. Thus reforestation/afforestation cannot reverse the habitat loss. 7.4. Importance of Wetlands Wetlands are indispensable because of the ecosystem services they provide, ranging from freshwater supply, food and building materials, and biodiversity to flood control, groundwater recharge, and climate change mitigation.  Wetlands are habitats for aquatic flora and fauna and numerous species of native and migratory birds.  They are an important resource for sustainable tourism.  They carry out water purification and filtration of sediments and nutrients from surface water.  They help in nutrient recycling, groundwater recharging and stabilisation of the local climate.  They play an essential role in flood mitigation by controlling the rate of runoff.  They buffer shorelines (act as a riparian buffer) against erosion and pollutants.  They act as a genetic reservoir for various species of plants (especially rice).  They act as a carbon sink. [UPSC 2022] “If rainforests and tropical’ forests are the lungs of the Earth, then surely, ‘wetlands function as its kidneys.” Which one of the following functions of wetlands best reflects the above statement? a) The water cycle in wetlands involves surface runoff, subsoil percolation and evaporation. b) Algae form the nutrient base upon which fish, crustaceans, molluscs, birds, reptiles and mammals thrive. c) Wetlands play a vital role in maintaining sedimentation balance and soil stabilisation. d) Aquatic plants absorb heavy metals and excess nutrients. Explanation: Kidneys detoxify by filtering toxins out of the blood into the urine. Similarly, aquatic plants in a wetland absorb heavy metals and excess nutrients. 7.5. Reasons for the Depletion of WetlandsWWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 81  Excessive pollutants (Industrial effluents, domestic waste, agricultural runoff etc.) are dumped into wetlands beyond the recycling capacity.  Habitat destruction and deforestation create ecological imbalance by altering the population of wetland species.  Conversion of wetlands for agriculture and encroachment by public and mafia.  Overfishing and fish farming (aquaculture).  Overgrazing in marshy soils.  Removal of sand from beds near seas makes the wetland vulnerable to wave action and tidal bore. Mitigation of Wetland Destruction  Demarcation of wetlands using technology, proper enforcement of laws and stringent punishments for violators.  Preventing unsustainable aquaculture and cultivation of shellfish.  Treating industrial effluents and water from farmlands before discharging into wetlands.  Utilizing wetlands sustainably by giving enough time for natural regeneration.  Artificial regeneration for a quick recovery.  Afforestation, weed control, and preventing invasive species is the key to wetland conservation.  Preventive measures to stop introducing exotic invasive species like water hyacinth.  Soil conservation measures and afforestation.  Preventing grazing in peripherals of wetlands.  Wildlife conservation, sustainable tourism, ecotourism and sensitising the local populace.  Eutrophication abatement by processing nutrient-rich discharge into the water body.  Involving the local population in the conservation. 7.6. Measures to Protect Wetlands of India As per the National Wetlands Atlas, published by ISRO’s Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad, India has 15.26 million ha area (4.6% of India’s land area) under wetlands. Of this, 70% are under paddy cultivation (human-made). Inland wetlands constitute 69.22% (10.56 million ha). Nearly 12% of the inland wetland area is in the form of lakes and ponds (including those less than 2.25 ha). Natural wetlands in India range from high altitude wetlands in the Himalayas (glacial lakes, swamps, and floodplain marshes); flood plains of the major river system, saline and temporary wetlands of the arid and semi-arid regions; coastal wetlands such as lagoons, backwaters, estuaries, mangroves, swamps, and coral reefs, and so on.  The alluvial plains of River Ganga and Brahmaputra have extensive riverine wetland formations as floodplains and oxbows known as maun, beel, chaur, jheel and pat.  The arid zone spanning Rajasthan and Gujarat has vast saline flats, monsoon-fed freshwater lakes as well as salt lakes (for example, Sambhar, Pachpadra, Deedwana and Lukransar).  The Peninsular Deccan region is studded with man-made lakes. Several lakes act as suitable habitats for water birds (e.g., Varthur, Rachenahalli and Amruthalli Lakes in Bangalore). National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-systems (NPCA) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 82 For the integrated and cross-sectoral conservation (coordinating administrations at all levels) of aquatic ecosystems (lakes and wetlands), the MoEF has been implementing the Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-systems (NPCA). NPCA was formed by merging the National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCA) and National Wetlands Conservation Programme (NWCP). It envisages halting and reversing the continued degradation and loss of wetlands. The merged NPCA scheme has been operational since the 12th Plan Period (2012-17) with a funding pattern of 70:30 cost-sharing between the Central Government and respective State Governments (90:10 for the NE States). The Central Government (MoEF) coordinates aquatic ecosystem (lakes and wetlands) conservation programmes. It provides guidelines and financial and technical assistance to the state govt. Since the land resources belong to states, the State/UT governments manage the aquatic ecosystems. Criteria for identifying wetlands of national importance under NPCA are the same as those prescribed under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Wetlands (Conservation-Management) Rules 2010 MoEF has notified these legally enforceable rules under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, to ensure that there is no further degradation of wetlands. Central Wetland Regulatory Authority (CWRA) has been set up under the chairmanship of the Secretary, MoEF, to ensure proper implementation of the Rules. Wetlands have been classified for better management and easier identification. The rules encompass the drainage area of the wetlands as determined by the CWRA. The rules specify and prohibit harmful activities to wetlands, such as industrialisation, construction of permanent nature, solid waste dumping, dumping untreated waste, reclamation in the wetlands, etc. Other activities, such as aquaculture, agriculture, harvesting of living and non-living resources, dredging to remove siltation, etc., may be carried out in the wetlands but only with prior permission from the concerned authorities. The Central Government may, however, permit any prohibited activities or non-wetland use in the protected wetland on the recommendation of CWRA. Wetlands (Conservation-Management) Rules 2017 The new rules replaced the 2010 version of the rules. They have decentralised wetlands management by giving states/UTs powers to not only identify and notify wetlands within their jurisdictions but also keep a watch on prohibited activities. The rules provide an advisory role for the National Wetland Committee to guide the state bodies on the integrated management of wetlands based on the wise-use principle and review the progress of integrated management of Ramsar Convention sites, among other roles. To oversee the work carried out by States, the rules stipulate setting up National Wetlands Committee (NWC – headed by the MoEF Secretary). NWC is the nodal advisory body for the National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-systems (NPCA). It guides the state bodies on the integrated management of wetlands based on the wise-use principle. State Wetland Authority WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 83 States/UTs have been accorded the responsibility for wetland management by setting up State/UT Wetland Authorities (SWAs). SWA will be headed by Environment Minister and includes experts from the fields of wetland ecology, hydrology, fisheries, landscape planning and socioeconomics. SWA of the state/UT must identify and notify the wetlands for protection within the stipulated time. They need to develop a comprehensive list of activities to be regulated and permitted within notified wetlands and their zone of influence and recommend additional prohibited activities for specific wetlands. The State authorities will also need to prepare:  A list of all wetlands of the state or union territory within three months  A list of wetlands to be notified within 6 months  A comprehensive digital inventory of all wetlands within 1 year, which will be updated every 10 years. What CAN NOT be notified as wetlands under the Rules? River channels, paddy fields, human-made water bodies, aquaculture, salt production, recreation, irrigation projects, wetlands and protected areas falling within areas covered under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2019 cannot be notified under the Wetlands Rules 2017. Prohibited activities (very much similar to the 2011 rules)  Conversion of wetlands for non-wetland uses.  Setting up of any industry and expansion of existing industries.  Manufacture/handling/storage/disposal of hazardous substances and construction and demolition waste.  Solid waste dumping.  Discharge of untreated wastes and effluents from industries, cities, towns, villages and other settlements.  The Rules also restrict encroachment, poaching, or permanent construction, except for boat jetties. Concerns A provision in the rules that states, “Central government may consider proposals from the state/UT governments for omitting any of the (prohibited) activities on the authority’s recommendation” can be misused. According to the 2010 rules, anyone aggrieved with the CWRA’s decisions could have filed an appeal with the National Green Tribunal, but the 2017 rules are silent on the appeal process. Subjective definition of the term “wise use” is to be determined by State Wetland Authority, which is prone to manipulation by vested interests. 7.7. Measures to Protect Global Wetlands Ramsar Convention on Wetlands The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is an international treaty for “the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands”. The convention was signed on the 2nd of February (World Wetlands Day), 1971, in the city of Ramsar in Iran. The number of parties is 172. India is a party since 1982. At the centre of the Ramsar philosophy is the “wise use — maintenance of ecological character for sustainable development” of wetlands. The theme for 2023: It's Time for Wetlands Restoration. Criteria for Identification of Wetlands 1. Unique wetland: contains a rare or unique example of a natural or near-natural wetland type. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 84 2. Endangered species: supports threatened, vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species/ communities. 3. Essential species: supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining biological diversity. 4. Species protection: supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles or provides refuge during adverse conditions. 5. Waterbirds: regularly supports 20,000+ water birds. 6. Single species of water birds: regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of water birds. 7. Indigenous fish: supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies. 8. Multirole: is an essential food source for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path. 9. Ecotourism: is an essential source of food and water resource, increased scope for recreation and ecotourism. Contracting Parties (COP) to Ramsar Convention COP is the policy-making organ of the Ramsar Convention. Every three years, representatives of the COP meet at the Conference of the Contracting Parties (COP). COP13 took place in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, in 2018. 14th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (COP14) took place in November 2022 in a hybrid format in Wuhan, China, and Geneva, Switzerland.  COP14 was initially scheduled to be held in the Chinese city of Wuhan — situated on the left bank of the Yangtze River (the longest river in Asia – 6,300 km) — in 2021. It was postponed due to the COVID pandemic. Wuhan Declaration and 2025-2030 Global Strategic Framework for Wetlands Conservation were adopted at COP14. (They offer nothing new!) The Responsibilities of the Contracting Parties A vital commitment of the Contracting Parties is to identify and place suitable wetlands onto the List of Wetlands of International Importance, also known as the Ramsar List. Contracting Parties are expected (not mandated) to manage their Ramsar Sites to maintain their ecological character and retain their essential functions and values for future generations. The convention specifies that “Contracting Parties shall (not may) formulate and implement their planning to promote the conservation of the wetlands included in the List”. [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements: 1. Under the Ramsar convention, it is mandatory on the part of the Government of India to protect and conserve all the wetlands in the territory of India 2. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 were framed by the Government of India based on the recommendations of the Ramsar convention. 3. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 also encompass the drainage area or catchment regions of the wetlands as determined by the authority Which of the statements given above is/are correct? a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 85 c) 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 Explanation: Contracting Parties are expected (not mandated) to manage their Ramsar Sites to maintain their ecological character and retain their essential functions and values for future generations.  It is expected (not mandated) for the government to protect the wetland included in the list. The convention specifies that “Contracting Parties shall (not may) formulate and implement their planning to promote the conservation of the wetlands included in the List”.  It is expected (not mandated) for the government to protect the wetland included in the list, not all.  Ramsar Convention recommends making laws to protect such wetlands. Answer: c) 3 only International Organisation Partners The Ramsar Convention works closely with six organisations known as International Organisation Partners (IOPs): 1. Birdlife International 2. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 3. International Water Management Institute (IWMI) 4. Wetlands International 5. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) 6. International Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT) Other Partners Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), World Heritage Convention (WHC) and Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. Various groups that fund projects include UN agencies such as UNEP, UNDP, etc. Wetlands International Wetlands International is a global non-governmental organisation (NGO) that works to sustain and restore wetlands and their resources for people and biodiversity. Its work ranges from research, advocacy, and engagement with governments, corporate, etc. [UPSC 2014] With reference to a conservation organisation called ‘Wetlands International’, which of the following statements is/are correct? 1) It is an intergovernmental organisation formed by the countries which are signatories to Ramsar Convention. 2) It works at the field level to develop and mobilise knowledge and use practical experience to advocate for better policies. Select the correct answer using the code given below. a) 1 only b) 2 only WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 86 c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: Wetlands International is an NGO. b) 2 only Ramsar Site When a country accedes to the convention, it must designate at least one wetland as a Wetland of International Importance. Including a “Ramsar Site” in the list embodies the government’s commitment to take the steps necessary to ensure that its ecological character is maintained. Today, the Ramsar List is the world’s largest protected area network. Over 2,400 Ramsar Sites cover 2.5 million sq km on the territories of 171 Ramsar Contracting Parties worldwide. The world’s first site was the Cobourg Peninsula in Australia, designated in 1974. The countries with the most Ramsar Sites are the United Kingdom with 175 and Mexico with 142. Bolivia has the largest area under Ramsar protection. Deletion from the List A Contracting Party may, because of its urgent national interest, delete or restrict the boundaries of wetlands already included in the list. However, such deletions or restrictions should be compensated for by creating additional nature reserves in the same area or elsewhere. No Ramsar Site has ever been “deleted” in this way, and Parties have only extremely rarely restricted the boundaries of a Site on this basis (success of Ramsar Convention). Transboundary Ramsar Sites Many important wetlands extend as one ecologically coherent whole across national borders. In these cases, COP can agree to establish Ramsar Sites on their territory as parts of a bigger Transboundary Ramsar Site. The authorities on both sides of the border agree to collaborate in managing the site. The Montreux Record Ramsar Sites potentially at risk because of technological developments, pollution or other human interference may be placed on the Montreux Record of Ramsar Sites where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur. [UPSC 2014] If a wetland of international importance is brought under the ‘Montreux Record’, what does it imply? a) Changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring or are likely to occur in the wetland because of human interference. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 87 b) The country in which the wetland is located should enact a law to prohibit any human activity within five kilometres from the edge of the wetland c) The survival of the wetland depends on the cultural practices and traditions of certain communities living in its vicinity, and therefore the cultural diversity therein should not be destroyed d) It is given the status of ‘World Heritage Site’ Answer: a) The list of Ramsar Sites is provided in the last chapter (Protected Area Network)

4. Functions of an Ecosystem – Trophic Levels............................................................................................... 24 4.1. Food Chain .............................................................................................................................................. 24 Grazing food chain............................................................................................................................................ 24 Detritus food chain ........................................................................................................................................... 25 4.2. Food Web ................................................................................................................................................ 26 Types of Biotic Interactions in a Food Web ...................................................................................................... 29 4.3. Ecological Pyramids............................................................................................................................... 31 Pyramid of Numbers......................................................................................................................................... 31 Pyramid of Biomass.......................................................................................................................................... 33 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart ii Pyramid of Energy ............................................................................................................................................ 35 Limitations of Ecological Pyramids................................................................................................................... 36 Biomagnification – Pollutants and Trophic Level ............................................................................................. 36 5. Functions of an Ecosystem – Biogeo Chemical Cycling............................................................................. 38 5.1. Types of Nutrient Cycles........................................................................................................................ 38 5.2. Carbon Cycle (Gaseous Cycle)............................................................................................................... 38 Steps in Carbon Cycle........................................................................................................................................ 39 5.3. Nitrogen Cycle (Gaseous Cycle)............................................................................................................ 40 Nitrogen Fixing – N2 to Ammonia (NH3) ........................................................................................................... 40 Nitrification – Ammonia to Nitrites and Nitrates............................................................................................. 42 Ammonification – Urea, Uric Acid to NH3 to Nitrite ......................................................................................... 42 Denitrification – Nitrate to Nitrogen ................................................................................................................ 43 Nitrogen Cycle Summary .................................................................................................................................. 43 5.4. Methane Cycle (Gaseous Cycle) ............................................................................................................ 44 Natural Sources of Methane Emissions............................................................................................................ 45 Human Sources of Methane Emissions............................................................................................................. 46 Methane Sink.................................................................................................................................................... 47 5.5. Phosphorus Cycle (Sedimentary cycle) ................................................................................................ 47 5.6. Sulphur Cycle (Mostly Sedimentary Cycle).......................................................................................... 47 Steps in Sulphur Cycle ....................................................................................................................................... 48 6. Natural Ecosystems ...................................................................................................................................... 52 6.1. Terrestrial Ecosystems or Biomes ......................................................................................................... 52 Major Biomes ................................................................................................................................................... 53 Tundra Biome ................................................................................................................................................... 53 Taiga or Boreal Biome ...................................................................................................................................... 54 Temperate Deciduous Biome (North-Western Europe – British Type Climate)................................................ 55 Temperate Rainforest Biome............................................................................................................................ 55 Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South-eastern USA.............................................................. 55 Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome ............................................................................................................ 55 Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean)................................................................................................ 55 Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)................................................................................................. 55 Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome.......................................................................................................... 55 Tropical Rainforest Biome ................................................................................................................................ 56 Desert Biome .................................................................................................................................................... 59 6.2. Aquatic Ecosystems................................................................................................................................ 60 Aquatic Organisms ........................................................................................................................................... 60 Factors Limiting the Productivity...................................................................................................................... 61 6.3. Natural Ecosystem Services and Goods ............................................................................................... 62 Quantifying the Economic Value of Natural Ecosystems (Ecosystem valuation) ............................................. 63 The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)..................................................................................... 63 Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) ............................................................................................................. 64 Ecosystem Services by Seagrass ....................................................................................................................... 65 Ecosystem Services by Seaweed ....................................................................................................................... 66

A natural ecosystem is an assemblage of plants and animals which functions as a unit and can maintain its identity. There are two main categories of ecosystems: 1) Terrestrial ecosystems and 2) Aquatic ecosystems. 6.1. Terrestrial Ecosystems or Biomes The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divisible into enormous regions called biomes. No two biomes are alike. They are characterised by a distinct climate (precipitation and temperature mainly), vegetation, animal life and general soil type. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 53 Major Biomes Tundra Arctic and Alpine Tundra Biome Forest Taiga or Boreal Biome (Evergreen Coniferous forests) Temperate Deciduous Biome (North-Western Europe – British Type Climate) Temperate Rainforest Biome Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate) Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate) Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome Tropical Rain Forest Biome Grassland Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome (Tropical Shrublands and Grasslands) Desert Tropical and Mid Latitude Desert Biome For a detailed explanation and maps of biomes, you must go through PMF IAS Physical Geography > Climatology > Climatic Regions. Here we have discussed the content only from the environment and ecology perspective. Tundra Biome There are two types of tundra – arctic and alpine. Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains above the tree line. E.g., High ranges of the Himalayas, Andes, Alps etc. There are no trees in the tundra due to permafrost (ground remains completely frozen — (0°C) or colder — for at least two years straight). The lowest form of vegetation, like mosses, lichens are sparsely found on bare rocks. Coastal lowlands have reindeer moss which provides the only pasturage for reindeer. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 54 In the summer, birds migrate north to prey on the numerous insects which emerge when the snow thaws. Insects have short life cycles, which are completed during the favourable period of the year. Animals like the reindeer, arctic fox, wolves, muskox, polar bear, lemming, arctic hare, and arctic willow live in the tundra region. Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent. Most animals have a long life, e.g. arctic willow has a life span of 150 to 300 years. They are protected from chillness by thick cuticle and epidermal hair or fur. Mammals have a large body size and small tails and ears to avoid heat loss from the surface. Taiga or Boreal Biome The productivity of boreal (Taiga) forests is the lowest among the forest ecosystems. This is mainly because of the harsh weather and the thin and poor soils called podzols. Podzols are very poor because:  The weathering of rocks proceeds slowly in cold climates.  The litter derived from conifer leaves decomposes very slowly. It is not rich in nutrients (humus content is low, and the soils are mostly acidic due to the slow decomposition of organic matter).  Conifers do not shed their leaves frequently. The predominant vegetation is an evergreen coniferous forest with species such as spruce, fir, and pine. The conifers require little moisture and are best suited to the sub-Arctic climate. Animals found in this region include Siberian tiger, wolverine, lynx, wolf, bear, red fox, squirrel, and amphibians like Hyla, Rana, etc. Podzols Podzols are the typical soils of a coniferous or boreal biome. The top layer of the soil is very thin and is overlain over a sandy or loamy subsurface, which has no organic matter (lost due to the leaching of nutrients to the bottom layers). The soils are characterised by low moisture levels (excessively drained). Others have shallow rooting zones and poor drainage due to subsoil cementation. A low pH further compounds the issue. The low pH (acidic) is due to excessive leaching (loss) of alkaline (basic) matter, which, if present, would neutralise the organic acids of the accumulating litter. Hence, most Podzols are poor soils for agriculture. They are primarily used for grazing. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 55 Temperate Deciduous Biome (North-Western Europe – British Type Climate) Soils of the temperate deciduous biome are podzolic and fairly deep. The natural vegetation is deciduous (trees shed their leaves in the cold season). This is an adaptation for protecting themselves against winter snow and frost. Shedding begins in autumn, the ‘fall’ season. Growth begins in spring. Some common species include oak, elm, ash, birch, beech, and poplar. Temperate Rainforest Biome Temperate rainforest biome is small in terms of the area covered. The main stretch of this habitat is along the north-western coast of North America from northern California through southern Alaska. There are also small areas in southern Chile, New Zealand, Australia and a few other places worldwide. Large coniferous trees dominate the habitat, including Douglas fir, Western red cedar, Mountain hemlock, Western hemlock, Sitka spruce and Lodgepole pine. In addition to the trees, mosses and lichens are very common, often growing as epiphytes (a plant that grows harmlessly (commensalism) upon another plant). Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South-eastern USA Sub-tropical deciduous biome supports luxuriant vegetation. The lowlands carry both evergreen broadleaved forests and deciduous trees (hardwood). On the highlands, various species of conifers, such as pines and cypresses, are important. Perennial plant growth is not checked by either a dry season or a cold season. Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome Steppe biomes are practically treeless, and the grasses are much shorter, fresh, and nutritious. Poleward, an increase in precipitation gives rise to a transitional zone of wooded steppes where some conifers gradually appear. The steppes do not have much animal diversity. Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean) In temperate deciduous biomes, plants continuously struggle against heat, dry air, excessive evaporation, and prolonged droughts. They are, in short xerophytic (drought tolerant). Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall. Regions with adequate rainfall are inhabited by low, broad-leafed evergreen trees (mostly evergreen oaks). Fire is an important hazardous factor in this ecosystem, and the adaptation of the plants enables them to regenerate quickly after being burnt. Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate) Tropical monsoon forests are also known as drought-deciduous/dry deciduous/tropical deciduous forests. Teak, neem, bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, mulberry are some important species. Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome The savanna landscape is typified by tall grass and short trees. The trees are deciduous, shedding their leaves in the cool dry season to prevent water loss through transpiration, e.g., acacias. Trees usually have broad trunks with water-storing devices to survive through prolonged droughts. Many trees are umbrella-shaped, exposing only a narrow edge to the strong winds. The savanna biome is rich in mammal, bird, and reptile diversity. Managed Fires Rejuvenates Savannas WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 56 Lighting dry savanna grasslands is a key ecosystem management activity. Cattle farmers and authorities usually light fires to stimulate the growth of fresh, nutritious grass for their animals. Others are used to control the numbers of parasitic ticks or manage the growth of thorny scrub.  Fires in savannahs are carbon-neutral: Fires in the savannah burn mainly dry grasses that regrow each year: the CO₂ released by fires is reabsorbed by the growth of new grass the next year. Tropical Rainforest Biome High temperatures and abundant rainfall support luxuriant evergreen rainforests. The vegetation comprises many evergreen trees, e.g. mahogany, ebony, dyewoods, etc. In brackish waters, mangrove forests thrive. All plants, including epiphytes, struggle upwards for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer arrangement (canopy).  Epiphyte (commensalism – epiphyte benefits without troubling the host): An epiphyte is a plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant (such as a tree) and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, and sometimes from debris accumulating around it. In the recent few years, the rainforest has been under threat from deforestation and burning. 17 per cent of the entire rainforest and about 20 per cent of the Brazilian rainforest has been deforested. Importance of Rainforests Rainforests produce about 20% of the earth’s oxygen. Carbon sink: Rainforests can sequester much carbon released by human activities. Precipitation: Through evapotranspiration, the rainforests are responsible for creating 50-75 per cent of their precipitation. Source of many rivers: Rainforests are the source of many of the world’s largest rivers. Amazon, Mekong, and Congo (Zaire) are some important rivers fed by the rainforests. Biodiversity: Rainforests contain over 30 million species of plants and animals. That’s half of the earth’s wildlife and at least two-thirds of its plant species! Commercial Agriculture: Rainforests offer a conducive climate for cultivating commercial crops such as coffee, cocoa (chocolate), palm, rubber, etc. (they all require 100-200 cm of rainfall). Indigenous communities: Many indigenous people have been living in harmony with the rainforest for thousands of years, depending on it for their food, shelter, medicines and subsistence agriculture (slash-and-burn agriculture). Climate Tropical forests exchange vast amounts of water and energy with the atmosphere and are thought to be important in controlling local and regional climates. Water released into oceans by the rainforest rivers influences the circulation of ocean currents. This works as a feedback mechanism, as the process also sustains the regional climate on which it depends. Importance of the Amazon Rainforest The Amazon basin produces about 20 per cent of the world’s flow of fresh water into the oceans. It returns at least 75 per cent of the moisture to the westward-moving air mass. In fact, every country in South America other than Chile (blocked from this moisture by the Andes) benefits from Amazon moisture. Threats: Frequent Fires in the Amazon Rainforest WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 57 Prolonged droughts due to climate change Amazonian forests and other tropical rainforest regions are usually immune to fires due to the high moisture content of the undergrowth beneath the protection of the canopy tree cover. But the severe megadroughts in recent times have forever changed this perception. The severe mega-droughts in the Amazon were most likely driven by large-scale climatic events, with the warming of the Atlantic and the drying effects of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events. These droughts are becoming far more frequent and more severe and are generating conditions conducive to wildfires. Slash and burn agricultural practice People clear the land by cutting down the vegetation during the rainy season, letting the trees dry out and burning them during the dry season. Clearing the forest for agricultural use can take several years of slashing and burning. Political Discourse and Land grabbers Ex-President of Brazil, Jair Bolsonaro, has decreased the power and autonomy of forest protection agencies. Forest clearing has been encouraged by agricultural subsidies, timber concessions, etc. This has been the case in rainforests worldwide. Hence, most fires are set illegally by landgrabbers who are clearing the forest for lumbering, cattle ranching, rubber, palm and soybean cultivation. How do the fires in Amazon affect the world? Carbon sink to carbon source and global warming The Amazon is a critical carbon sink. Currently, the world is emitting around 40 billion tons of CO2 into the atmosphere every year. The Amazon absorbs 2 billion tons of CO2 annually (or 5% of annual emissions). The fires have not only turned the Amazon into a temporary carbon source but also reduced its potential to lock carbon in the future. Forest fires intensify droughts The rainforest recycles its water to produce a portion of the region’s rain, so deforestation and forest fires make rains less frequent, extending the dry season. Pollution and Global Warming Forest fires cause 15% of GHG emissions, more than 30% of global carbon monoxide emissions, 10% of methane emissions and more than 85% of global soot emissions. They contribute greatly to global warming, making forests increasingly dry and weak. This destructive cycle often makes it easy for new fires to develop. Forest Fires and Droughts Make Way for Grasslands (Decrease in Productivity) Scientists describe tropical rainforests as fire-sensitive ecosystems. About a third of all ecosystems worldwide are considered fire-sensitive. Plants and animals lack a natural ability to resist and recover from fires. In a rainforest like the Amazon, massive forest fires are a disaster. Despite the lush vegetation, the soils are particularly barren and poor in nutrients (due to leaching). If the rainforest burns down, all nutrients are permanently lost (no recycling of nutrients) because they are stored in the plants themselves and not in the soil. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 58 When the rainforests reach their tipping point, they will be unable to sustain themselves. This will lead to a situation when the trees, and in turn, the forest will start to dieback. In other words, some trees and, eventually, the forests will reach the physiological limits of dryness. Because of the dehydration, the trees will begin to die from the tip of their leaves or roots backwards. The fires combined with prolonged droughts can turn the jungle into a tropical savannah (grassland). Grasses are a dominant species that can grow even in poorer soil. They do not make way for trees so easily. Fore fires are essential for other Ecosystems While forest fires are a disaster to rainforests, they are necessary for the preservation of other ecosystems. This is true for about three-quarters of all habitats worldwide, including the  taiga (extremely fire-prone in the dry season),  African savannahs, the South Asian monsoon forests,  Californian coniferous forests (extremely fire-prone in the dry season),  Australian eucalyptus forests and the Mediterranean region (extremely fire-prone in the dry season). In these ecosystems, parts of the natural fauna and flora develop only due to fires. Animals and plants often have a natural capacity for resistance in such fire-dependent ecosystems. In grasslands, savannahs, some forests, and wetlands, only a moderately intense ground fire sweeps through, ensuring that the open landscape structure is maintained. Fires give new life The Douglas fir, a conifer, survives most fires thanks to its thick bark — after a fire, it will sprout new shoots. The North American lodgepole pine also needs the heat of the fire to open its cones and release seeds. The Australian grass tree needs smoke to open its seed pods. After a fire, without the usually dense canopy, more sunlight reaches the forest floor, and the seedlings find enough nutrients to sprout. (Small fires are good even for rainforests). Catastrophic Forest Fires Rare but very intense fires are characteristic of bush landscapes or forests. They consume old and diseased trees, create new habitats, and ensure an ecological rejuvenation of the tree population. Preventing small fires in these ecosystems can have fatal consequences. This is because of the accumulation of more combustible material, which converts even harmless fires into destructive walls of flames. Such fires repeatedly occur in the boreal forests (Siberian taiga and Canadian taiga), forests of Eastern Australia and California (US). Recent examples: 2019-20 Australian Black Summer Bushfires (caused by successive droughts) and 2021 July wildfires triggered by severe heatwave (caused by a heat dome created by the meandering jet stream) in the North-Western US and South-Western Canada. Threats: Plantation Boom, Resource Extraction Petroleum extraction has caused a great deal of destruction in the rainforests of Ecuador and Venezuela. The rainforest climate is very favourable for the cultivation of certain high-value plantation crops. The plantations destroyed nearly half of equatorial forests and continue to destroy them even today. Plantations Region(s) Palm Malaysia, Indonesia Sugarcane Brazil WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 59 Coffee Brazil Rubber Malaysia, Indonesia Cocoa (used to make chocolates) Ghana, Nigeria Effects of Destroying Rainforests Soil Degradation The soil in the rainforest is very poor in nutrients (because of the leaching of the nutrients from the top layer). This is because the nutrients are stored in the vast numbers of trees and plants rather than in the soil. Tree roots bind the soil together, while the canopy protects the soil from heavy rains. When a tree dies, and its trunk falls to the forest floor, it decays, and the nutrients it contains are recycled. However, if trees are removed from the forest, the nutrients are removed with it. The unprotected soil is then simply washed away in heavy rains. Droughts and famine Without rainforests continually recycling huge quantities of water, feeding the rivers, lakes and irrigation systems, droughts would become more common, potentially leading to widespread famine and disease. Commercial plantation crops would fail in the long run The plantation crops thrive in the tropics because of the conducive climatic conditions created by the rainforests. Extinction of indigenous communities When oil and logging companies come to remove vast areas of forest, they bring diseases that the indigenous people have no resistance to, threatening their survival. Often, they are also forced to move away from their homes to unfamiliar places, sometimes even killed in the process. [UPSC 2013] Which of the following is/are unique characteristic/characteristics of equatorial forests? 1) Presence of tall, closely set trees with crowns forming a continuous canopy. 2) Coexistence of a large number of species 3) Presence of numerous varieties of epiphytes Select the correct answer using the code given below: a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: every single statement is correct Desert Biome The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or drought resistant. This includes the cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses, and scattered dwarf acacias. The seeds of many grasses and herbs have thick, tough skins to protect them while they lie dormant. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 60 Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well spaced out to gather moisture and search for groundwater. Plants have few or no leaves, and the foliage is either waxy, leathery, hairy, or needle-shaped to reduce water loss through transpiration. 6.2. Aquatic Ecosystems Aquatic ecosystems refer to plant and animal communi-ties occurring in water bodies. They are classified into two subgroups: 1) Freshwater ecosystems, such as rivers, lakes, and ponds; 2) Marine ecosystems, such as oceans, estuaries, and mangroves. They are classified based on salinity into the following types: 1. Freshwater ecosystems: water on land that is continuously cycling and has low salt content (always less than 5 ppt) is known as freshwater. There are two types of freshwater ecosystems: 1) Static/still water (Lentic) ecosystems, e.g. ponds, lakes, bogs and swamps. 2) Running water (Lotic) ecosystems, e.g. springs, streams, rivers, etc. 2. Marine ecosystems: the water bodies containing salt concentration equal to or above that of seawater (i.e., 35 ppt or above). E.g., shallow seas and open oceans. 3. Brackish water ecosystems: these water bodies have salt content between 5 to 35 ppt. e.g., estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps and mangrove forests. Aquatic Organisms The aquatic organisms are classified based on their zone of occurrence.  Neuston: These organisms live at the air-water interface, e.g. floating plants.  Periphyton: These are organisms that remain attached to stems and leaves of rooted plants or substances emerging above the bottom mud, such as sessile algae.  Plankton: Microscopic floating organisms such as algae (plant-like protists), diatoms, protozoans, larval forms, etc., are called plankton. This group includes microscopic plants like algae (phytoplankton – WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 61 primary producers or autotrophs) and animals like crustaceans and protozoans (zooplankton – heterotrophs). The locomotory power of the planktons is limited so that their distribution is controlled, essentially, by currents in the aquatic ecosystems.  Nekton: This group contains powerful swimmers that can overcome water currents.  Benthos: The benthic organisms are those found living at the bottom of the water mass. Factors Limiting the Productivity Sunlight The depth to which light penetrates a water body determines the extent of plant distribution. Suspended particulate matters such as clay, silt, phytoplankton, etc., make the water turbid. Turbidity limits the extent of light penetration and photosynthetic activity in a significant way. Based on light penetration and plant distribution, layers of water are classified as photic and aphotic zones. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 62 Photic zone Photic (euphotic) zone is the portion that extends from the water surface down to where the light level is 1% of that at the surface. Photosynthetic activity is confined to the photic zone. Aphotic zone The lower layers of the aquatic ecosystems, where light penetration and plant growth are restricted, form the aphotic (profundal) zone. It extends from the end of the photic zones to the bottom of the lake. There is no photosynthesis in this zone. Dissolved oxygen In freshwater, the average concentration of dissolved oxygen is 10 parts per million by weight. This is 150 times lower than the concentration of oxygen in an equivalent volume of air. Oxygen enters the aquatic ecosystem through the air-water interface and the photosynthetic activities of aquatic plants. Dissolved oxygen escapes the water body through the air-water interface, respiration, and decomposition of organisms (fish, decomposers, zooplankton, etc.) Winterkill An ice layer on the top of a water body can effectively cut off the light. Photosynthesis stops, but respiration continues in such a water body. If the water body is shallow, the dissolved oxygen gets depleted, and the fish die. This condition is known as winterkill. Impact of Global Warming on Dissolved Oxygen The amount of dissolved oxygen retained in water is also influenced by temperature. Oxygen is less soluble in warm water. Warm water also enhances decomposer activity. Therefore, a temperature increase in a water body (due to global warming) increases the rate at which oxygen is depleted in water. When the dissolved oxygen level falls below 3-5 ppm, many aquatic organisms are likely to die. Temperature Since water temperatures are less subject to change, the aquatic organisms have a narrow temperature tolerance limit. As a result, even small changes in water temperature are a great threat to the survival of aquatic organisms when compared to the changes in air temperatures in terrestrial organisms. 6.3. Natural Ecosystem Services and Goods Ecosystem services are the diverse benefits provided to humans by the natural environment and from healthy ecosystems. Ecosystem goods refer to the natural products harvested by humans from the environment, such as wild fruit and nuts, forage, timber, game, natural fibres, medicines and so on. The ecosystem services can be grouped under the following broad categories:  Cultural: tourism, recreation, etc.  Provisioning: food, drinking water, genetic resources, medicinal herbs, energy from biomass, etc.  Economic: crops, raw materials, etc.  Regulating: carbon sequestration, decomposition, detoxification, healthy biodiversity, climate stabilisation, reducing the risk of extreme weather events, etc.  Ecological: nutrient cycling, breakdown of pollutants, flood protection, generation and renewal of soils etc.) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 63 Quantifying the Economic Value of Natural Ecosystems (Ecosystem valuation) Ecosystem valuation is an economic process assigning monetary value to an ecosystem and its ecosystem services. Quantifying the economic value of natural ecosystems provides a tool for policymakers to evaluate management impacts and compare a cost-benefit analysis of potential policies. For example, before replacing a forest with industry, considering the human welfare benefits of a forest — reducing flooding and erosion while sequestering carbon, providing habitat for endangered species, and absorbing harmful chemicals — will help policymakers make a better cost-benefit analysis and a better final decision. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) TEEB was a study hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and led by Indian environmental economist Pavan Sukhdev. The study’s objectives were to establish a global standard for natural capital accounting, mainstream the values of biodiversity and ecosystem services into decision-making at all levels and highlight the growing cost of biodiversity loss.  Natural Capital  ecosystems providing invaluable ecosystem services. E.g., Flood protection by mangroves. [UPSC 2016] With reference to an initiative called ‘The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)’, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2016) 1) It is an initiative hosted by UNEP, IMF and World Economic Forum. 2) It is a global initiative that focuses on drawing attention to the economic benefits of biodiversity. 3) It presents an approach that can help decision-makers recognize, demonstrate and capture the value of ecosystems and biodiversity. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 64 Select the correct answer using the code given below. a) 1 and 2 only b) 3 only c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: Statement 1) is false; d) 2 and 3 only Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement The Tyler Prize is an annual award administered by the University of Southern California for environmental science, environmental health, and energy. The 2020 Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement was awarded to Pavan Sukhdev in recognition of his work on the first report of TEEB published in 2008. Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) The Himalayan states have been demanding a green bonus for keeping critical ecosystems intact. These states have been getting incentives based on their forest cover under a formula by the Finance Commission. This sort of incentive, called payment for ecosystems services (PES), is an emerging global demand to conserve ecosystems. The 13th FC allocated Rs. 5,000 crore to states based on the area under forest cover and canopy density. The 14th FC (2015-20) included forest cover as a determining factor in a state’s share. In distributing funds to states, FC attached only a 7.5% weight to forest cover. Population, demographic change, and area are the other factors that decide the share in the tax pool. Hence the Himalayan states have not been a clear winner under this arrangement. Ecological services offered by the Himalayan States  Himalayan states have a forest in around 41.5 per cent of their geographical area — a third of the country’s forest cover, according to the National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystems (NAPCC).  The total value of forest ecosystem services flowing from the Indian Himalayas is Rs 94,300 crore per year.  Himalayas are one of India’s major carbon sink. Estimates of the forest carbon pool in the Indian Himalayas is about 5.4 billion tonnes (forest biomass + forest soil).  Himalayas forests avert soil erosion from the world’s youngest mountain range.  Annually, 1,200 billion cubic metres of water flow through the Himalayan rivers. Global scenario Globally, the services an ecosystem provides are getting increasing policy attention. In 2010, the Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity held in Nagoya accepted environmental goods as part of the national accounts (monetary value of ecological services). Amazon Fund There is a billion-dollar Amazon Fund backed by Norway (a petroleum exporter) and Germany to save the Amazon forests. It is a REDD+ mechanism created to raise donations for efforts to prevent, monitor & combat deforestation & promote sustainable use in the Brazilian Amazon. Brazilian Development Bank manages the Amazon Fund. The Brazilian government wants to alter the governance model for the Amazon fund and wants to exploit forest resources and use forest land for economic development. Norway and Germany are against such a decision. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 65 Gross Environment Product (GEP) and Green GDP Gross Environment Product (GEP) is an assessment system that measures ecosystem services of any area in terms of biophysical value and monetary value. It is one of the components of Green GDP. Green Gross Domestic Product (GGDP) is an index of economic growth with the environmental consequences of that growth factored into a country’s conventional GDP. It monetises the loss of biodiversity and accounts for costs caused by climate change. In Bhutan, culture, society, economy, and environment are linked in the development framework of Gross National Happiness (GNH). The Uttarakhand government recently announced it will initiate the valuation of its natural resources as Gross Environment Product (GEP).  Green GDP = GDP – Net natural capital consumption (resource depletion + environmental degradation and protective and restorative environmental initiatives). Ecosystem Services by Seagrass Seagrass (not grass, as the name suggests) are aquatic flowering plants (angiosperms). They are found in shallow salty and brackish waters in many parts of the world, from the tropics to the Arctic Circle. The depth at which seagrass is found is limited by turbidity. Seagrasses occur all along with the coast of India. They are abundant in the Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar. Importance of Seagrass  Seagrass are considered ecosystem engineers (alter the ecosystem around them and adapt rapidly to changing environmental conditions). Dugong or Sea Cow (VU) is a herbivorous marine mammal that relies on seagrass for food.  Seagrass can store CO2 using their own biomass as well as by filtering out fine organic material in water. An acre of seagrass can store about three times as much carbon as an acre of rainforest. Globally, seagrass meadows are responsible for more than 10% of carbon buried in the ocean, even though they occupy just 0.2% of the area.  Seagrass produces oxygen and are highly productive and support a high diversity of organisms. The habitats act as nursery grounds for commercially and recreationally (tourism) valued fishery species.  They dissipate wave energy, thereby protecting vulnerable shorelines from erosion. Large meadows of seagrass can help protect seawalls by adequate damping of waves.  They enhance water quality by stabilising heavy metals, pollutants, and excess nutrients. They can trap fine sediment on the seabed and prevent harmful algal blooms (eutrophication).  Seagrasses are collected as fertilisers for sandy soil. [UPSC 2015] With reference to ‘dugong’, a mammal found in India, which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. It is a herbivorous marine animal. 2. It is found along the entire coast of India. 3. It is given legal protection under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Select the correct answer using the code given below. a) 1 and 2 b) 2 only WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 66 c) 1 and 3 d) 3 only Explanation: The dugong is a herbivorous mammal. It eats seagrass and aquatic plants found in shallow oceans (at depths, seagrass and aquatic plants don’t grow due to the absence of sunlight). In India, its range is limited to the south (Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar) and west coast (Gulf of Kutch). The depletion of seagrass resources on the east coast has made the dugong locally extinct. Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 Harming endangered (vulnerable, endangered, critically endangered) species listed in Schedule 1 of the Act is prohibited throughout India. Hunting species, like those requiring special protection (Schedule II), big game (Schedule III), and small game (Schedule IV), is regulated through licensing. A few species classified as vermin (Schedule V) may be hunted without restrictions. Answer: c) 1 and 3 Threats faced by seagrass Natural disturbances: grazing, storms, and desiccation. Human disturbance: eutrophication, mechanical destruction of habitat, and overfishing. Eutrophication Excessive input of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus) is directly toxic to seagrasses. They stimulate the growth of epiphytic and free-floating macro- and micro-algae. Macroalgae (nuisance species) form thick unattached mats or epiphytes over seagrass leaves. This increases turbidity, reducing photosynthesis in seagrass (autotrophs). Benthic (bottom) macroalgae have low carbon/nitrogen content, causing their decomposition to stimulate bacterial activity, leading to sediment resuspension and a further increase in water turbidity. Decaying seagrass leaves and algae fuels increase in algal blooms (algae start dominating seagrass). Eutrophication eventually leads to anoxic (deficient in oxygen) conditions for the seagrass and other organisms. Ecosystem Services by Seaweed Seagrasses are vascular plants and have roots, stems and leaves. In comparison, seaweed is the common name for species of primitive non-flowering marine plants (without roots, vascular system, stem, and leaves), microalgae and macroalgae. They grow in shallow waters in the tidal zone (intertidal region), estuaries and backwaters. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 67 Some seaweeds are microscopic, such as the phytoplankton that lives suspended in the water column. Some are enormous, like the giant kelp that grows in abundant forests from their roots at the bottom. Commercial Significance  Seaweed is full of vitamins, minerals, and fibre. They contain anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial agents. Certain seaweeds possess powerful cancer-fighting agents.  Seaweeds are effective binding agents (emulsifiers) and are used in commercial goods like toothpaste, fruit jelly, and ice cream and as softeners (emollients) in organic cosmetics and skin-care products. Ecological Importance of Seaweed Cultivation Treating coastal pollution  Seaweeds absorb the excess nutrients and reduce algal blooms. They trap excess levels of iron in the water by using iron for photosynthesis. Similarly, most heavy metals found in marine ecosystems are removed by seaweeds. Oxygen and Nutrient Supply  Seaweeds supply oxygen and organic nutrients to other marine life forms. Large seaweeds form dense underwater forests known as kelp forests which act as underwater nurseries for fish and other marine life forms. Ocean Macroalgal Afforestation (OMA)  Seaweeds exhibit the highest photosynthesis efficiency due to moist conditions. They contribute to about 50% of all photosynthesis. Hence, seaweed farming is the ideal prospect for Ocean Macroalgal Afforestation (OMA).  Ocean Afforestation has the potential to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations through expanding natural populations of macroalgae (seaweed), which absorb carbon dioxide. Seaweed can then be harvested to produce biomethane via anaerobic digestion. Other Utilities  They can be used as fertilizers in aquaculture.  Methane emission from cattle may be reduced substantially if seaweed is used as feed.  Seaweed can be very helpful in combating beach erosion. Seaweed Cultivation: Potential in India India is among the 12 mega-biodiversity nations in the world. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2.17 million km2 . The Indian coastline, with its different coastal ecosystems, supports the luxuriant growth of diverse seaweed populations, having considerable economic importance. About 844 seaweed species are reported from India, which has a coastline of 7,500 km. On the West Coast, especially in Gujarat, abundant resources are present in the intertidal and subtidal regions. These resources have great potential for the development of seaweed-based industries in India. Tamil Nadu (Gulf of Mannar and Pulicat), Gujarat coasts, Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lake Chilka (Orissa) are abundant in seaweed. Rich seaweed beds are also found around Mumbai, Ratnagiri, Goa, Karwar, Varkala, Vizhinjam, Lake Chilka (Orissa). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 68 Challenges to seaweed harvesting in India Seaweed cultivation in India remains unpopular. Labour shortages occur during the paddy harvesting and transplanting season. Lack of livelihood security due to low wages and bad weather. Lack of technology to improve processed products. Lack of information on new and alternative sources of raw material. Risky as they must be collected from depths of more than 25 to 30 feet. Over-exploitation: While India has a rich source of seaweed varieties, we have focused only on harvesting and not cultivation, thus leading to over-exploitation. Less market demand: lack of awareness about health benefits act as a hindrance to nutrition transition among the population.

8. Biodiversity and Loss of Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the variety of plant, animal, and microbial species plus all the genetic variations in the world or a particular habitat. The Amazonian rainforest has the most extraordinary biodiversity on earth. About 8.7 million is the estimated total number of species on earth, with 6.5 million on land and 2.2 million in oceans. 86% of all species on land and 91% in the seas are yet to be discovered! A large proportion of the species waiting to be discovered are in the tropics. Only about 1.2 million species have been formally described. More than 70 per cent of all the species recorded are animals, while plants (including algae, fungi, bryophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms) comprise no more than 22 per cent of the total. Among animals, insects are the most species-rich taxonomic group, making up more than 70 per cent of the total. 8.1. Terms Related to Biodiversity Biodiversity Definition by WHO: Biodiversity underpins all life on earth and refers to biological variety in all its forms, from the genetic makeup of plants and animals to cultural diversity. Biodiversity is measured by two major components: species richness and species evenness. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 89 Species Richness Species Richness measures the number of species found in a community. Tropical rainforests in the terrestrial ecosystem and coral reefs in the marine ecosystem have the highest degree of species richness. Species Evenness Species evenness is a measure of the relative abundance of the different species making up the richness of an area. Low evenness means a few species dominate the site. Example: A sample forest A has 2 tigers, 6 deer and 7 rabbits and sample forest B has 1 tiger, 6 deer and 8 rabbits. Both samples have the same richness (3 species) and the number of individuals (15). However, sample forest A has more evenness than sample forest B. Alpha, Beta and Gamma Diversity Alpha Diversity: It refers to the diversity within a particular area or ecosystem and is usually expressed by the number of species (i.e., species richness) in that ecosystem. Beta Diversity: It compares diversity (change in the number of species) between ecosystems. Gamma Diversity: It measures the overall diversity of the different ecosystems within a region. Genetic Diversity Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. A single species might show high diversity at the genetic level (E.g., Homo sapiens: Chinese, Indian, African etc.). Genetic diversity allows species to adapt to changing environments. It ensures that some species survive drastic changes and carry on desirable genes. Species that differ from one another in their genetic makeup (not just the genetic characteristics) do not interbreed in nature. Closely related species have in common many of their hereditary characteristics. For instance, about 98.4 per cent of the genes of humans and chimpanzees are the same. Species Diversity Species diversity is a measure of the diversity within an ecological community that incorporates both species richness and the evenness of species. It is the ratio of one species’ population over the total number of organisms across all species in the given biome. ‘0’ would be infinite diversity, and ‘1’ represents only one species present. In general, species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator towards the poles, with a few exceptions. Ecological Diversity Ecological diversity refers to different types of habitats. India, for instance, with its deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries, and alpine meadows, has a greater ecosystem diversity than a Scandinavian country like Norway. Endemism Endemism is the ecological state of a species unique to a defined geographic location, such as an island, nation, country or other defined zone or habitat type. Organisms indigenous to a place are not endemic if they are also found elsewhere. A particular type of animal or plant may be endemic to a zone, a state, or a country. The opposite of endemism is cosmopolitan distribution. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 90 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart Species Types 91 Keystone species Keystone species determine the survival of many other species in an ecosystem. The addition or loss of a keystone species from an ecosystem leads to significant changes in the occurrence of at least one other species. If a keystone species is lost, it will result in the degradation of the whole ecosystem. Hence top predators and other keystone species are given much consideration in conservation. All top predators (Tiger, Lion, Crocodile) and key species like elephants, corals and pollinators are considered keystone WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 92 species because they regulate all other animal populations indirectly. For example, certain plant species (ebony tree, Indian laurel) exclusively depends upon bats for their pollination. If the bat population is reduced, then the regeneration of plants becomes more difficult. Bioprospecting Bioprospecting refers to exploring biodiversity for commercially valuable genetic resources and biochemicals. As an activity, it involves deriving products of economic importance by nations endowed with rich biodiversity by exploring their molecular, genetic, and species diversity. Biopiracy Biopiracy occurs when genetic resources and traditional knowledge is taken from biodiverse developing countries without permission. In biopiracy, the stolen traditional knowledge is used to benefit the non-indigenous people through a product or patent with no compensation received by the indigenous people. Some in the west pass off biopiracy as bioprospecting. Biopiracy of India’s genetic resources and traditional knowledge by advanced economies and large corporations is a significant concern. The Nagoya Protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) addresses the issues concerning the fair and equitable sharing of benefits from using traditional knowledge and genetic resources. 8.2. Biodiversity of India The mega-diverse countries are those whose ecosystems have extraordinarily rich biodiversity supporting the majority of the earth’s species, including a large number of endemic species. Although they only account for around 10% of the earth’s surface, they house at least 70% of the planet’s terrestrial biological diversity. The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) has identified a total of 17 mega-diverse countries: Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Ecuador, United States, Philippines, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa and Venezuela. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 93 India is one of the mega-diverse countries, rich in biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge. It has 24.62% of its area under forest and tree cover. With just 2.4% of the land area, India accounts for nearly 7- 8% of the recorded species, even while supporting almost 18% of the human population. India represents two realms, five biomes, ten bio-geographic zones and twenty-five bio-geographic provinces with 91,000 species of animals and 45,500 species of plants. Of these 12.6% of mammals, 4.5% of birds, 45.8% of reptiles, 55.8% of amphibians and 33% of Indian plants are endemic. Realms Biogeographic realms are large spatial regions within which ecosystems share a broadly similar biota. In the world, eight terrestrial biogeographic realms are typically recognised. The Indian region falls in two realms: 1) the Himalayan region represented by the Palearctic Realm, and 2) the rest of the sub-continent represented by the Malayan Realm. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 94 Biomes, Biogeographic Zones and Provinces The term biome means the main groups of plants and animals living in areas of specific climate patterns. It represents how animals, vegetation and soil interact together. The five biomes of India are: 1. Tropical Humid Forests 2. Tropical Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests) 3. Warm deserts and semi-deserts 4. Coniferous forests 5. Alpine meadows Biogeography deals with the geographical distribution of plants and animals. The ten biogeographic zones were used as a basis for planning wildlife-protected areas in India. Bio-geographic Province is an ecosystemic or biotic subdivision of realms. India is divided into 25 biogeographic zones. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 95 Biogeographic Zones (10) Biogeographic Provinces (25) Trans Himalaya 1A: Himalaya – Ladakh Mountains 1B: Himalaya – Tibetan Plateau 1C: Trans – Himalaya Sikkim The Himalaya 2A: Himalaya – North West Himalaya 2B: Himalaya – West Himalaya 2C: Himalaya – Central Himalaya 2D: Himalaya – East Himalaya The Indian Desert 3A: Desert – Thar 3B: Desert – Kutch The Semi-Arid 4A: Semi-Arid – Punjab Plains 4B: Semi-Arid – Gujarat Rajputana The Western Ghats 5A: Western Ghats – Malabar Plains 5B: Western Ghats – Mountains The Deccan Peninsula 6A: Deccan Peninsular – Central Highlands 6B: Deccan Peninsular – Chotta Nagpur 6C: Deccan Peninsular – Eastern Highlands 6D: Deccan Peninsular – Central Plateau 6E: Deccan Peninsular – Deccan South The Gangetic Plains 7A: Gangetic Plain – Upper Gangetic Plains 7B: Gangetic Plain – Lower Gangetic Plains The Coasts 8A: Coasts – West Coast 8B: Coasts – East Coast 8C: Coasts – Lakshadweep Northeast India 9A: North-East – Brahmaputra Valley 9B: North-East – North East Hills Islands 10A: Islands – Andaman 10B: Islands – Nicobars 8.3. Biodiversity Hot Spots Biodiversity hotspots, as defined by British biologist Norman Myers, are biogeographic regions characterised by high species richness, a high degree of endemism, and sometimes severe levels of habitat loss. Conservation International (CI) adopted Myers’ hotspots, and in 1996, it undertook a reassessment of the hotspots concept.  Conservation International (CI) is an American non-profit environmental organisation working towards protecting nature for the benefit of people. According to CI, to qualify as a hotspot, a region must meet two strict criteria: 1. It must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (> 0.5% of the world’s total) as endemics – which is to say that it must have a high percentage of plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot, in other words, is irreplaceable. 2. It must have lost at least 70% of its original habitat. (It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation). In other words, it must be threatened. In 1999, CI identified 25 biodiversity hotspots. Currently, 36 areas qualify as hotspots representing just 2.5% of the earth’s land surface. They support more than half of the world’s plant species as endemics and nearly 43% of bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species as endemics. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 96  In 2011, the Forests of the East Australia region was identified as the 35th biodiversity hotspot. In 2016, the North American Coastal Plain region was identified as the 36th biodiversity hotspot. Hope Spots Hope Spot Network is a joint initiative of Mission Blue (a global coalition) & IUCN. A hope spot is Marine Protected Area that needs special protection because of its wildlife & significant underwater habitats. Lakshadweep Islands and Andaman Nicobar Islands are the Hope Spots Sites from India. Biodiversity Hotspots in India 1) Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region of India and of Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, China, & Myanmar. 2) Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-Eastern India, Andaman Group of Islands and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern China. 3) Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, and the Philippines. 4) Western Ghats and Sri Lanka [UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements: 1) Biodiversity hotspots are located only in tropical regions. 2) India has four biodiversity hotspots, i.e., Eastern Himalayas, Western Himalayas, Western Ghats and Andaman and the Nicobar Islands. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 97 a) 1 only b) 2 only c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither I nor 2 Explanation: Eastern Himalayas was originally part of the Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot and included Bhutan, North-Eastern India, and southern, central, and eastern Nepal. In 2004, a hotspot reappraisal classified the region as part of two hotspots: Indo-Burma and the newly distinguished Himalaya. The Himalaya Hotspot is home to important populations of vultures, tigers, elephants, rhinos, and wild water buffalo. Indo-Burma holds remarkable endemism in freshwater turtle species, most of which are threatened with extinction due to over-harvesting and extensive habitat loss. Sundaland Hotspot is threatened by the explosive growth of industrial forestry (palm and rubber plantations). Faced with tremendous population pressure, the forests of the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka have been dramatically impacted by the demands for timber and agricultural land. The region houses significant populations of Asian Elephants, Indian Tigers, the Lion-tailed Macaque, Niligiri tahr, the Indian Giant squirrel, etc. Answer: d) neither The list of Major Wildlife Species of India is included in the chapter ‘Major Species and Species In News’. 8.4. Loss of Biodiversity Biodiversity loss is a decrease in biodiversity within a species, an ecosystem, or a geographic area. It includes the decline in the number (species richness), genetic variability, variety of species, etc. in each area. The IUCN Red List (2014) documents the extinction of 784 species in the last 500 years. Some examples include the extinction of the Passenger Pigeon, Steller’s Sea Cow and three subspecies of tigers (Bali, Javan and Caspian). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 98 During the long period (> 3 billion years) since the origin and diversification of life on earth, there were five episodes of mass extinction of species. The Sixth Extinction (anthropogenic) is presently in progress, with species extinction rates estimated to be 100 to 1,000 times faster than in pre-human times. Ecologists warn that if the present trends continue, nearly half of all the species on earth might be wiped out within the next 100 years. The Extent of Biodiversity Loss as per IPBES Report The IPBES 2019 report is called the “Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 2019.” According to this report, the estimated number of species on earth is 8 million (including 5.5 million insect species). Up to 1 million species are threatened with extinction, many within decades. The threatened list includes 40% of amphibian species, 33% of reef-forming corals, and more than a third of all marine mammals. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) IPBES, based in Bonn, Germany, comprises 130 member countries, including India. It examines scientific literature on biodiversity. Hence, it is often described as the “Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for biodiversity”. It prepared the UN-sponsored Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 2019 report. Key Points From Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 2019 Nearly half of the natural ecosystems have vanished due to human activities. Humans have severely altered 75% of the land, 40% of marine environments and 50% of inland waterways:  300% increase in food crop production since 1970.  More than 100% growth in urban areas since 1992.  23% of land areas have decreased productivity due to land degradation.  50% of agricultural expansion at the expense of forests.  16-21 cm rise in global average sea level since 1900.  100% increase since 1980 in GHG emissions, raising the average global temperature by 0.7 degrees.  Plastic pollution alone has increased tenfold since 1980. 100-300 million people in coastal areas are at increased risk due to the loss of coastal habitat protection. Less than 1% of the land is used for mining, but it has significant negative impacts on the environment. 1,000 green activists and journalists reporting environmental issues were killed between 2002 and 2013. Living Planet Report 2022 Living Planet Report is a biennial report released by World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) since 1998. According to the 2022 report, there has been a 69% decline in the wildlife populations of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and fish across the globe in the last 50 years. The highest decline in the wildlife populations (94%) was in Latin America and the Caribbean. Africa recorded a 66% fall, whereas the Asia-Pacific recorded a decline of 55%. Freshwater species populations globally were reduced by 83%. Mangroves continue to be lost to aquaculture, agriculture, & coastal development at a rate of 0.13% per year. The State of the World’s Birds WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 99 BirdLife International recently published its annual update, The State of the World’s Birds. Around 48% of bird species worldwide are suspected to be undergoing population declines. Whereas 39% showed stable trends, 6% showed increasing trends, & 7% with unknown trends. 1 in 8 bird species is threatened with extinction. 867 species of Indian birds were assessed. 80% of these are suspected to be undergoing population declines. Whereas 6% show stable trends and 14% show increasing trends. The maximum decline occurs in bird species dependent on forests, followed by grasslands and wetlands. Trophic cascade effect is among the major threats.  A trophic cascade is a side-effect when a trophic level (species) of the ecosystem is reduced or removed. This triggers a cascade (series of events/effects on other species) that changes the balance of the entire ecosystem. Prelims Practice: Consider the following statements regarding ‘The State of the World’s Birds’. 1. It’s being published by the IUCN as a part of its Red List. 2. It found that about half of the existing bird species worldwide are suspected to be undergoing decline. Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? a) 1 only b) 2 only c) 1 & 2 both d) Neither 1 nor 2 Explanation: The State of the World’s Birds is published by BirdLife International along with several other research organisations. Hence statement 1 is not correct. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS - Learn Smart 100 Answer: b) 2 only 8.5. Causes Behind Biodiversity Loss Natural ecological disturbances, such as weather, wildfire, floods, and volcanic eruptions, change ecosystems drastically by eliminating local populations of some species. Such disturbances are temporary because natural disturbances are common, and ecosystems have adapted to their challenges (ecological succession). Permanent biodiversity loss is typically associated with mass extinction events and anthropogenic causes — The Evil Quartet — Habitat loss, Overexploitation, Alien species and Secondary extinction. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) identified six key threats to biodiversity. They are agriculture, hunting, logging, pollution, invasive species, and climate change. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation Habitat loss refers to the reduction in space where a particular species or a community of species can survive and reproduce. The most dramatic examples of habitat loss come from tropical rainforests. Once covering more than 14 per cent of the earth’s land surface, the rainforests now cover no more than 6 per cent. The Amazon rain forest (called the ‘lungs of the planet’) is being cleared for cultivating soybean or for conversion to grasslands for raising beef cattle (ranching). Wetlands are being made dry through landfills as the demand for land increases. Natural forests are cleared for industry, agriculture, dams, habitation, recreational sports, etc. Habitat fragmentation is the process in which a large expanse of ecologically prominent habitat is transformed into many smaller patches (less productive) isolated by a matrix of habitats (human-made) unlike the original. Habitat loss and habitat fragmentation are the direst causes behind driving animals and plants to extinction. Consequence: Barrier Effect and Associated Damage Habitat fragmentation increases the risk of inbreeding. Inbreeding is the mating of organisms closely related by ancestry. It goes against the biological aim of mating, which is the shuffling of DNA. Inbreeding limits the gene pool and creates inbreeding depression, which means the population decreases due to a lack of healthy mates, and there is an increased risk of local extinction. Explanation Genes in DNA fall into two categories, dominant and recessive. If one of the genes in the pair is dominant, then the result is that the animal/organism gains the trait of the dominant gene. However, for traits that originate from the recessive gene, the organism needs both genes to be recessive. This is important as some recessive alleles carry genetic diseases and congenital defects (physical abnormalities present from birth) in humans and animals. Inbreeding increases the risk of offspring being born with such genetic conditions since the chances of parents carrying the same recessive gene are significantly increased. For example, inbreeding in koalas in Australia has put the species at risk of local extinction by just one disease. Central India’s tigers have the highest genetic variation. This has been made possible by the significant habitats available in the past. But today, due to linear projects like highways that isolate populations, the risk of inbreeding of disease and local extinction has increased significantly. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS - Learn Smart 101 Fragmentation of India’s Tiger Habitats Due to Highways  According to an estimate, around 55,000 km of roads pass through India’s forests and protected areas.  GOI will construct a 36 km-long flyover above NH 37, which passes through the Kaziranga National Park.  NH 44 — India’s longest highway (from Srinagar to Kanyakumari) — cuts through corridors connecting Kanha, Satpura, Pench, Bandhavgarh & Panna tiger reserves.  NH 6 — India’s second-longest highway (from Surat to Kolkata) — passes through corridors around Melghat, Bor, Nagzira, and Simlipal tiger reserves. Alien Species Invasions Invasive alien species are non-native species that spread rapidly and interfere in a new ecosystem by posing a severe threat to the native biodiversity, leading to economic loss. For example, the Nile perch fish introduced into Lake Victoria in East Africa eventually led to the extinction of an ecologically unique assemblage of more than 200 species of cichlid fish in the lake. Invasive species are the second-biggest cause of biodiversity loss, next to habitat destruction. When invasive species are introduced into an ecosystem, they may not have any natural predators or controls, and native wildlife may not have evolved defences against the invading species. A resin-like substance that oozes from such alien plant species makes the soil acidic, preventing the growth of any other plant species. Consequence: Destruction of Sholas by Invasive Species The Shola vegetation is tropical montane forests found in the Western Ghats separated by rolling grasslands in high altitudes (upper Nilgiris with peaks and plateaus ranging from 1,700 to 2,600 metres). Owing to the altitude, the Shola patches occur only in the folds of the mountains that receive the least fog. Invasive species like eucalyptus, tea plantations, wattle (acacia), Lantana, and naturalised alien species like Parthenium hysterophorus in the Nilgiris are wiping out Shola forests. Even the grasslands are in danger Frost traditionally restricted the forests in the Nilgiris from expanding as it freezes the groundwater and stops the sapling from sprouting in new areas. Over the years, the nights have become warmer, and the amount of frost has reduced in the Nilgiris. The reduced frost has allowed the acacia plantations to move beyond the Shola forests and enter the grasslands. This change in vegetation is resulting in the loss of water sources, causing massive landslides, and has deprived the original habitat of endangered species like Nilgiri Tahr (EN). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS - Learn Smart 102  Toda tribes are a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group settled in the upper Nilgiris. The pastoral Toda community’s livelihood depends entirely on the Shola grasslands. How are invasive species introduced into an ecosystem? Human activities like transportation primarily spread invasive species. Ships can carry aquatic organisms in their ballast water and on their propellers. Insects can get into wood that is shipped around the world. Some ornamental plants can escape into the wild and become invasive. Sometimes, humans voluntarily introduce an invasive species to control the population of another species. In addition, changes in rain and snow patterns caused by climate change will enable some invasive plant species to move into new areas. Threats to native wildlife from invasive species The direct threats of invasive species include:  preying on native species (E.g., African Catfish),  outcompeting native species for food or other resources,  causing or carrying disease, and  preventing native species from reproducing or killing a native species’ progenies. There are indirect threats of invasive species as well.  They can change the food web by destroying or replacing native food sources.  They may provide little to no food value for wildlife.  Aggressive plant species can quickly replace a diverse ecosystem with a monoculture.  Additionally, some invasive species can change soil chemistry or the intensity of wildfires. The list of Invasive Species is included in the chapter ‘Major Species and Species In News’. Over-Exploitation When human ‘needs’ turns to ‘greed’, it leads to the over-exploitation of natural resources. In the last 500 years, many species extinctions (Steller’s Sea Cow and Passenger Pigeon) were due to overexploitation by humans. Presently, many marine fish populations worldwide are over-harvested, endangering the continued existence of some commercially important species. Whales for oil, fish for food, trees for wood, plants for medicines etc., are being removed by humans at higher rates than they can be replaced. Excessive cutting of trees, overgrazing, collecting firewood, and hunting wild animals for skin and ivory result in the gradual loss of species. Large mammals such as the tiger, rhinoceros and elephant once faced the distinct possibility of complete extinction due to rampant hunting and poaching. Species Extinction Various processes cause extinction: 1) Deterministic processes that have a cause and effect. E.g., glaciations and human interference such as deforestation. 2) Stochastic processes (chance and random events) affect the survival and reproduction of individuals. E.g., unexpected changes in weather patterns decreased food supply, disease, an increase of competitors, predators, parasites, etc., that may act independently or add to deterministic effects. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS - Learn Smart 103 The impact of these processes will, of course, depend on the size and degree of genetic diversity and resilience of populations. Traits that adversely affect or increase a species’ vulnerability to extinction due to habitat fragmentation are:  rarity or low abundance  poor dispersal ability  high trophic status — animals occupying a higher trophic level usually have smaller populations than those at lower levels (carnivores are fewer in number than herbivores and are more vulnerable)  low adult survival rates Co-extinctions When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated with it in an obligatory way also become extinct. For example, when a host fish species becomes extinct, its unique assemblage of parasites also meets the same fate. Another example is the case of a coevolved plant-pollinator mutualism where the extinction of one invariably leads to the extinction of the other. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO/Transgenic Organisms) In GMOs, genetic material (DNA) is altered or artificially introduced using genetic engineering techniques like mutation, insertion, or deletion of genes. Inserted genes usually come from a different organism (e.g., In Bt cotton, Bt genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis are induced). Genetic modification is done to induce a desirable new trait that does not occur naturally in the species. The most common trait engineered into GMO crops is that they generate toxins within the plant cells. These toxins can be far more potent than expected and can remain in the environment for far too long. GMO species can become dominant and can overrun the existing species, thereby reducing biodiversity. Unintended transfer of transgenes through cross-pollination can cause unknown effects on other organisms (e.g., soil microbes) and lead to biodiversity loss. Also, most GMO crops are engineered for herbicide resistance, so weedkillers are liberally sprayed. Weeds are a problem, but diverse plant life protects the soil from erosion and nutrient loss. It supports the pollinators and other beneficial insects that do so much agricultural labour. While welcoming the weeds is not a practical solution, neither is wiping out plant life with toxic chemicals. The Curious Case of Genetically Modified Mosquitoes In the absence of an effective vaccine for dengue fever, Zika fever, chikungunya and other mosquito-borne diseases, researchers are exploring genetic strategies to reduce mosquito populations. A company called Oxitec developed GM male mosquitoes (GM strain of Aedes aegypti). These male GM mosquitoes are said to have a “self-limiting” gene. When these so-called friendly mosquitoes mate, their offspring inherit the self-limiting gene, which is supposed to prevent them from surviving into adulthood. In theory, when these mosquitoes are released in high numbers, a dramatic reduction in the mosquito population should follow. With approval from Brazilian authorities, Oxitec released nearly half a million GM mosquitoes every week into the environment from 2013 to 2015. Studies have since confirmed that some of the offspring of the GM mosquitoes did not succumb to the self-limiting lethal gene and survived to adulthood. They were able to breed with native mosquitoes and introduced some of their genes into the wild population. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS - Learn Smart 104 Thus, like in GM soybean or corn, there is legitimate concern about the propagation of new genetic material in wild populations with unknown consequences. Trade in Wildlife Many species of wildlife are threatened by unsustainable harvest and trade. The unsustainable use of wildlife creates a risk both for biodiversity and local livelihoods. Illegal wildlife trade contributes to habitat destruction, which removes necessary buffer zones between humans and wild fauna, making it more likely that animal pathogens come into contact with people. Specimens traded illegally are also much less likely to be sold or bought where sanitary standards are being adequately enforced, making the spreading of diseases more likely, thereby reducing local biodiversity. Pollution and Climate Change Marine biodiversity is affected by ocean acidification related to levels of carbon in the atmosphere. Terrestrial biodiversity is influenced by climate variability, such as extreme weather events. Longer-term climate changes affect the health of ecosystems, influencing shifts in the distribution of plants, pathogens, animals, and even humans. 8.6. Consequences of Loss of Biodiversity Affects Livelihood Human health depends on ecosystem products & services (such as the availability of freshwater, food, and fuel). Changes in ecosystem services affect livelihoods, income, and local migration and, on occasion, may even cause or exacerbate political conflict. Loss in biodiversity may limit the discovery of potential treatments for many diseases and health problems. Food and Nutritional Security Crisis Biodiversity plays a crucial role in human nutrition through its influence on world food production. It ensures the sustainable productivity of soils and provides the genetic resources for all crops, livestock, etc. Nutrition and biodiversity are linked at many levels: the ecosystem, with food production as an ecosystem service; the species in the ecosystem and the genetic diversity within species. Intensified food production through irrigation, fertiliser use, plant protection (pesticides), or the introduction of crop varieties and cropping patterns affects biodiversity and thus impacts global nutritional status. Healthy local diets, with adequate average nutrient intake, necessitate maintaining high biodiversity levels. Human-animal Conflict Human-animal conflict refers to the interaction between wild animals and people and the resultant negative impact on people or their resources or wild animals or their habitat. It occurs when wildlife needs overlap with those of human populations, creating costs to residents and wild animals. Causes  Human encroachment into forest lands.  Land use transformation – industrialisation, infrastructure development, commercial farming etc.  Species habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation due to the above-mentioned reasons.  Increasing livestock populations and competitive exclusion of wild herbivores.  The growing interest in ecotourism and increasing access to nature reserves. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS - Learn Smart 105  Abundant distribution of prey in the form of livestock on the periphery of forest lands.  Increasing wildlife population as a result of conservation programmes.  Climate change-induced habitat destruction.  Stochastic events (e.g., fire, floods etc.) Impacts  Crop and property damage.  Livestock depredation: Himalayan snow leopard preys on goats in the Himalayan region. Farmers trap and kill snow leopards to save their livestock.  Injuries & deaths: Man-eater tigers are reported to have injured and killed villagers on the periphery.  Injuries to wildlife: leopards and other wild animals are hacked to death by mobs. Preventive and Mitigation strategies  Artificial and natural barriers (physical/ biological) – costly.  Guarding – very expensive.  Alternative high-cost livestock husbandry practices.  Relocation: voluntary human population resettlement.  Waste management systems that restrict wildlife access to refuse.  Community-based natural resource management schemes (CBNRMS) Culling – Conservation or Biodiversity loss? Natural culling Culling means ‘Selection’. In the wild, it is the process of weeding out the weak. Culling naturally occurs by starvation, disease and predation. It is nature’s way of controlling the population. Culling by humans – controlled culling In the post-conservation era, human intervention became necessary for the management of wildlife populations through controlled hunting, which is now referred to as culling. Why did controlled culling become necessary?  Human-animal conflict – too many wild animals compete with humans for resources.  Threat to life and livelihood (crop, property damage) makes culling necessary.  Loss of forestland to mines, industry, agriculture, etc., is the primary reason behind the human-animal conflict.  Crop-raiding by smaller herbivores due to a population boom & animals raiding nutrient-rich crops like wheat and maize are other major reasons for human-animal conflict. The practice of Culling worldwide In the US, some areas require seasonal culling to ease pressure on livestock feed. In parts of Africa, culling has been used for commercial harvesting. Australia culls feral cats to protect native species. Australia also culls kangaroos. Recently Australia culled camels to regulate their overpopulation. In 2022, millions of bees (important pollinators) were exterminated in Australia amid the Varroa Mite outbreak. Varroa mites (parasitic insects that transmit the virus) are known to kill entire colonies of honeybees. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS - Learn Smart 106 Animal Welfare Activists vs Pro Culling Lobby Culling lobby: Affected farmers and government administration. Arguments against culling by activists Arguments by Culling lobby Ethical grounds: humans do not have the right. They support a practical and realistic approach. They believe every animal is ethically indispensable, even at the cost of putting entire species at risk. Conservationists are concerned about the integrity of the ecosystem and the future of the entire species. Culling is against animal conservation. Culling is for conservation. By law, wildlife is protected because they are too few and require protection. But when certain pockets see a population boom in herbivores, farmers cannot wait for predators to reoccupy such areas. The absence of lawful intervention often triggers retaliation by illegal means. In anger, farmers may indiscriminately target wildlife, including those that may not be causing any problems. Culling can increase people’s apathy (lack of interest or enthusiasm) for conserving other life forms. (Some people recruited to cull animals post their act on social media, glorifying killing an animal). No concrete evidence to prove that culling increases insensitivity among people. (But practically, it does. Many people enjoy hunting animals, and others might take inspiration from culling) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS - Learn Smart 107 They argue that human-animal conflict can be controlled through non-invasive means, including fencing crop fields, planting chilli around cropland, creating buffer areas between croplands and the forest’s edge, selecting non-edible crops, providing adequate and regular compensation for crop loss, etc. Fencing merely shifts conflict to the next accessible cropland. It is expensive, and its maintenance is not practical. Even the selection of crops that traditionally repelled animals does not seem to work any longer. For example, farmers in Sirmour, Himachal Pradesh, now complain that monkeys raid garlic fields that they avoided until recently. Other measures are primarily long-term and can keep a check on conflict only in situations where crop damage is still reasonable. Increased Zoonoses due to Habitat Loss Zoonoses (zoonotic diseases) are diseases transmitted from animals to humans. E.g., Rabies (dogs), Ebola (fruit bats), novel coronavirus Covid-19 (pangolin), etc. Zoonoses are opportunistic and thrive where there are changes in the environment, changes in animal populations that serve as hosts for specific pathogens, or changes in the pathogen itself. Zoonotic diseases are closely interlinked with the health of ecosystems. According to the UN Environment Programme (UNEP), 60% of human infectious diseases are zoonotic. IPBES estimates that zoonoses kill some 700,000 people yearly (the current COVID-19 is not considered). How does the change in ecosystems and biodiversity loss help Zoonoses thrive? Ecosystems are inherently resilient, and by supporting diverse species, they help regulate diseases. The less biodiverse an ecosystem gets, the easier it is for a pathogen to spread rapidly. By destroying forests for agriculture, industries, etc., humans fragment and encroach into animal habitats. This brings wildlife close to human settlements as the natural buffer that generally separate humans from animals is destroyed. This creates opportunities for pathogens to spill over from wild animals to humans. Adverse Changes to Biotic Interactions Even though a species may not have been eliminated from the ecosystem, its niche (the role the species play in the ecosystems it inhabits) diminishes as its numbers fall. If the niches filled by a single species or a group of species are critical to the proper ecosystem functioning, a sudden decline in numbers may produce significant changes in the ecosystem’s structure. For example, clearing trees from a forest eliminates the shading, temperature and moisture regulation, animal habitat, and nutrient transport services they provide to the ecosystem.

9. Biodiversity Conservation

Biodiversity conservation leads to the conservation of ecological and genetic diversity, preserving the continuity of food chains. It assures sustainable utilisation of resources and a constant flow of ecosystem services and goods. When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all levels is protected. E.g., we save the entire forest to save the tiger. This approach is called in-situ (on-site) conservation. However, when an animal or plant is endangered or threatened and needs urgent measures to save it from extinction, ex-situ (off-site) conservation is the desirable approach. 9.1. In situ conservation In-situ conservation is the on-site conservation of genetic resources in natural populations of plant or animal species. In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich regions are legally conserved on-site as biosphere reserves, national parks, sanctuaries, reserved forests, protected forests and nature reserves, each accorded a certain degree of protection. Reserved and Protected Forests Reserved (reserve) forests and protected forests, declared through a notification by the respective state governments, are granted protection under the Indian Forest Act of 1927. Typically, reserved forests are often upgraded to the status of wildlife sanctuaries, which in turn may be upgraded to national parks, with each category receiving a higher degree of protection and government funding. The protected forests and reserved forests differ in one single aspect: rights to all activities like hunting, grazing, etc., in Reserved Forests are banned unless specific orders are issued otherwise (all activities are prohibited unless permitted). In Protected Forests, such rights are sometimes given to communities living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood from forest resources or products.  In terms of protection, National Parks > Wildlife Sanctuary > Reserved forests > Protected forests Wildlife Sanctuaries or Wildlife Refuges Wildlife Sanctuaries or wildlife refuges are areas where endangered species are safeguarded from extinction in their natural habitat (home range). They are safe from hunting, predation, or competition. A sanctuary can be promoted to a National Park. Wildlife Sanctuaries, declared through a notification (no need to pass legislation) by the respective state governments, are granted protection under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. The State Government appoints an officer as a collector to determine the extent of the rights of any person. The Chief Wildlife Warden controls, manages and maintains the wildlife sanctuaries. Certain rights of people living inside the sanctuary could be permitted. Grazing and firewood collection by tribals is allowed but strictly regulated. Settlements are not allowed (but in some wildlife sanctuaries, tribal settlements exist. Constant efforts are made to relocate them). Tiger Reserves WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 109 The protection status of tiger reserves is the same as wildlife sanctuaries. But they are monitored by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA — constituted under the Wild Life Protection Act of 1972. It is responsible for implementing Project Tiger). The various tiger reserves were created in the country based on the core buffer strategy. National Park National parks, just like wildlife sanctuaries, are declared through a notification by the respective state governments. They are also granted protection under the Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972. The significant difference between a sanctuary and a national park lies in the vesting of rights of people living inside.  Unlike a Sanctuary, where certain rights can be allowed, in a National Park, no rights are permitted.  No livestock grazing shall also be permitted inside a National Park, while in a sanctuary, the Chief Wildlife Warden may regulate, control, or prohibit it.  Boundaries of wildlife sanctuaries are not specified, while they are clearly defined (demarcated) in the case of national parks by the state governments. The state government has all the rights of lands to be included in the national parks. But only on the recommendation of the National Board of Wildlife the state legislature can make the changes to the boundaries of national parks and other protected areas (sanctuaries, conservation/community reserves).  The Supreme Court in June 2022 directed that “mining within the national parks and wildlife sanctuaries shall not be permitted”. Biosphere Reserve Biosphere reserves are large areas of protected terrestrial, marine and coastal ecosystems. UNESCO terms biosphere reserves as ‘learning places for sustainable development’ involving the conservation of wildlife, plant and animal resources and the traditional life of the tribals. A biosphere reserve in India may have one or more national parks or wildlife sanctuaries. Biosphere Reserves are designated (recognised) under UNESCO’s intergovernmental Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme after the national governments nominate them. They are internationally recognised by UNESCO’s MAB but are administered under the sovereign jurisdiction of countries. Designation of a site as a biosphere reserve does not affect the legal status of the land, forests and regulations for natural resources, and their ownership remains unchanged. The Indian National Man and Biosphere (IN-MAB) Committee under MoEF identifies and recommends potential sites for designation as biosphere reserves, following UNESCO’s guidelines and criteria. The State Government prepares the Management Action Plan which is approved and monitored by In-MAB. The Government of India provides financial assistance in a 90:10 ratio to the North Eastern states and three Himalayan states and a ratio of 60:40 to other states for maintenance, improvement, and development. UNESCO’s Criteria for designation  A site must contain an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core area.  The core area should sustain viable populations representing all trophic levels in the ecosystem.  A management authority to ensure the cooperation of local (tribal) communities. Seville Strategy WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 110 In 1995, after an international conference in Seville, Spain, Seville Strategy for biosphere reserves was adopted. Under the strategy, criteria for biosphere reserves were revised to include the social, cultural, spiritual, and economic needs of society (community-based approach — enhancing the relationship between people and their environments) alongside scientific research. Core Buffer Strategy Core area It comprises a strictly protected ecosystem for conserving ecosystems, species and genetic variation. In the core or natural zone, human activity is not allowed. A core zone, primarily a national park or sanctuary, is regulated mainly under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972. Buffer zone Limited human activity is permitted. The zones are used for scientific research, monitoring, training, limited recreation and education. Transition area Ecologically sustainable human settlements and economic activities (tourism, agriculture, forestry) are permitted in the transition area. [UPSC 2014] The most important strategy for the conservation of biodiversity together with traditional human life is the establishment of a) biosphere reserves b) botanical gardens c) national parks d) wildlife sanctuaries WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 111 Explanation: National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries discourage all sorts of human activity. Answer: a) Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) ESZs are areas notified by the MoEF around national parks & wildlife sanctuaries. The purpose of the ESZ was to provide more protection to the parks and sanctuaries by acting as a shock absorber or transition zone to minimise forest depletion and human-animal conflict. The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002–2016) of MoEF stipulated that state governments should declare land falling within 10 km of the boundaries of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries as eco-fragile zones or ESZs under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986. The width of the ESZ and the type of regulation may vary from protected area to area. The GOI can also notify areas beyond 10 km as ESZs if they hold larger ecologically important “sensitive corridors”. The Supreme Court in June 2022 directed that every protected forest, national park, and wildlife sanctuary across the country should have a mandatory eco-sensitive zone (ESZ) of a minimum of one km starting from their demarcated boundaries. ESZ areas are based on the core and buffer model of management. The core area has the legal status of being a national park. The buffer area, however, does not have the legal status of being a national park and could be a reserved forest, wildlife sanctuary or tiger reserve.  Recently, the Bhagirathi Eco-Sensitive Zone (4179.59 sq km) from Gaumukh to Uttarkashi was notified by MoEF. Legal Status The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 does not mention the word “Eco–Sensitive Zones”. The act only states that GOI can restrict areas in which any industries, operations, or processes shall or shall not be carried out subject to certain safeguards. Besides, the Environment Rules, 1986 also states that GOI can prohibit or restrict the location of industries. The government has effectively used these two rules to declare ESZs or EFAs. Activities Prohibited/Restricted/Allowed in ESZs Prohibited: commercial mining, setting of sawmills and industries causing pollution, commercial use of firewood & major hydropower projects are prohibited in ESZ areas. It also bans tourism activities like flying over protected areas in an aircraft or hot air balloon and discharge of effluents and solid waste in water bodies or terrestrial areas. Regulated: felling of trees, drastic change in agriculture systems and commercial use of natural water resources, including groundwater and setting up of hotels and resorts are the activities regulated in the areas. Permitted: ongoing agriculture and horticulture practices by local communities, rainwater harvesting, organic farming, adoption of green technology and use of renewables. [UPSC 2014] With reference to ‘Eco-Sensitive Zones’, which of the following statements is/are correct? 1) Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas that are declared under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 112 2) The purpose of the declaration of Eco-Sensitive Zones is to prohibit all kinds of human activities, in those zones except agriculture. Select the correct answer using the code given below. a) 1 only b) 2 only c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2 Explanation: Eco-Sensitive Zones areas are based on the core (all kinds of human activity are prohibited) and buffer (grazing, collection of minor forest produce, subsistence agriculture, etc. are allowed on a sustainable basis) model of management. Answer: d) Neither Conservation Reserves A State Government can declare Conservation Reserves in any area owned by it, particularly those adjacent to National Parks and Sanctuaries and those that link one protected area with another. Such a declaration should be made after consultations with the local communities. Community Reserves The State Government can declare Community Reserves in any private or community land where an individual or a community has volunteered to conserve wildlife and its habitat. Such land should not be comprised within a National Park, Sanctuary or Conservation Reserve. The rights of people living inside a Conservation Reserve and Community Reserve are not affected.  Protected Area (PA) has been defined in the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. Protected Areas include National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves. Sacred Groves Sacred groves are tracts of forests preserved by ancient societies on religious and cultural grounds. All the trees and wildlife within were venerated and protected by the communities. Such sacred groves are found in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, the Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, the Western Ghats of Karnataka, and Maharashtra, the Chanda and Bastar areas of Chhattisgarh. 9.2. Ex Situ Conservation In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken out of their natural habitat and placed in a unique setting where they can be protected and given special care. Zoological Parks, Botanical Gardens, Wildlife Safari Parks, and Seed Banks serve this purpose. Many animals have become extinct in the wild but continue to be maintained in zoological parks. The initial purpose of zoos was entertainment. Over the decades, zoos have transformed into centres for wildlife conservation (through captive breeding) and environmental education. In recent years, ex-situ conservation has advanced beyond keeping threatened species. Now gametes of threatened species can be preserved in viable and fertile conditions for extended periods using cryopreservation techniques. Eggs can be fertilised in vitro, and plants can be propagated using tissue culture. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 113 Seeds of different genetic strains of commercially important plants can be kept for long periods in seed banks. The National Gene Bank at the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBPGR), Delhi, is primarily responsible for conserving unique accessions on a long-term basis as base collections for posterity, predominantly in the form of seeds. [UPSC 2011-12] Which one of the following is not a site for in-situ method of conservation of flora? a) Biosphere Reserves b) Botanical Garden c) National Park d) Wildlife Sanctuary Explanation: A botanical garden is a scientifically planned collection of living trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers and other plants from various parts of the globe. It augments conserving rare and threatened species. Answer: b) Botanical Garden 9.3. National Initiatives Wildlife Mitigation Measures – Eco-Bridges Several underpasses and overpasses (eco-bridges) are being built along NH 44 that cuts through corridors connecting Kanha, Satpura, Pench, Bandhavgarh and Panna tiger reserves. Eco-bridges enhance wildlife connectivity in areas disrupted by highways. Usually, these bridges are overlaid with planting to give them a contiguous look with the landscape. Eco-bridges include: 1. canopy bridges (usually for monkeys, squirrels and other arboreal species); 2. concrete underpasses or overpass tunnels or viaducts (usually for larger animals); and 3. amphibian tunnels or culverts. Quarantine Centres to Check Invasive Species India has several plant quarantine centres at major airports, seaports, and railway stations. They are under the control of the Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs, which works in coordination with the Directorate of Plant Protection and Quarantine Storage (DPPQS). The import of agricultural products is governed by the Destructive Insects and Pests act, 1914. DPPQS of Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MAFW) is responsible for the control of invasive pests/weeds. MAFW has lists of plants whose import is allowed/restricted/banned. When an agricultural product arrives, customs officials check if it has a phytosanitary certificate. This certificate, showing that the product is without any pest/weed infestation, is issued by the exporting country. If the product is certified, it is cleared by DPPQS after a sample test. If the product has not been given a phytosanitary certificate, DPPQS fumigates the product with methyl bromide (gas fumigant for soil-borne diseases and pests) and issues a phytosanitary certificate. Issues with the functioning of the quarantine centresWWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 114  Only half of India’s quarantine centres are functional. The rest are shut down as the import-export is negligible or because of staff shortage.  Customs officials often release the cargo without referring it to DPPQS. Nepal, for instance, stopped the entry of agricultural products from India without a phytosanitary certificate after the outbreak of acute encephalitis syndrome in Bihar a year ago.  Security at India’s quarantine stations is also virtually non-existent, and items disappear in transit. Preservation of the Western and Eastern Ghats Western and Eastern Ghats play an irreplaceable role in mediating the monsoon over the country, and the forests harbour rich biodiversity. Human encroachment, tourism, deforestation, sand mining, iron mining (Goa), etc., pose severe threats to the ecosystem of the ghats. Western Ghats Western Ghats (1,64,280 sq km) runs from Kanyakumari to Gujarat, spanning six states ― Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Gujarat, and Goa. It exhibits a remarkably high degree of species endemism. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the eight “hottest hotspots” of biological diversity in the world. Eastern Ghats The Eastern Ghats are spread across ~75,000 sq km and run from northern Odisha through Andhra Pradesh to Tamil Nadu in the south, passing some parts of Karnataka and Telangana. Unlike the Western Ghats, these are discontinuous hills as they are eroded and cut through by the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers. Deforestation has made the hills of the Eastern Ghats barren, and its streams are running dry. Large-scale plantations of coffee, tea and orchards have been raised in these hills. Valuable trees like red sanders (from Seshachalam Hills) are removed illegally. Madhav Gadgil Committee WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 115 The MoEF constituted the Western Ghats Experts Ecology Panel (WGEEP) in 2010. The Panel submitted its report in 2011 with a stringent assessment of the condition of the Western Ghats. It was criticised that the committee failed to balance development and conservation. The report suggested many radical changes that need to be brought to conserve the Western Ghats. The recommendations, if implemented, would severely affect the mining mafia, sand mafia and local encroachers. Recommendations of Gadgil Committee (WGEEP) Report The report asked for a bottom-to-top approach, i.e., from Gram sabhas to the top. It had recommended that a massive 64% of the area come under Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA). Within this area, smaller regions were to be identified as ecologically sensitive zones (ESZ) I, II or III.  75% would fall under ESZ I or II or already existing protected areas such as natural parks.  No new dams based on large-scale storage should be permitted in ESZ I.  No new polluting industries, including thermal power plants, should be allowed in ESZ I and II.  The existing red and orange category industries should be asked to switch to zero pollution by 2016. The committee proposed a Western Ghats Ecology Authority with statutory powers to regulate these activities. Kasturirangan Committee Under pressure from various stakeholders, MoEF set up the High-Level Working Group (HLWG) under the Chairmanship of Dr K. Kasturirangan to study the recommendations of the Gadgil Committee. The HLWG had diluted many recommendations of WGEEP to satisfy the interests of the various mafia. HLWG had suggested that 37% (60,000 hectares) of the Western Ghats should be declared as ESA. Recommendations of the Kasturirangan Committee  A ban on mining, quarrying and sand mining.  No new thermal power projects, but hydropower projects are allowed with restrictions.  A ban on new polluting industries.  Building and construction projects up to 20,000 sq m were to be allowed, but townships were to be banned.  Forest diversion could be allowed with extra safeguards. October 2018 notification To protect the Western Ghats, the MoEF has notified ~57,000 sq km of the Western Ghats spread along with six states as ecologically sensitive areas (ESA). The draft notification, if it gets final clearance, will ban activities such as  red category industries,  construction of thermal power plants,  large scale construction, mining, quarrying, sand mining. However, hydropower projects, orange category industries and other existing activities will be allowed. Angry at repeated delays in finalising the Eco-sensitive Zones (ESZ) of the Western Ghats, the NGT has set a March 2020 deadline for the MoEF. However, the draft notification has not received approval to date. Historic Citizen Movements Environmentalist Sundarlal Bahuguna, who led the Chipko and Tehri dam movements, breathed his last due to COVID-19 in 2021. He is known as the Defender of the Himalayas and Environmental Gandhi. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 116 He protested for the preservation of forests in the Himalayas and led the Chipko Movement in the 1970s and the Anti- Tehri Dam movement starting in the 1980s. He believed that ‘Ecology is the permanent economy’. Chipko Movement Chipko means ‘To Hug’. It is a social-ecological movement that practised the Gandhian methods of satyagraha and nonviolent resistance through hugging trees to protect them from falling. The first recorded event occurred in Khejarli Village, Jodhpur, in 1730 AD. 363 Bishnois, led by Amrita Devi, sacrificed their lives while protecting Khejri trees (the state tree of Rajasthan), considered sacred by the Bishnoi community. The first Chipko movement in independent India took place in April 1973 in Upper Alakanada valley (Garhwal Region in Uttarakhand (back then, it was in UP)) when the government had allotted land inside forest territory to a manufacturer. By the 1980s, the movement had spread throughout India and led to the formulation of people-sensitive forest policies, which stopped the open felling of trees in regions as farreaching as the Western Ghats. Role of Sunderlal Bhaguna Sunderlal Bhaguna travelled 5000 km on foot from village to village, gathering support for the movement. He had a meeting with Indira Gandhi and that resulted in 15 years ban on cutting green trees in 1980. Role of Women in the Movement A woman named Gaura Devi noticed that local loggers are cutting trees in Reni Village. She mobilised many other women in Reni village and confronted and challenged them to shoot her instead of cutting trees. Therefore, the Chipko Movement is aptly called as Women’s Movement. Appiko Movement Appiko is a local term for Hugging in Kannada. It was inspired by the massive success of the Chipko Movement in North India. It first started in Karnataka in 1983. It gave birth to a new awareness all over southern India. Anti-Tehri Dam Protest Sunderlal Bahuguna was instrumental in protests against the construction of Teri Dam (Garhwal region, Uttarakhand). The dam and the floods cause massive damage to downstream public life.  Tehri Dam is a 2,400-megawatt multipurpose dam on the Bhagirathi River (a tributary of the Ganga in Uttarakhand). It is India’s tallest dam. It lies in the Himalayas Seismic Gap, a Major fault zone (prone to landslides and earthquakes). 9.4. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) The UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a legally binding multilateral treaty. It was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and entered into force in 1993. All UN member states — except the United States — have ratified the treaty. With a focus on sustainable development, the convention has three main goals: 1) conservation of biological diversity, 2) sustainable utilisation of its benefits/components, and 3) fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 117 Parties to the Convention: 196 (195 countries and the European Union). (States that have agreed to be bound by the convention are known as Parties) Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international agreement adopted in 2000. It entered into force in 2003 and covers the field of biotechnology. It currently has 173 parties. India has ratified CBD and its Catanga Protocol (signed in Cartagena, Colombia). Cartagena Protocol aims to ensure the safe handling, transport, and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology. It addresses technology development and transfer, benefitsharing and biosafety issues. Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing At the 10th Conference of Parties (COP10 2010) to the Convention on Biological Diversity in Nagoya, Japan, the Nagoya Protocol was adopted. It is the second Protocol (supplementary agreement) to the CBD. It entered into force in 2014. It presently has 137 parties, including India. Nagoya Protocol is about “Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization”, one of the three objectives of the CBD. International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA) PGRFA is popularly known as the International Seed Treaty. It is an international agreement in harmony with CBD. It aims at guaranteeing food security through the conservation, exchange, and sustainable use of the world’s plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, as well as the fair and equitable benefit sharing arising from its use. [UPSC 2016] Consider the following pairs: Terms sometimes in the news Their origin 1) Annex-I Countries Cartagena Protocol 2) Certified Emissions Reductions Nagoya Protocol 3) Clean Development Mechanism Kyoto Protocol Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only c) 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 Explanation: Annex-I Countries, Clean Development Mechanism, Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) or carbon credits  Kyoto Protocol. Answer: c) 3 only [UPSC 2014] Consider the following international agreements: 1) The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture 2) The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification 3) The World Heritage Convention WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 118 Which of the above has/have a bearing on the biodiversity? a) 1 and 2 only b) 3 only, c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2. and 3 Answer: d) all Aichi Biodiversity Targets At CBD COP 12 (2014), parties discussed the implementation of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011- 2020 & its Aichi Biodiversity Targets — to be achieved before 2020: 1. Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss. 2. Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use. 3. Goal C: Safeguard ecosystems, species & genetic diversity. 4. Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services. 5. Goal E: Enhance participatory management. None of the 20 ‘Aichi Biodiversity Targets’ agreed on by national governments through theCBD has been met, according to CBD’s Global Biodiversity Outlook 5 report. Sharm El Sheikh Declaration – New Deal for Nature COP 14 of CBD adopted this declaration in Sharm El city (also called the city of peace) in Egypt. It focuses on integrating biodiversity into legislative & policy frameworks. It aims to develop a Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework (after failed Aichi Biodiversity Targets) to achieve the 2050 vision for biodiversity known as New Deal for Nature — catalyse action from all stakeholders in support of biodiversity conservation. COP-15 of the UN CBD CBD COP15 serves as the 10th Meeting of the Parties to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and the 4th Meeting of the Parties to the Nagoya Protocol on Benefit-sharing. CBD COP15 was initially scheduled to take place in October 2020 in Kunming, China. It was rescheduled to December 2022 & moved to Montreal. China & Canada co-hosted it. CBD COP15 adopted the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework). It sets out four global goals to achieve by 2050, as well as 23 global targets by 2030. A new Global Biodiversity Framework Fund will be established under the Global Environment Facility. It targets at least USD 200 billion annually by 2030. India’s Demands at COP 15 India called for an urgent need to create a new and dedicated fund to help developing countries. So far, the Global Environment Facility, which caters to multiple conventions, including the UNFCCC and UNCCD, remains the only funding source for biodiversity conservation. India also said that biodiversity conservation must be based on 'Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities' (CBDR) as climate change also impacts nature. Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework 4 Global Goals by 2050 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 119 1. Reducing the extinction rate and risk of all species tenfold (by 2050). 2. Biodiversity is sustainably used for achieving sustainable development. 3. Substantially increase fair and equitable benefit-sharing from utilising genetic resources. 4. Adequate finance and technology to implement the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, progressively closing the biodiversity finance gap of 700 billion $ annually. 23 Global Targets By 2030 The targets are divided into three broad categories: 1) Reducing threats to biodiversity (by 2030) – 8 Targets 1. Bring biodiversity loss in areas of high biodiversity close to zero. 2. 30×30 Pledge: Restore at least 30% of areas of degraded ecosystems (terrestrial, inland water, coastal, marine). 3. Conserve at least 30% of ecosystems (terrestrial, coastal, marine), especially areas of high biodiversity. 4. Halt human-induced extinction of known threatened species and significantly reduce extinction risk. 5. Ensure that the harvesting/trade of wild species is sustainable and safe (reducing pathogen spill-over). 6. Reduce invasive alien species by at least 50%. 7. Reduce pollution risks, by 2030, to levels that are not harmful to biodiversity and reduce the nutrients lost and overall risk from pesticides and hazardous chemicals by 50%. 8. Minimize the impact of climate change and ocean acidification on biodiversity. 2) Meeting people’s needs through sustainable use and benefit-sharing (by 2030) – 5 Targets 1. Sustainable use of wild species. 2. Ensure that areas under agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries, and forestry are managed sustainably. 3. Enhance ecosystem functions and services —pollination, disaster protection, etc. 4. Sustainable urbanisation by increasing green and blue spaces (trees and water bodies). 5. Ensure fair and equitable benefit-sharing for utilising genetic resources and information. 3) Tools and solutions for implementation and mainstreaming (by 2030) – 10 Targets 1. Ensure the full integration of biodiversity into policies, planning, national accounting, etc. 2. Take measures to encourage corporations to reduce negative impacts on biodiversity. 3. Ensure sustainable consumption choices and reduce overconsumption, food waste, etc. 4. Strengthen the handling of biotechnology and biosafety measures in CBD. 5. Phase out subsidies harmful to biodiversity and reduce them by at least USD 500 billion annually. 6. Increase finance by 2030 by mobilising at least 200 billion $ per year. Wealthier countries should contribute at least 20 billion $ of this annually by 2025 and at least 30 billion $ annually by 2030. 7. Ensure the transfer of technology and scientific cooperation. 8. Ensure the best available data, information, and knowledge for decision-makers. 9. Ensure social and gender-responsive representation and participation in decision-making. 10. Ensure gender equality in the implementation of the framework. 9.5. Other International Efforts Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration (GPFLR) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 120 GPFLR is a global network initiated by IUCN to unite governments, organizations, communities, etc. working towards a common goal: to restore the world’s lost and degraded forests and their surrounding landscapes. Specifically, the GPFLR responds directly to the Bonn Challenge to restore 150 million hectares of deforested and degraded land by 2020 and 350 million hectares by 2030. Bonn Challenge The Bonn Challenge, launched in 2011 by the Government of Germany and IUCN, aimed to restore 150 million hectares of deforested and degraded land by 2020. In 2014, at the UN Climate Summit, countries extended this target to 350 mha by 2030 under the New York Declaration on Forests — a voluntary and non-binding international declaration to take action to halt global deforestation. At the UNFCCC 2015 in Paris, India joined the voluntary Bonn Challenge. It pledged to restore 13 million hectares of degraded and deforested land by 2020 and an additional 8 mha by 2030 (21 mha in total by 2030). This was raised to a target of 26 mha by 2030 during the UNCCD 2019 conference held in Delhi. [UPSC 2021] With reference to the ‘New York Declaration on Forests,’ which of the following statements are correct? 1) It was first endorsed at the United Nations Climate Summit in 2014. 2) It endorses a global timeline to end the loss of forests. 3) It is a legally binding international declaration. 4) It is endorsed by governments, big companies and indigenous communities. 5) India was one of the signatories at its inception. Select the Correct answer using the code given below. a) 1, 2 and 4 b) 1, 3 and 5 c) 3 and 4 d) 2 and 5 Explanation: The New York Declaration on Forests (NYDF) is a political declaration calling for global action to protect and restore forests. It was adopted in 2014 at UN Secretary-General’s Climate Summit. It offers a common, multi-stakeholder framework for forest action. India did not sign the declaration citing that the trade is being interlinked with climate change and forest issues by NYDF. NYDF’s ten goals include halting natural forest loss by 2030, restoring 350 million hectares of degraded landscapes and forestlands, improving governance, increasing forest finance, and reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation as part of a post-2020 global climate agreement. Answer: a) 1, 2 and 4 only Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) IUCN and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) coined the term FLR in 2000. FLR is a planned process that aims to regain ecological integrity and enhance human well-being in deforested and degraded landscapes. FLR is not site-based but is applied across large areas. FLR has received global attention since 2011, after the launching of the Bonn Challenge. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 121 The seven guiding principles of FLR are: 1. Maintain natural ecosystems. 2. Focus on entire landscapes rather than individual sites. 3. Enhances the conservation, recovery, and sustainable management of forests. 4. Actively engages all stakeholders. 5. Adopts traditional and indigenous knowledge. 6. Restore multiple ecological, social, & economic functions. 7. Manage adaptively for long-term resilience. Mains Practice: What do you understand by Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR)? While identifying the principles of FLR enumerate the initiatives taken by the Government to restore India’s Forest and Tree Cover.. Briefly define Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) approach and its underlying principles. Concisely explain how FLR is different from conventional forest conversation methods. Integrated Landscape Management: Inclusive approach (engaging all stakeholders) → Collaborative community-linked plans → Integrated resource management (Resource Optimization) → Sustainable development. Enumerate the efforts taken by the government: National Afforestation Programme (NAP), National Mission for a Green India (Green India Mission – NAPCC), National Forest Policy 1988, Joint Forest Management (JFM), Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA), Green Highway Policy 2015, Policy for enhancement of Urban Greens, Bonn Challenge, National Agroforestry Policy, and Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF), etc. World Forestry Congress and Seoul Declaration XV (15th) World Forestry Congress (WFC) was hosted in Seoul by the Korea Forest Service and FAO. It was the second World Forestry Congress held in Asia, with Indonesia hosting the first congress in Asia in 1978. Theme: Building a Green, Healthy and Resilient Future with Forests. WFC is the largest gathering of the world's forestry sector. It has been held every six years since 1926 under the auspices of FAO and organised by the government of the host country. It is a forum for the sharing of knowledge and experience. The Seoul Declaration stressed the transition towards a circular bioeconomy (basic building blocks for materials, chemicals, and energy are derived from renewable biological resources) and achieving climate neutrality. Prelims Practice: “Seoul Declaration”, which was in the news recently, is related to? a) Universal Declaration of Human Rights b) WTO agreement on reducing subsidies c) World Forestry Congress d) Freedom of the Press Explanation: WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 122 Seoul Declaration was adopted at the XV World Forestry Congress, held in Seoul, South Korea. Its theme was Building a Green, Healthy and Resilient Future with Forests. Hence option (c) is the correct answer. Prelims Practice: Recently AFFIRM and SAFE initiatives were in news. They are related to? a) Forest management b) Wildlife protection c) Human trafficking d) Wetlands Explanation: Assuring the Future of Forests with Integrated Risk Management (AFFIRM) Mechanism and Sustaining an Abundance of Forest Ecosystems (SAFE) Initiative were among important initiatives undertaken during the XV World Forestry Congress, held in Seoul, South Korea. Hence option (a) is the correct answer. Initiatives By The UN United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests 2017–2030 The Strategic Plan, forged at UN Forum on Forests held in 2017 and adopted by the UN General Assembly, features six Global Forest Goals and 26 associated targets to be reached by 2030, which are voluntary and universal. It includes a target to increase forest area by 3% worldwide by 2030, signifying an increase of 120 million hectares. Decade on Ecosystem Restoration The United Nations General Assembly has proclaimed 2021–2030 as the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. UNEP, FAO and many partners across the planet will work towards 2021-2030 ecosystem restoration. The Work planned for 2021–2030 will contribute to achieving targets set by international conventions and agreements, such as:  2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,  Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2020, Aichi Targets,  UN Framework Convention on Climate Change,  Paris Agreement,  UN Convention to Combat Desertification and Land Degradation Neutrality LND,  Ramsar Convention,  Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration,  Global Restoration Council and the UN Strategic Plan for Forests 2017– 2030. Biodiversity Finance Initiative (BIOFIN) BIOFIN was launched by UNDP in 2012. It aims to fill the biodiversity finance gap at the national level. It helps in implementing the National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP) and making progress towards achieving the National Biodiversity Targets (NBTs). BIOFIN in India is hosted by the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA – MoEF), working with relevant State Biodiversity Boards, with technical assistance from Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and the National Institute of Public Finance and Policy (NIPFP). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 123 UNESCO World Heritage Sites UNESCO adopted World Heritage Convention, an international treaty, in 1972. It provides a framework for international cooperation in preserving and protecting cultural treasures and natural areas (including those of exceptional biodiversity). The convention defines the kind of sites which can be considered for inscription to the World Heritage list. It sets out the duties of the State Parties in identifying potential sites and their role in protecting them. World Heritage Sites means “Sites any of various areas or objects inscribed on the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage List”. The sites are designated as having outstanding universal value concerning the Protection of the World Cultural (ancient monuments, museums) and Natural Heritage (biodiversity, geological heritage). UNESCO has a set of ten criteria. Nominated sites (both cultural and natural) must be of "outstanding universal value" and must meet at least one of the ten criteria. Natural heritage sites are restricted to those natural areas that 1) furnish outstanding examples of the earth’s record of life or its geologic processes. 2) provide excellent examples of ongoing ecological and biological evolutionary processes. 3) contain natural phenomena that are rare, unique, superlative, or of outstanding beauty. 4) furnish habitats or rare endangered animals or plants or are sites of exceptional biodiversity.

10. Wildlife Conservation

Conservation generally means judicious use of biotic and abiotic resources. It involves the prevention of wasteful and/or harmful utilisation of resources. Wildlife conservation refers to protecting wild species and their habitats to keep the natural ecosystems healthy. 10.1. Regulating Trade in Wildlife Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) CITES, also known as the Washington Convention, is an international agreement (multilateral treaty) between governments to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. It was drafted due to a resolution adopted by members of IUCN in 1963. It entered into force in 1975. Parties to CITES CITES is legally binding on the Parties (184 (including EU)). However, it does not take the place of national laws. It only provides a framework to be respected by each Party. The parties need to adopt their own domestic legislation to ensure that CITES is implemented at the national level. [UPSC 2015] With reference to the IUCN and the CITES, which of the following statements is/are correct? 1) IUCN is an organ of the United Nations and CITES is an international agreement between governments. 2) IUCN runs thousands of field projects around the world to better manage natural environments. 3) CITES is legally binding on the States that have joined it, but this convention does not take the place of national laws. Select the correct using the code given below. a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 Explanation: IUCN is an NGO. CITES is an international agreement between governments (multilateral treaty). Answer: b) 2 and 3 only Conference of Parties to CITES (CoP) The CITES CoP (World Wildlife Conference) is where parties convene every two to three years to review and decide on regulating trade in endangered species. The CoP will decide on proposals to list, remove, or change species listing on the CITES appendices. Functioning of CITES CITES works by subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species to specific controls. All import and export of species covered by CITES must be authorised through a licensing system. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 125 Each Party designates one or more Management Authorities for administering the licensing system and one or more Scientific Authorities to advise them on the effects of trade on the status of the species.  Management Authority in India: Director of Wildlife Preservation, MoEFCC.  Management Authorities competent to grant permits: Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB).  Scientific Authorities: Zoological Survey of India, Botanical Survey of India, Wildlife Institute of India, etc. The protection offered to species by CITES The species covered by CITES are listed in three Appendices according to the required degree of protection: 1. Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction. Trade in specimens of these species is permitted only in exceptional circumstances — like for captive breeding. (Legal international trade of the species does not take for commercial purposes) 2. Appendix II includes species not necessarily threatened with extinction but in which trade must be controlled to avoid utilisation incompatible with their survival. 3. Appendix III contains species protected in at least one country which has asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling the trade. At each regular meeting of the CoP, Parties submit proposals to amend Appendices I and II. Those amendment proposals are discussed and then submitted for a vote. The 18th Conference of the Parties to CITES (CoP18) In CoP18, held in Geneva, Switzerland, in 2019, India submitted proposals  to move Smooth-Coated Otter (VU), Small-Clawed Otter (VU), Indian Star Tortoise (VU), Tokay Gecko (LC) and Wedgefish (CR) from Appendix II to Appendix I.  to remove Indian Rosewood (VU) from Appendix II. In 2019, Star tortoise (VU), Asian Small-Clawed (VU) and Smooth-Coated Otters (VU) were moved to Appendix I. A complete ban was enforced on their trade. 19th Conference of the Parties to CITES (CoP19) CoP19 was held in Panama in November 2022. 52 proposals have been put forward that would affect the regulations on international trade for sharks, reptiles, elephants, turtles, etc. Operation Turtshield, India’s efforts to curb turtle wildlife crime was acknowledged at CoP19. First World Wildlife Trade Report was released at the COP19. It gave insights into the international trade in animals and plants regulated under the CITES treaty. According to the report, majority of CITES-regulated trade involved artificially propagated (for plants) or captive-produced (for animals bred or born in captivity) species. Only 18% of all trade involved wild-sourced species (which are dominated by plants). India’s Proposals India proposed moving the Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle (Batagur kachuga – CR) and Leith's softshell turtle (Nilssonia leithii – CR) from Appendix II to I. India’s proposal to include the Jeypore Ground (Indian) Gecko (EN) in Appendix II was adopted by the members of the CITES Working Group. Jeypore Ground (Indian) Gecko (EN) The wild reptile species is endemic to the Eastern Ghats and is known to be present in a handful of locations in southern Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh. The species resides below rock boulders in high forested hills at an altitude of 1,100-1,400 metres. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 126 Threats: international pet trade, habitat loss and degradation, forest fires, tourism, quarrying, mining, etc. IUCN Red List: EN CITES: NA WPA: NA North Indian Rosewood/Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo) Shisham (LC) is found in abundance in India. However, it is included in CITES Appendix II because of the challenges in distinguishing different species of genus Dalbergia in their finished forms. As of now, every shisham consignment of weight above 10 kg requires a CITES permit. Due to this restriction, exports of furniture and handicrafts made of shisham from India have continuously fallen. On India’s initiative at CoP19, it was agreed that any number of shisham timber-based items of weight less than 10kg could be exported as a single consignment without CITES permits. Further, it was agreed that for the net weight of each item, only shisham timber used would be considered.  India has two species of Dalbergia — D. latifolia or Indian rosewood (VU), and D. sissoo or North Indian rosewood/Shisham (LC). (Both are in CITES: App. II WPA: NA) D. latifolia/Indian Rosewood (VU) D. sissoo/North Indian Rosewood/Shisham (LC) Large evergreen tree native to low-elevation monsoon forests of south India. Its drier subpopulations are deciduous. Fast-growing, hardy, medium to large deciduous tree native to the foothills of the Himalayas. The tree produces a hard, durable, heavy wood that is durable and resistant to rot and insects. Its timber is less valuable because of its abundance. Other Proposals Thelenota (Sea Cucumbers) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 127 The EU proposed three species under genus Thelenota (sea cucumbers) to be included in Appendix II. CoP19 accepted the proposal. Sea cucumbers were one of the most frequently trafficked marine species from coastal India. Ivory Trade The ivory trade was banned globally in 1989 when all African elephant populations were put in CITES Appendix I. However, the African elephants of South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe were later transferred to Appendix II to allow one-time sales of ivory accumulated from deaths and poacher seizures. The endangered Asian elephant was included in CITES Appendix I in 1975, which banned the export of ivory from the Asian range countries. In CoP18, Zambia floated a proposal to downlist its elephants from Appendix I to Appendix II, which in effect, would have meant resuming the sale of its ivory stockpile. CoP rejected the proposal. India had abstained from voting against a similar proposal at CoP19. CITES Tiger Enforcement Task Force CoP19 has proposed a tentative budget of $150,000 for the Big Cat Task Force. The objective of the task force is to curb illegal trade in big cats like lions, tigers, leopards, cheetahs, etc, in their range. Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) MIKE is an international collaboration that measures the trends and causes of elephant mortality. It was established by a CITES Resolution adopted in 1997. One of the core mandates is to build capacity in elephant range States. MIKE’s information base is used to support international decision-making related to the conservation of elephants in Asia and Africa. The information and analyses are also presented at annual CITES meetings. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 128 There are currently 28 sites participating in the MIKE programme in Asia, distributed across 13 countries. India has 10 MIKE sites, followed by two sites each in Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand, and one site each in Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Vietnam. In 2017, IUCN was engaged by CITES to implement the MIKE Asia programme in two sub-regions:  South Asia – Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal & Sri Lanka  Southeast Asia – Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. MIKE is entirely dependent on donor support. The EEU has been the most important donor for the MIKE programme in Africa since 2001 and in Asia since 2017. The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC) TRAFFIC is an NGO (CITES, on the other hand, is a multilateral treaty) founded in 1976 as a joint programme of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and IUCN. Its headquarters is in Cambridge, UK. TRAFFIC is complementary to CITES. Its mission is to ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat to the conservation of nature. It investigates wildlife trade trends, patterns, impacts and drivers to provide the leading knowledge base on trade in wild animals and plants. [UPSC 2017] Consider the following statements in respect of TRAFFIC: 1. TRAFFIC is a bureau under United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 2. The mission of TRAFFIC is to ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat to the conservation of nature. Which of the above statements is/are correct? a) 1 only b) 2 only c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: b) Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT) CAWT is a coalition that promises to collaborate in the fight against illegal trade in wildlife and wildlife parts. It is a US-led Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT) launched in 2005. India is a member. CAWT’s initial partners include:  Conservation International  Save the Tiger Fund  Smithsonian Institution  TRAFFIC International 10.2. Policies/Laws Concerning CITES in India International trade in all wild fauna and flora is regulated jointly through the provisions of the  Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972,  Foreign Trade (Development Regulation) Act 1992,  Foreign Trade Policy of Government of India and  Customs Act, 1962. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 129 Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 Harming endangered species listed in Schedule I of the Act is prohibited throughout India. Hunting species that require special protection (Schedule II), big game (Schedule III), and small game (Schedule IV) is regulated through licensing. A few species classified as vermin (Schedule V) may be hunted without restrictions. The act prohibits the trade and cultivation in specified plants (Schedule VI) from an area specified by notification by GOI. A license is a must to cultivate such plants. Schedule VI lists all the six plants of Indian origin included in CITES appendices — beddomes' cycad, blue vanda, red vanda, kuth, slipper orchids and pitcher plant. Trade in Scheduled animals (Schedule I and Part II of Schedule II) are prohibited under the act. The act disallows trade in all kinds of imported ivory. In 1986, India banned domestic sales of ivory. After the ivory trade was banned globally, India again amended the act to ban the import of African ivory. The act has been amended in 2006, for establishing the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) & the Wild Life Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) with statutory backing. Policies Regulating Foreign Trade Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act 1992 No export or import should be made except in accordance with the provisions of this act. The act empowers GOI to make provisions for prohibiting/regulating the import or export of any class of goods, which includes wildlife specimen and their products. Foreign Trade Policy (2009-2014) Foreign Trade Policy announced periodically by the Ministry of Commerce contains information regarding the wildlife and wildlife products which are prohibited/permitted for the purpose of import or export. The policy is decided in consultation with the Management Authority for CITES in India as far as matter relating to wild fauna and flora are concerned and is enforced through the Customs Act, 1962. EXIM Policy Export/import of wild animals and plants, their parts and products is allowed for the purpose of research and exchange between Zoos, subject to licensing by the Director-General of Foreign Trade (DGFT). The current policy does not permit the commercial import of African ivory in view of the ban imposed by CITES. Import of other derivatives of wildlife is restricted and can be made only with the prior permission of DGFT. The import of wild animals as pets is also subject to the provisions of CITES. Enforcement: Wildlife Crime Control Bureau Considering the seriousness of Wildlife Crime and the illegal trade of wildlife parts and products, the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) was created in 2007 under the provisions of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972. It is the designated nodal agency for CITES related enforcement. WCCB is a statutory body under the MoEFCC. It has its five regional offices at Delhi (headquarters), Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai and Jabalpur; and five border units at Ramanathapuram, Gorakhpur, Motihari, Nathula and Moreh. Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 mandates WCCB is to WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 130  collect and collate intelligence related to organized wildlife crime; disseminate the same to State and other enforcement agencies;  to establish a centralized wildlife crime data bank;  coordinate actions by various agencies in connection with the enforcement of the provisions of the act;  assist international organizations and foreign authorities to facilitate wildlife crime control;  capacity building of the wildlife crime enforcement agencie

4. Functions of an Ecosystem – Trophic Levels

A trophic level (trophe means nourishment) represents energy flow in an ecosystem. The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain. Energy flows through the trophic levels from producers to subsequent trophic levels is unidirectional. Energy level decreases from the first trophic level upwards due to loss of energy in the form of heat at each trophic level. This energy loss at each trophic level is quite significant. Hence there are usually not more than four-five trophic levels (beyond this, the energy available is negligible to support an organism). Trophic Levels Autotrophs Green plants (Producers) Heterotrophs Herbivores (Primary consumers) Heterotrophs Carnivores (Secondary consumers) Heterotrophs Top Carnivore (Tertiary and Quaternary consumers) The trophic level interaction involves three concepts, namely: 1) Food Chain 2) Food Web 3) Ecological Pyramids 4.1. Food Chain Transfer of energy from producers through a series of organisms at each tropic level with repeated eating and being eaten link is called a food chain. E.g., Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Eagle. The two types of food chains: 1) Grazing food chain and 2) Detritus food chain Grazing food chain WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 25 The consumers which start the food chain, utilising the plant/plant part as their food, constitute the grazing food chain. For example, in a terrestrial ecosystem, the grass is eaten by a caterpillar, which is eaten by a lizard and the lizard is eaten by a snake. In an aquatic ecosystem, phytoplankton (primary producers) are eaten by zooplankton, which fishes eat, and pelicans (birds) eat fishes. Detritus food chain Detritus food chain starts from organic matter of dead and decaying animal and plant bodies from the grazing food chain. Dead organic matter or detritus-feeding organisms are called detrivores or decomposers. Predators eat the detrivores. In an aquatic ecosystem, the grazing food chain is the major conduit for energy flow. As against this, in a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy flows through the detritus food chain than through the grazing food chain. [UPSC 2013] With reference to the food chains in ecosystems, which of the following kinds of organism(s) is/are known as decomposer organism(s)? 1) Virus 2) Fungi 3) Bacteria Select the correct answer using the codes given below. a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 26 Explanation: Fungi and Bacteria are decomposers. They break down organic matter into simple inorganic substances. Virus represents dormant life. They are metabolically inactive if they are outside a host body. They are not decomposers. They invade host cells and use their nucleus (DNA machinery) to carry out their life processes.  Protists are unicellular organisms. Some protists, such as paramecium and euglena, are not decomposers. While the other protists, like slime moulds, typically grow on dead animals, rotting logs and compost. Humus Bacterial and fungal enzymes decompose detritus into simpler inorganic substances. This process is called catabolism. Humification and mineralisation occur during decomposition in the soil. Humification leads to the accumulation of a dark-coloured amorphous (formless) substance called humus that is highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition at a very slow rate. Some microbes further degrade the humus, and the release of inorganic nutrients occurs through the process of mineralisation. Being colloidal in nature, the humus serves as a reservoir of nutrients. Warm and moist environment favour decomposition, whereas low temperatures & anaerobiosis (lack of oxygen) inhibit decomposition resulting in a buildup of organic matter, and soils become acidic (taiga climate). Answer: b) 2 and 3 only [UPSC 2021] Which of the following are detritivores? 1) Earthworms 2) Jellyfish 3) Millipedes 4) Seahorses 5) Woodlice Select the correct answer using the code given below. a) 1, 2 and 4 Only b) 2, 3, 4 and 5 Only c) 1, 3 and 5 Only d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Explanation: The easiest of the option: 1) Earthworms (detrivores), 2) Jellyfish (marine animals of phylum cnidaria) and Seahorses (small marine fishes) —Biology NCERT. Answer: c) 1, 3 and 5 only 4.2. Food Web Multiple interlinked food chains make a food web. A food web represents all the possible energy flow pathways in an ecosystem. If any of the intermediate food chains are removed, the succeeding links of the chain will be affected. A food web provides more than one alternative for food to most organisms in an ecosystem and therefore increases their chance of survival. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 27 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 28 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 29 Types of Biotic Interactions in a Food Web ‘0’ → no effect ‘–’ → is detrimental ‘+’ → beneficial Interactions Species Effect Comments 1 2 Negative Interactions Amensalism – 0 One species is inhibited, while the other species is unaffected. The bread mould fungi Penicillium produces penicillin — an antibiotic substance — which inhibits the growth of a variety of bacteria. A large tree shades a small plant and retarding the growth of the small plant. The small plant has no effect on the large tree. Predation + – One species (predator) benefits, while the second species (prey) is harmed. Predators like leopards, tigers and cheetahs use speed, teeth, and claws to hunt and kill their prey. Predators help maintain species diversity in a community by reducing the intensity of competition among competing prey species. Parasitism + – Beneficial to one species (parasite) and harmful to the other species (host). Parasitism involves a parasite living in or on another living species called the host. The parasite gets its nourishment and often shelter from its host. Tap worms, roundworms, malarial parasites, many bacteria, fungi, and viruses are common parasites of humans.  The female mosquito is not considered a parasite, although it needs our blood for reproduction. Why? Because it does not live on the host. Competition – – Adversely affects both species. Competition occurs when two populations or species need a common vital resource that is in short supply. Positive Interactions Commensalism + 0 One species (the commensal) benefits, while the other species (the host) is neither harmed nor inhibited. Suckerfish often attaches to a shark. This helps the suckerfish get protection, a free ride as well as a meal from the leftover of the shark’s meal. The shark does not, however, get any benefit, nor is it adversely affected by this association. Another example of commensalisms is the relationship between trees and epiphytic plants. Mutualism + + Interaction is favourable to both species. Sea anemone gets attached to the shell of hermit crabs for the benefit of transport and obtaining new food. The anemone provides camouflage and protection to the hermit crab by utilising its stinging cells. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 30 Some mutualisms are so intimate that the interacting species can no longer live without each other as they depend totally on each other to survive. Such close associations are called symbiosis (symbiosis is intense mutualism – E.g., coral and zooxanthellae). Neutral Interactions Neutralism 0 0 Neither species affects the other True neutralism is extremely unlikely. [UPSC 2014] Which one of the following is the correct sequence of a food chain? a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings b) Crustaceans-Diatoms-Herrings c) Diatoms-Herrings-Crustaceans d) Crustaceans-Herrings-Diatoms Explanation: The food chain starts with a producer and ends with a top consumer. Phytoplankton are the primary producers in the oceans. They include:  diatoms (unicellular algae),  coccolithophores (unicellular, eukaryotic protist),  Cyanobacteria (Bluegreen algae) – Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus, Nostoc, spirogyra, etc., and  Dinoflagellates (flagellated protists). Crustaceans form a large group of arthropods which includes crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, etc. Herrings are fish, and they eat crustaceans. Answer: (a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings (NCERT) [2021] Consider the following kinds of organisms: 1) Copepods 2) Cyanobacteria 3) Diatoms 4) Foraminifera Which of the above are primary producers in the food chains of oceans? a) 1 and 2 b) 2 and 3 c) 3 and 4 d) 1 and 4 Explanation: Copepods are a group of small aquatic crustaceans, and foraminifera are amoeboid protists. Answer: b) 2 and 3 only [UPSC 2013] With reference to food chains in ecosystems, consider the following statements: 1) A food chain illustrates the order in which a chain of organisms feed upon each other. 2) Food chains are found within the populations of a species. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 31 3) A food chain illustrates the numbers of each organism which are eaten by others. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only c) 1, 2 and 3 d) None Explanation: Statement 1 is True. Statement 2 is False — In a food chain, a species occupies a specific trophic level. A food chain illustrates the numbers of each organism which are eaten by others (false – the food web illustrates the number, not the food chain). Answer: a) 1 only [2021] Which of the following have species that can establish symbiotic relationship with other organisms? 1) Cnidarians 2) Fungi 3) Protozoa Select the correct answer using the codes given below. a) 1 and 2 Only b) 2 and 3 Only c) 1 and 3 Only d) 1, 2 and 3 Explanation: Corals and sea anemones belong to phylum cnidaria. Lichen are plant-like organisms that consist of a symbiotic association of algae (usually green) or cyanobacteria and fungi. Protozoans are mostly predators and parasites. 4.3. Ecological Pyramids The pyramidal representation of trophic levels of different organisms based on their ecological position (producer to final consumer) is called as an ecological pyramid. The pyramid consists of several horizontal bars depicting specific trophic levels. The length of each bar represents the total number of individuals or biomass or energy at each trophic level in an ecosystem. The producers forms the base of the pyramid, and the top carnivore forms the tip. Other consumer trophic levels are in between. The ecological pyramids are of three categories: 1) Pyramid of numbers, 2) Pyramid of biomass, and 3) Pyramid of energy or productivity. Pyramid of Numbers WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 32 Pyramid of numbers represents the total number of individuals (population) of different species at each trophic level. Depending upon the size, the pyramid of numbers may not always be upright and may even be completely inverted. It is very difficult to count all the organisms in a pyramid of numbers, so the pyramid of numbers does not completely define the trophic structure of an ecosystem. Pyramid of Numbers – Upright In this pyramid, the number of individuals decreases with each higher trophic level. This type of pyramid can be seen in the grassland ecosystem and pond ecosystem. Pyramid of Numbers – Inverted In this pyramid, the number of individuals increases with each higher trophic level.. E.g., Tree ecosystem. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 33 Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting all organisms occupying each trophic level separately and measuring their dry weight. This overcomes the size difference problem because all kinds of organisms at a trophic level are weighed. Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called the standing crop. The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area. Pyramid of Biomass – Upright For most terrestrial ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass has a large base of primary producers with a smaller trophic level perched on top. The biomass of the base trophic level, i.e., producers (autotrophs), is at the maximum. The highest trophic level has the least amount of biomass. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 34 Pyramid of Biomass – Inverted In contrast to terrestrial ecosystems, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may assume an inverted form. (In contrast, a pyramid of numbers for the aquatic ecosystem is upright). This is because the producers are tiny phytoplankton that grows and reproduces rapidly. Here, the pyramid of biomass has a small base, with the consumer biomass at any instant exceeding the producer biomass and the pyramid assumes an inverted shape. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 35 Pyramid of Energy Energy pyramid is most suitable for comparing the functional roles of the trophic levels in an ecosystem. An energy pyramid represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and loss of energy at each transfer to another trophic level. Hence the pyramid is always upward, with a large energy base at the bottom. Ecological Efficiency Ecological efficiency describes the efficiency with which energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next. The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted as the transfer of energy follows the 10 per cent law — only 10 per cent of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower trophic level. The energy decreases at each subsequent trophic level due to two reasons:  At each trophic, a part of the available energy is lost in respiration or used up in metabolism.  A part of the energy is lost at each transformation. Explanation Suppose an ecosystem receives 1000 calories of light energy on a particular day; some of it is reflected back to space. Of the energy absorbed, only a small portion is utilised by green plants, out of which the plant uses up some for respiration; therefore, only 100 calories are stored as energy-rich materials. When a deer eats a plant containing 100 calories of food energy, it uses some of it for its metabolism and stores only 10 calories as food energy. A lion that eats the deer gets an even smaller amount of energy. Thus, usable energy decreases from sunlight to producer to herbivore to carnivore. Therefore, the energy pyramid will always be upright. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 36 The energy pyramid explains the phenomenon of biological magnification — the tendency for toxic substances to increase in concentration progressively with higher trophic levels. Limitations of Ecological Pyramids Ecological pyramids do not consider the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels. It assumes a simple food chain, which seldom exists in nature; it does not accommodate a food web. Moreover, saprophytes (plant, fungus, or microorganism that lives on decaying matter) are not given any place in ecological pyramids even though they play a vital role in the ecosystem. Biomagnification – Pollutants and Trophic Level Pollutants move through the various trophic levels in an ecosystem. Non-degradable pollutants (persistent pollutants), which detrivores cannot break down, not only move through the various trophic levels but also remain in that tropic level for a very long duration. Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (Perfluoro Chlorides) are the most damaging non-degradable pollutants that are long-lasting. The movement of these pollutants involves: 1) Bioaccumulation 2) Biomagnification Bioaccumulation WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 37 Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of pollutants, chemicals (chronic poisoning) or other substances in an organism. It occurs when the rate of loss of the substance from the body of the organism through catabolism (breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms) or excretion is lower than the rate of accumulation of the substance. As persistent organic pollutants like DDT are long-lasting, the risk of bioaccumulation is high even if the environmental levels of the pollutant are not high. Biomagnification Biomagnification refers to progressive bioaccumulation (increase in concentration) at each tropical level with the passage of time. For biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must have a long biological halflife (long-lived) and must not be soluble in water but be soluble in fats. E.g., DDT. If the pollutant is soluble in water, it will be excreted by the organism. Pollutants that dissolve in fats are retained for a long time. Hence it is traditional to measure the amount of pollutants in fatty tissues of organisms such as fish. In mammals, milk produced by females is tested for pollutants since the milk has a lot of fat in. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - End of Chapter - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

11. India State of Forest Report 2021

Every two years, the Forest Survey of India assesses the country’s forest resources. The results are presented as the 'India State of Forest Report (ISFR – biennial report)’. Since 1987, 16 such assessments have been completed, and the 2021 assessment is the 17th in the series. Sustainable Development Goals and Forests 11.1. Forest Survey of India (FSI) Forest Survey of India (FSI) is a national organisation under MoEF. It was established in 1981 at Dehradun. It is responsible for the assessment and monitoring of the forest resources of the country. Objectives of FSI To prepare State of Forest Report biennially. To conduct inventory assessments in forest and non-forest areas and develop a database on forest resources. To function as a nodal agency for collecting and disseminating spatial databases on forest resources. To conduct training of forestry personnel in the application of remote sensing, GIS, etc. To support State/UT Forest Departments (SFD) in forest resources survey, mapping, and inventory. The Major Activities of FSI 1. Remote sensing based nationwide forest cover mapping in a biennial cycle, 2. National forest inventory, 3. Forest fire monitoring, 4. Forest carbon assessment, 5. Forest type mapping and projects on emerging issues. FSI undertakes National Forest Inventory to assess the growing stock in Forests and Trees Outside Forests (TOF), bamboo resources, carbon stock and other parameters. 11.2. Major Terms/Definitions in ISFR Recorded Forest Area (RFA)  any lands notified as forest under any Government Act or Rules. (A RFA may or may not have a forest!) Tree Cover  all patches of trees less than 1 ha outside RFA. (Canopy density does not matter) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 180 Tress Outside Forests (TOF)  all trees outside RFA irrespective of patch size. (Tree Cover is a subset of TOF) Forest Cover  all patches of land with a tree canopy density of more than 10% (OF, MDF and VDF) and more than 1 ha in area, irrespective of land use (agroforestry, compensatory forestry), ownership (public or private), and species of trees (it can even be a plantation!). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 181  Recorded Forest Area (RFA)  Any land that the government calls a forest area  Tree Cover  less than 1 ha + outside RFA  Trees Outside Forests (TOF)  Any tree outside RFA  Forest cover  more than 1 ha + tree canopy density ≥10% In RFAs, there are areas with a density of less than 10% and some even without trees. On the other hand, there are areas outside the RFA with tree stands of more than 10% canopy density and size 1 ha or more, such areas also constitute forest cover. Therefore, the change in the forest cover is not necessarily due to changes within the RFA but also outside RFA. 11.3. Status of India’s Forest Resources in 2021 (ISFR 2021) [UPSC 2020] Examine the status of forest resources of India and its resultant impact on climate change. (250words) Forest and Tree Cover of India Class (GA: Geographical Area) ISFR 2019 ISFR 2021 Area (km2 ) % of GA Area (km2 ) % of GA Very Dense Forest (VDF – tree canopy density ≥ 70%) Moderately Dense Forest (MDF – tree canopy density ≥ 40% but < 70%) Open Forest (OF – tree canopy density ≥ 10% but < 40%) 99278 3,08,472 3,04,499 3.02 9.38 9.26 99,779 3,06,890 3,07,120 3.04 (↑) 9.33 (↓) 9.34 (↑) Total Forest Cover (Mangroves + VDF + MDF + OF) 7,12,249 21.67 7,13,789 21.71 (↑) Tree Cover 95,027 2.89 95,748 2.91 (↑) Total Forest and Tree Cover 8,07,276 24.56 8,09,537 24.62 (↑) Scrub (forest with canopy density OF) Forest Cover State/UT GA: Geographical Area; Area is in sq km 2021 Forest Cover in sq km Total % of GA % Change w.r.t 2019 VDF MDF OF 1 Madhya Pradesh 6,665 34,209 36,619 77,493 25 (20) 11 2 Arunachal Pradesh 21,058 30,176 15,197 66,431 79 (4) -257 3 Chhattisgarh 7,068 32,279 16,370 55,717 41 (13) 106 4 Odisha 7,213 20,995 23,948 52,156 34 (17) 537 5 Maharashtra 8,734 20,589 21,475 50,798 17 (27) 20 6 Karnataka 4,533 20,985 13,212 38,730 20 (22) 155 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 182 7 Andhra Pradesh 1,994 13,929 13,861 29,784 18 (26) 647 8 Assam 3,017 9,991 15,304 28,312 36 (16) -15 9 Tamil Nadu 3,593 11,034 11,792 26,419 20 (21) 55 10 Uttarakhand 5,055 12,768 6,482 24,305 45 (12) 2 11 12 13 Jharkhand 2,601 9,689 11,431 23,721 30 (18) 110 Jammu and Kashmir 4,155 8,117 9,115 21,387 39 (14) 29 Kerala 1,944 9,472 9,837 21,253 55 (10) 109 14 Telangana 1,624 9,119 10,471 21,214 19 (25) 632 15 Mizoram 157 5,715 11,948 17,820 85 (2) -186 16 Meghalaya 560 9,160 7,326 17,046 76 (5) -73 17 West Bengal 3,037 4,208 9,587 16,832 19 (24) -70 18 Rajasthan 78 4,369 12,208 16,655 5 (33) 25 19 Manipur 905 6,228 9,465 16,598 74 (6) -249 20 Himachal Pradesh 3,163 7,100 5,180 15,443 28 (19) 9 21 Gujarat 378 5,032 9,516 14,926 8 (31) 69 22 Uttar Pradesh 2,627 4,029 8,162 14,818 6 (32) 12 23 Nagaland 1,272 4,449 6,530 12,251 74 (7) -235 24 Tripura 647 5,212 1,863 7,722 74 (8) -4 25 Bihar 333 3,286 3,762 7,381 8 (30) 75 26 A and N Islands 5,678 683 383 6,744 82 (3) 1 27 Sikkim 1,102 1,551 688 3,341 47 (11) -1 28 Ladakh 2 512 1,758 2,272 1 (36) 18 29 Goa 538 576 1,130 2,244 61 (9) 7 30 Punjab 11 793 1,043 1,847 4 (34) -2 31 Haryana 28 445 1,130 1,603 4 (35) 1 32 Dadra-NH and Daman-Diu 1 86 141 228 38 (15) 0 33 Delhi 7 57 132 195 13 (28) 0 34 Puducherry 0 18 36 53 11 (29) 1 35 Lakshadweep 0 16 11 27 90 (1) 0 36 Chandigarh 1 14 8 23 20 (23) 1 Total in 2019 99,278 3,08,472 3,04,499 7,12,249 21.67 0.56 Total in 2021 99,779 (↑) 306,890 (↓) 307,120 (↑) 7,13,789 (↑) 21.71 (↑) 0.22 (↓)  FC as a percentage of GA: Lakshadweep (90%), Mizoram (85%), A&N Islands (82%), Arunachal Pradesh (79%), Meghalaya (76%), Manipur (74%), Nagaland (74%), Tripura (74%), Goa (61%), Kerala (55%), etc.  FC as a percentage of GA among NE States: Mizoram (85%), Arunachal Pradesh (79%), Meghalaya (76%), Manipur (74%), Nagaland (74%), Tripura (74%), Sikkim (47%) and Assam (36%).  FC as a % of GA among non-NE States: Goa (61%), Kerala (55%), Uttarakhand (45%), Chhattisgarh (41%), Assam (36%), Odisha (34%), Jharkhand (30%), HP (28%), MP (25%), TN (20%), Karnataka (20%), Chandigarh WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 183 (20%), WB (19%), Telangana (19%), AP (18%), Maharashtra (17%), Bihar (8%), Gujarat (8%), UP (6%), Rajasthan (5%), Punjab (4%) and Haryana (4%).  FC as a percentage of GA among non-NE and non-Himalayan States: Goa (61%), Kerala (55%), Chhattisgarh (41%), Odisha (34%), Jharkhand (30%), Madhya Pradesh (25%), etc.  Sates with a positive change in FC: Andhra Pradesh (647 sq km), Telangana, Odisha, Karnataka and Jharkhand (110 sq km).  States with a negative change in FC: Arunachal Pradesh (257 sq km), Manipur, Nagaland, Mizoram & Meghalaya (73 sq km). Forest cover in the NE region is 1,69,521 sq. km (64.66% of the GA), a decrease of 1,020 sq. km. Forest cover in the 140 hill districts is 2,83,104 sq. km( 40.17% of the GA), a decrease of 902 sq. km. Forest cover in the tribal districts is 4,22,296 sq. km (37.53% of the GA), a decrease of 655 sq. km of forest cover inside the RFA in the tribal districts and an increase of 600 sq. km outside. Forest Cover in the seven major cities is 509.72 sq km which is 10.21% of the total geographical area of the cities. Delhi has the largest Forest Cover (194 sq km), followed by Mumbai (111 sq km), Bengaluru (89 sq km), Hyderabad (82 sq km), Chennai (23 sq km), Ahmedabad (9.4 sq km) and Kolkata (1.7 sq km). Maximum gain in Forest Cover is seen in Hyderabad (48.66 sq km) followed by Delhi (19.91 sq km). At the same time, Ahmedabad and Bengaluru have lost Forest Cover of 8.55 sq km and 4.98 sq km, respectively. Q. Consider the following states : 1. Chhattisgarh 2. Madhya Pradesh 3. Maharashtra 4. Odisha With reference to the states mentioned above, in terms of percentage of forest cover to the total area of State, which one of the following is the correct ascending order? a) 2-3-1-4 b) 2-3-4-1 c) 3-2-4-1 d) 3-2-1-4 Answer: c) 3-2-4-1 Recorded Forest Area (RFA) RFA (extent of forest in terms of legal status) primarily consists of Reserved Forests (RF) and Protected Forests (PF), which have been constituted under the provisions of the Indian Forest Act 1927 or its counterpart State Acts. The term RFA is used for all lands (irrespective of tree cover or canopy density) which have been notified as forest under any Government Act or Rules or recorded as 'forest' in the Government records (RFs, PFs, lands classified as forest in revenue records). That is, a RFA may or may not have forest cover! Forest Cover and Recorded Forest Area overlap, but they are not coterminous. FSI obtains boundaries of recorded forest areas from the State Forest Departments (SFD), as the SFDs are the custodians of the RFAs. The Forest Advisory Committee (FAC), the apex body of the Centre that deliberates on granting WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 184 permission to industry to fell forests, said, “... States, having well-established Forest Departments should frame criteria for their forests... criteria so finalised by a State need not be subject to approval by the MoEF”. Deemed Forests The freedom to define which tracts of forest qualify as RFA has been the prerogative of States since 1996. Deemed forests, which comprise about 1% of India’s forest land, are a controversial subject as they refer to land tracts that appear to be a forest but have not been notified so by the state government. Recorded Forest Areas (RFAs) in States and UTs S.No. State/ UT RFA (in different categories) Total RFA (2021) % of GA RF PF Unclassed 1. Madhya Pradesh 61886 (1) 31098 (1) 1705 94689 30.72 2. Maharashtra 50865 (2) 6433 4654 61952 20.13 3. Odisha 36049 (3) 25133 (3) 22 61204 39.31 4. Chhattisgarh 25897 24036 9883 (3) 59816 44.25 (9) 5. Arunachal Pradesh 12371 11857 27312 (1) 51540 61.55 (6) 6. Karnataka 28690 3931 5663 38284 19.96 7. Uttarakhand 26547 9885 1568 38000 71.05 (4) 8. Himachal Pradesh 1883 28887 (2) 7178 37948 68.16 (5) 9. Andhra Pradesh 31959 5069 230 37258 22.86 10. Rajasthan 12176 18543 2144 32863 9.6 11. Telangana 25800 1592 296 27688 24.7 12. Assam 17864 0 8972 26836 34.21 13. Jharkhand 4500 18922 1696 25118 31.51 14. Tamil Nadu 20523 1053 1612 23188 17.83 15. Gujarat 14574 2898 4398 21870 11.14 16. J&K 17648 2551 0 20199 36.98 17. Manipur 984 3254 13180 (2) 17418 78.01 (3) 18. Uttar Pradesh 11560 296 5528 17384 7.22 19. West Bengal 7054 3772 1053 11879 13.38 20. Kerala 11522 0 0 11522 29.66 21. Meghalaya 1113 12 8371 9496 42.34 (10) 22. Nagaland 234 0 8389 8623 52.01 (8) 23. Mizoram 4499 1823 1157 7479 35.48 24. Bihar 693 6183 566 7442 7.9 25. Andaman and Nicobar Is. 5613 1558 0 7171 86.93 (1) 26. Tripura 3588 2 2704 6294 60.02 (7) 27. Sikkim 5452 389 0 5841 82.31 (2) 28. Punjab 44 1137 1903 3084 6.12 29. Haryana 249 1158 152 1559 3.53 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 185 30. Goa 119 755 397 1271 34.33 31. Dadra-NH and DamanDiu 203 5 6 214 35.55 32. Delhi 78 25 0 103 6.95 33. Chandigarh 32 0 3 35 30.7 34. Puducherry 0 2 11 13 2.65 35. Ladakh 7 0 0 7 0 36. Lakshadweep 0 0 0 0 0 Total in 2019 434,853 218,924 113,642 767,419 23.34 Total in 2021 4,42,276 (↑) 2,12,259 (↓) 1,20,753 (↑) 7,75,288 (↑) 23.58 (↑)  RFA as a % of GA: A&N (87%), Sikkim (82%), Manipur (78%), Uttarakhand (71%), HP (68%), Arunachal Pradesh (62%), etc.  RFA as a percentage of GA among NE States: Sikkim (82%), Manipur (78%), Arunachal Pradesh (62%), Tripura (60%), Nagaland (52%), Meghalaya (42%), Mizoram (35) and Assam (34%).  RFA as a percentage of GA among non-NE States: Uttarakhand (71%), HP (68%), Chhattisgarh (44%), Odisha (39%), etc.  RFA as a percentage of GA among non-NE and non-Himalayan States: Chhattisgarh (44%), Odisha (39%), etc. Tree Cover Tree cover includes all patches of trees occurring outside RFA which are of size less than 1 ha. Forest cover and tree cover together are called Forest and Tree Cover. It is the parameter for monitoring progress against the National Forest Policy goal of 33% of the country’s geographical area under forests. The total tree cover of the country has been estimated at 95,748 sq km (a slight increase since 2019). States/UTs having maximum tree cover are Maharashtra (12,108 sq km), Rajasthan (8,733 sq km), and Madhya Pradesh. Considering the percentage of the geographical area of States/UTs, the UT of Chandigarh shows the highest percentage of tree cover (13.16%) followed by Delhi (9.91%) and Kerala (7.26%). Tress Outside Forests (TOF) TOF refers to all trees outside RFA irrespective of patch size, which could also be larger than 1 ha. Thus, tree cover is a subset of TOF. Maharashtra (26,866 sq km) has the largest extent of TOF, followed by Odisha. In terms of the percentage of GA, the UT of Lakshadweep (90%) has the highest percentage of TOF, followed by Kerala (37%). Fire Proneness More than 36% of India’s forest cover is prone to frequent forest fires, nearly 4% is extremely prone, and 6% is very high fire-prone. The MoEF formulated the National Action Plan on Forest Fires (NAPFF) in 2018 to minimise forest fires by empowering forest fringe communities and incentivising them to work in tandem with the State Forest Departments (SFDs). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 186 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 187 Mangrove Cover GA: Geographic area in sq km; VDM: Very Dense Mangrove; MDM: Moderately Dense Mangrove; OM: Open Mangrove  South 24 Parganas district of West Bengal alone accounts for 47.74 %Mangrove cover of the country.  The mangrove cover in the country has increased by 364 sq. km. in 2021 as compared to 2013. Criticism of FSI’s approach and ISFR State/UT VDM MDM OM GA 1 West Bengal 994 (1) 692 428 2114 (↑) 2 Gujarat 0 169 1006 1175 (↓) 3 A&N Islands 399 (2) 168 49 616 4 Andhra Pradesh 0 213 192 405 (↑) 5 Maharashtra 0 90 234 324 (↑) 6 Odisha 81 (3) 94 84 259 (↑) 7 Tamil Nadu 1 27 17 45 8 Goa 0 21 6 27 (↑) 9 Karnataka 0 2 11 13 (↑) 10 Kerala 0 5 4 9 11 D&NH and D&D 0 0 3 3 12 Puducherry 0 0 2 2 Total in 2019 1,476 1,479 2,020 4,975 Total in 2021 1,475 (↓) 1,481 (↑) 2,036 (↑) 4,992 (↑) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 188 Criticism of the definition of ‘Forest Cover’ Under the current definition of ‘forest cover’ a rubber plantation or any other planantion of 1 ha or more can be considered as a forest. This gives a false impression of the state of forests as the ecological importance of plantations is well below that of a natural forest. Unlike the roots of trees in a natural forest, the roots of plantation crops don’t run deep. Hence, they cannot hold the soil tight which means replacing natural forests with plantation tress like rubber, palm, etc. can increase the frequency and scale of landslides (slope failure). Massive landslides occurring in Western Ghats in recent times are said to be due to replacement of natural forest by plantation agriculture. (Remember the landslides in Kerala in 2018? Plantation crops!) Plantations cannot retain moisture or supporting wildlife the way natural forests do. Also, the carbon stock in plantations is far below than that of a natural forest. Positives are exaggerated and negatives are suppressed  The claims of increase in forest cover doesn’t reflect the ground reality as the land acquired for compensatory afforestation is included in the quantitative accounting of forests without taking into consideration the loss or diversion of forest land for mining and other projects. Not enough tree cover but still a forest! Forest on paper!  ISFR data doesn’t explain why 30% of the RFA (2,15,000 sq. km) has no forest cover! Such data is crucial to evaluate the effect of policies on forest loss and degradation. Anything green is a forest?  The ISFR methodology relies primarily on remote-sensing techniques that can pick anything that is green and of a certain scale on its radar. This is used to generate data on the extent of ‘green cover’.  For years, foresters and ecologists have said that this report does not distinguish between natural forests, commercial plantations, orchards, and bamboo groves while enumerating forests.  According to them, areas with ‘tree stands’ of over 10% canopy cover are counted as forests, irrespective of whether they function ecologically as forests or not. 11.4. National Forest Inventory The UNFCCC guidelines for implementation of REDD+ require that every country should have a satellitebased National Forest Monitoring System (NFMS) and a National Forest Inventory. The primary objective is to assess the growing stock of trees (volume of all living trees), the number of trees, bamboo, soil carbon, non-timber forest products (NTFP), invasive species, etc. Growing Stock Growing stock is an indicator of forest productivity. The growing stock is estimated at 56.60 cum per ha. Among states, Kerala, Uttarakhand and Goa have the highest per ha growing stock in a forest. Among the UTs, the highest per ha growing stock in a forest is in Ladakh, followed by J&K and A&N Islands. In respect of the total volume of growing stock, Arunachal Pradesh has the maximum growing stock (419 m cum) in forests, followed by Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh and MP. In TOF, Maharashtra has the maximum growing stock (188 m cum), followed by Karnataka. Sal, teak and pine trees have the highest growing stocks in forests and TOF. Mango and neem have the highest growing stocks in TOF. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 189 Bamboo Resources of the Country Bamboos are one of the fastest-growing perennial grass plants. They can thrive in an extreme range of climatic and edaphic (soil) conditions. They are found in the tropical, sub-tropical and mildly temperate regions of the world. Bamboo culms grow from the dense root rhizome system. The monopodial rhizome grows horizontally, and the buds develop either upward, generating a culm, or horizontally, with a new tract of the rhizome. The sympodial rhizomes are short and thick, and the culms, which are above the ground, are close together in a compact clump, which expands evenly around its circumference. The clump-forming species are naturally found in tropical regions, and they are not invasive. Some bamboos are non-clump forming and can be invasive. They are generally found in temperate regions. Distribution Bamboo distribution is uneven and largely depends on climatic factors, altitude, and soil. They are naturally abundant in East and SE Asia and the Islands of the Pacific and Indian oceans. Large tracts of natural bamboo forest are found in Asian countries between 15° and 25° N latitudes. In India, bamboo grows naturally everywhere except in the Kashmir region. They are abundant in the deciduous and semi-evergreen forests of the North-Eastern region and the tropical moist deciduous forests of Northern and Southern India. The North-Eastern states and West Bengal account for more than 50% of India’s bamboo resources. Other bamboo-rich areas of the country are the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and the Western Ghats. Bamboo Bearing Area The total bamboo-bearing area of the country has been estimated to be 15.0 million ha. Madhya Pradesh has a maximum bamboo-bearing area of 1.84 m ha, followed by Arunachal Pradesh (1.57 million ha), Maharashtra (1.35 million ha) and Odisha (1.12 million ha). As compared to the estimates of ISFR 2019, the total bamboo-bearing area in the country has decreased by 1.06 million ha. Mizoram has shown the highest increase, followed by Arunachal Pradesh. Similarly, Madhya Pradesh has shown the highest decrease, followed by Maharashtra. Importance of Bamboo  Bamboo is an essential component of the subsistence economy in providing livelihood to the tribals. It is, therefore, called green gold, poor man’s timber, cradle-to-coffin timber, etc. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 190  Young bamboo shoots are used as vegetables in many cuisines. Stems can be split up as pipes in channelling water. Raw leaves of many species are a source of fodder for cattle. Large stems are used as planks for houses and rafts, while large and small stems are latched together to form the scaffoldings at construction sites.  Bamboo is an essential non-wood forest product used in making normal and fine-quality paper, furniture, flooring, handicrafts, walking sticks, fishing poles etc.  Bamboo plays an important role in carbon sequestration, biodiversity, and soil moisture conservation. Forest Fringe Villages As per the Census 2011, there are about 6,50,000 villages in the country, out of which nearly 1,70,000 villages are located in the proximity of forest areas, they are often termed Forest Fringe Villages. The population in these villages is dependent on the forests for meeting the needs of fuelwood, fodder, small timber, bamboo and NTFPs. States with the highest dependence on forests for  Fuelwood: Maharashtra > Odisha > Rajashtan > MP  Fodder: MP > Maharashtra > Gujarat > Rajashtan  Bamboo: MP > Chhattisgarh > Gujarat > Maharashtra  Small Timber: MP > Gujarat > Maharashtra Initiatives to Promote Bamboo in India According to the National Bamboo Mission, India has the highest area (15 million ha) under bamboo and is the second richest country after China in bamboo diversity, with 136 species. However, China exports 68% of the world’s bamboo and rattan products. The Indian Forest Act 1927 was amended in 2017 to remove bamboo from the category of trees. As a result, anyone can undertake cultivation and business in bamboo and its products. Hence bamboo grown outside forests no longer needs felling and transit permissions. National Bamboo Mission (NBM) The restructured NBM was launched in 2018. It envisages promoting holistic growth of the bamboo sector by adopting an area-based, regionally differentiated strategy & increasing the area under bamboo cultivation & marketing. It will focus on the development of bamboo only in the significant bamboo-growing states with a social, commercial, and economic advantage, particularly in the North-eastern region and states, including Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Karnataka, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, etc. The bamboo plantations will be promoted predominantly in farmers’ fields, homesteads, community lands, arable wastelands, and along irrigation canals, water bodies, etc. Primary processing centres are being set up close to the plantations, which will enable the cost of transportation of whole bamboo to be reduced. To address forward integration, it will strengthen the marketing of bamboo products and handicraft items. The Sector Skill Councils established under National Skill Development Agency will impart skills and Recognition of Prior Learning to traditional artisans. Project Bold The project named “Bamboo Oasis on Lands in Drought” (BOLD) was launched to create bamboo-based green patches in arid and semi-arid land zones. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 191 BOLD is a scientific exercise initiated by the Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC). It serves the combined objectives of reducing desertification and providing livelihood and multi-disciplinary rural industry support. 11.5. Forest Types of India WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 192 H.G. Champion first enunciated a classification system for forests of undivided India in 1935. S.K. Seth subsequently joined Champion in refining the earlier work in 1968. Subsequently, their system became the standard in forest-type classification in the country. Champion and Seth’s system is based on the premise that a forest type could be treated as a distinct ecosystem; many preceding classification systems are based on climate, soil or vegetation alone. It is a three-tier system of classification: six climate-based major groups sub-divided into 16 precipitation & temperature range-based groups. Forest Type Area in sq km % of Total Carbon stock in mt 1 Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests 2,80,547 39.30 2176.8 2 Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests 1,31,805 18.47 1302.7 3 Plantation/TOF 75,221 10.54 529.5 4 Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests 69,195 9.69 686.0 5 Subtropical Broadleaved Hill Forests 31,015 4.35 432.6 6 Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests 28,727 4.02 646.7 7 Montane Wet Temperate Forests 20,185 2.83 342.5 8 Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests 19,572 2.74 345.6 9 Subtropical Pine Forests 17,801 2.49 239.4 10 Tropical Thorn Forests 13,259 1.86 49.6 11 Sub-Alpine Forests 12,672 1.78 232.4 12 Littoral and Swamp Forests 5,478 0.77 72.6 13 Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests 4,255 0.60 103.9 14 Dry Alpine Scrub 2,396 0.34 27.5 15 Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests 835 0.12 7.7 16 Moist Alpine Scrub 652 0.09 5.6 17 Subtropical Dry Evergreen Forest 173 0.02 2.7 Total 7,13,789 100 7,203.8 Maximum tree diversity has been found in tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of Western Ghats (TN, Kerala and Karnataka), followed by North Eastern states. Low tree diversity has been noticed in the subtropical dry evergreen forests of Jammu and Kashmir and forest deficit States like Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. Karnataka has the maximum species richness for trees, Arunachal Pradesh for shrubs and J&K for herbs. Arunachal Pradesh has the maximum richness of species when all three types of plants are considered, followed by TN and Karnataka. Carbon Stock in India's Forests World’s Forest Carbon Stocks The world’s forests and forest soils currently store more than one trillion tons (1000 Gt) of carbon which is nearly 1.3 times larger than the carbon stored in fossil fuel reserves (estimated at 800 Gt) and more than the carbon added to the atmosphere because of human activities since 1870 (about 600 Gt). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 193 It has been estimated that since 1750, forests have been responsible for about half of the carbon emissions naturally sequestered from the atmosphere; the oceans have absorbed the rest. Forests store an estimated 296 Gt of carbon above and below the ground biomass, which contains almost half of the total carbon stored in forest areas, the other half being the soil organic carbon. Globally, over the last 25 years, the carbon stock in forest biomass has decreased by almost 17.4 Gt, equivalent to a reduction of 697 million tonnes per year or about 2.5 Gt of carbon dioxide equivalent. The carbon stock for 2021 has been estimated at 7,204 million tonnes (mt), a slight increase (79.4 mt) since 2019. This translates into carbon emissions sequestrated through forest and tree cover to be 30.1 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent. The maximum carbon stock has been stored in:  Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest (2,177 mt), Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest (1,303 mt) & Tropical SemiEvergreen Forest (686 mt).  Arunachal Pradesh (1,023.84 mt), Madhya Pradesh (609.25 mt), Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. The least carbon stock has been stored in Subtropical Dry Evergreen Forest, Moist Alpine Scrub and Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests. The maximum per hectare C stock has been stored in:  Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests (244.19 tonnes/ha), Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests, Sub-Alpine Forests and Equatorial Wet Evergreen Forests.  Jammu and Kashmir (173.41 tonnes/ha), Himachal Pradesh (167.10 tonnes/ha), Sikkim and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (162.86 tonnes/ha). The least per hectare carbon stock has been stored in Tropical Thorn Forests & Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests. Soil organic carbon is the largest pool of forest carbon accounting for (56%) followed by AGB (32%), BGB (10%), Litter (1.5%) and dead wood (0.7%). In all the NE states, it is observed that SOC is almost double the carbon in AGB. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 194 Pools Description Living Biomass Above Ground biomass (AGB) All living biomass above the soil. Below Ground biomass (BGB) All living biomass of live roots. Dead Organic Matter Dead Wood Includes all non-living woody biomass not contained in the litter. Litter Includes all non-living biomass with a diameter less than the minimum diameter chosen by the country, lying dead, in various states of decomposition. Soil Soil organic matter Includes organic carbon in mineral and organic soils (including peat) to a specific depth. Meeting NDC Target According to the forestry target under Paris Agreement (2015) Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC), India has committed to creating an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3.0 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030. The projection for 2030 shows a shortfall of 0.25 billion tonnes and 0.75 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent. The shortfall can be bridged through the restoration of open forests, which is the most cost-effective strategy — above 70% of forest cover in India falls in tropical semi-evergreen, tropical moist deciduous and tropical dry deciduous forest types, and more than 30% of these areas fall in the category of open forest. 11.6. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Global Forest Resource Assessment (FRA) done by FAO once in five years provides information about the forest resources of almost all countries. FAO has released the latest report of GFRA in the year 2020. The Top 3 countries that recorded the maximum average annual net gains in forest area during 2010-20 are: 1. China (1.9 mha) 2. Australia (0.44 mha) 3. India (0.26 mha) Tropical > Boreal > Temperate > Subtropical WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 195 Forest Area of Top 5 Countries In 2020 M ha: Million hectares; 100 ha = 1 sq km Country Forest area (M ha) (2015) Forest area (M ha) 2020 % of the country’s area % global forest area 1. Russia 814 815 (↑) 49.8 20 2. Brazil 493 497 (↑) 59.4 12 3. Canada 347 347 38.7 9 4. USA 310 310 34 8 5. China 208 220 (↑) 23.3 5 Russia > Brazil > Canada > US > China > Australia > Democratic Republic of Congo > Indonesia > Peru > India (10th)  Brazil saw an increase in forest area despite the unprecedented destruction of Amazon forests!  India accounts for 2% of the total global forest area.  Brazil, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Peru have more than half of their GA under forests.  In terms of growing stock Brazil > Russia > Canada > USA GFRA and India The FRA 2020 has credited India’s Joint Forest Management programme for the significant increase in the community–managed forest areas in the Asian continent. The forest area managed by local, tribal and indigenous communities in India increased from zero in 1990 to about 25 million ha in 2015. India reported the maximum employment (nearly 50%) in the forestry sector in the world. Globally, 12.5 million people were employed in the forestry sector. 11.7. National Forest Policy 1988 India has had a forest policy since 1894. The policy was revised in 1952 and again in 1988. The principal aim of the 1988 policy was to ensure environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance, including atmospheric equilibrium. The derivation of direct economic benefit must be subordinated to this principal aim. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 196 For the first time, the policy considered forest land or land with tree cover as a national asset. The diversion of forest land for any non-forest purpose should be subject to the most careful examination. It mandates that 33% (1/3rd) of the GA of India should be under forest or tree cover. Other Aims and Objectives  Conservation of natural heritage and checking soil erosion and denudation in catchment areas.  Checking extension of sand dunes in desert areas of Rajasthan and along coastal tracts.  Substantially increasing forest/tree cover through massive afforestation and social forestry programmes.  Ensuring the symbiotic relationship between tribal people and forests and including tribal people closely in the protection, regeneration and development of forests.  Taking steps to meet requirements of fuel, wood, fodder, minor forest produce, soil and timber of rural and tribal populations.  Taking steps to create massive people’s movement with the involvement of women to achieve the objectives and minimise pressure on existing forests.  Greater impetus for Forestry Education and Research. Draft National Forest Policy 2018 India’s forests are currently governed by the National Forest Policy of 1988, an update to which has been in the offing for nearly five years now. Aims and Objectives of 2018 Policy  Reverse the degradation of forests and contribute towards achieving forestry-related Nationally Determined Contribution Targets (NDCs).  Maintenance of the health of forest vegetation and forest soils for augmenting water supplies through recharge of underground aquifers & regulation of surface water.  Manage protected and other wildlife-rich areas with the primary objective of biodiversity conservation and enriching other ecosystem services.  Factor green accounting, valuation of ecosystem services and climate change concerns adequately into the planning and managing of all forests, protected areas, etc.  Integrate climate change mitigation/adaptation measures in forest management through the mechanism of REDD+ so that the impacts of climate change are minimised.  Sustainable use of Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP) such as medicinal and aromatic plants, oil seeds, resins, wild edibles, fibre, bamboo, grass etc.  Managing and expanding green spaces in urban and peri-urban areas to enhance citizens’ wellbeing.  Credible certification process to enhance the value of forest products harvested sustainably.  Greater emphasis on protecting forests of the North-East.  Establishing a National Board of Forestry (Headed by the Environment Minister) and State Boards of Forestry (Headed by the State Environment Minister) to ensure convergence, and conflict resolution.  Integration and assimilation of international multilateral agreements and commitments.  Private intervention for maintaining the forest quality. 11.8. Afforestation Programmes WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 197 The MoEF is implementing afforestation schemes in the forest areas with a participatory approach. The plantation species are selected by the members of Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMC) based on their needs, ecological conditions and other factors. Native forest species with multiple uses are encouraged. The ministry is implementing three significant schemes for the development of forest areas: 1. National Afforestation Programme (NAP) scheme for the afforestation of degraded forest lands. 2. National Mission for a Green India (GIM) (Green India Mission) to improve the quality of forests and increase forest cover. 3. Forest Fire Prevention and Management Scheme (FFPM) takes care of forest fire prevention and management measures. For scientific management of forests, the states prepare a Working Plan which highlights various activities to be undertaken in a forest division for effective management of forest, which MoEF approves. The funds collected under Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA), as compensatory levies from states inter-alia, are used in plantation activity. National Afforestation Programme (NAP) NAP aims at the restoration of degraded forests and developing the forests with peoples’ participation. It is a centrally sponsored scheme implemented with the fund sharing pattern of 60:40 between Centre and States, wherein the sharing pattern for NE & hilly States is 90:10. A three-tier institutional setup implements NAP: 1. State Forest Development Agency (SFDA) at state level, 2. Forest Development Agency (FDA) at forest division level, 3. Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs – registered societies) at the village level. Joint Forest Management (JFM) GOI introduced the concept of JFM through the National Forest Policy, 1988. JFM is a forest management partnership involving the forest departments and local communities. The communities are required to organise Forest Protection Committee (FPC), village forest committees, etc. Each body has an executive committee that manages its day-to-day affairs. The woman sub-committee in the Joint Forest Management Committee (JFMC) ensures gender balance. In return for their services to the forests, the communities benefit from using minor non-timber forest produce. Examples of Joint Forest Management (JFM)  Controlled grazing of cattle by the Gaddi and Gujjar tribes in the Himalayan states prevents the widespread growth of wild grass, thus contributing towards the conservation of biodiversity.  Bishnoi community of Rajasthan and Punjab play a significant role in conserving Blackbuck (LC).  Maldharis, living in the vicinity of Gir National Park, have contributed to the improvement of the lion population. Issues with Joint Forest Management (JFM)  Implementation of JFM afforestation programmes is expensive (Rs 20,000 per ha).  Inadequate remuneration for local communities from JFM activities.  Lack of legal status and financial and executive powers for the Forest Protection Committee (FPC).  Forest Departments in certain States are vested with arbitrary powers to dissolve FPCs. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 198  Absence of participation by women despite their formal representation in management committees.  Inter-intra-community conflicts hamper FPC functioning.  Denial of rights on disposal over valuable Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to local communities. Social forestry The National Commission on Agriculture, GOI, first used the term ‘social forestry’ in 1976. Social forestry is the management and protection of forests and afforestation of barren and deforested lands with the help of local communities. Social forestry was meant to take the pressure off the forests and use unused and fallow land. With the introduction of this scheme, the government formally recognised the local communities’ rights to forest resources. Components of Social Forestry Farm forestry: commercial and non-commercial farm forestry is being promoted where individual farmers were encouraged to plant trees on their farmland. Community forestry: raising of trees on community land by communities for the benefit of the entire community. The government has the responsibility of providing seedlings and fertiliser. Extension forestry: Planting trees on the sides of roads, canals and railways and planting on wastelands is known as ‘extension’ forestry. Under this project, there has been the creation of wood lots in the common village lands, government wastelands and panchayat lands. Agroforestry: Planting trees on and around agricultural boundaries, and on marginal, private lands, in combination with crops, is known as agroforestry. Social forestry suffers from similar issues as those faced by Joint Forest Management. Compensatory Afforestation (CA) Under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, whenever forest land is diverted for non-forestry purposes, an equal area of non-forest land (revenue land) or twice the area of degraded forest land has to be planted over as CA. The process starts with the project proponent identifying land for CA and proposing the same to the state forest department. If the department approves the proposal, the project proponent pays for the land (Net Present Value), which is transferred to the state forest department. The state forest department then undertakes plantation work on that land. Till 2019, afforestation was allowed on degraded forest land only if revenue land was unavailable. MoEF brought in a notification, allowing compensatory afforestation in forestland where crown density is less than 40%. Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF) Act, 2016 Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) is a National Advisory Council under the chairmanship of the Union Minister of Environment. CAMPA and State CAMPA were set up on a ad hoc basis in 2006 after the intervention of the Supreme Court. CAMPA at the national and state level CAMPAs are meant to promote afforestation and regeneration activities as a way of compensating for forest land diverted to non-forest uses. The CAMPA National Advisory Council makes recommendations to State CAMPA. The State CAMPA receives funds collected from user agencies towards CA. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 199 CAF Act was enacted in 2016 to manage the funds collected for compensatory afforestation by CAMPA. The law established the National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of India, and a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of each state. These Funds will receive payments for: (i) compensatory afforestation, (ii) net present value of forest (NPV), and (iii) other project specific payments. The National Fund will receive 10% of these funds, and the State Funds will receive the remaining 90%. Q. Consider the following statements: (2019) 1. As per law, the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority exists at both National and State levels. 2. People’s participation is mandatory in the compensatory afforestation programmes carried out under the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? a) 1 only b) 2 only c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2 Explanation: The act stresses on the participation of people and social audit. However, they are not mandatory. So the answer is a) 1 only Issues with the present system of CA Industries find it hard to acquire appropriate non-forest land, which has to be contiguous to an existing forest. Funds are diverted The Centre had collected nearly ₹50,000 crores over decades, but the funds were lying unspent because states were not spending the money on regrowing forests. After the SC’s intervention, a new law came about with rules for how funds would be administered. About ₹47,000 crores had been disbursed to states, but it has barely led to any rejuvenation of forests. Only a few species are used in CA schemes Protecting and regenerating natural forests should comprise a diverse mix of native tree species that are more reliable in the long term than raising monoculture or species-poor plantations. Currently, over half of the compensatory afforestation plantations use five species or less, which is way lower than in natural forests and inadequate. This is neither good for biodiversity nor the stability of carbon capture. Grasslands help in carbon capture themselves, and planting few species of trees there can cause more harm.  Carbon storage is highest in species-rich evergreen forests. Eucalyptus plantations had comparatively lower carbon storage, while teak plantations stored nearly as much carbon as deciduous forests. Green Credit Scheme WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 200 The Forest Advisory Committee (FAC), an apex body under MoEF that adjudicates requests to raze forest land for commercial ends, has approved the Green Credit Scheme that could allow forests to be traded as a commodity. FAC has recommended that private players be allowed to raise plantations to be later used towards CA. If implemented, it allows the Forest Department to outsource its responsibilities of reforesting to nongovernment participating agencies — private companies, village forest communities, etc. After three years, the plantations would be eligible to be considered as compensatory forest land if they met the Forest Department’s criteria The participating agency can trade its plantation in parcels with project proponents who need forest land. And the forest land would then be transferred to the Forest Department and be recorded as forest land (RFA). FAC’s Take FAC recommended that such plantations be accepted in the non-forest area. It believes that such a scheme will encourage plantation by individuals outside the traditional forest area and help meet international commitments such as SDGs and NDCs. The Green India Mission aims to sequester 2.523 billion tonnes of carbon by 2020-30, and this involves adding 30 million hectares in addition to an existing forest. Green Credit Scheme could be of help here. Criticism of the Green Credit Scheme  The scheme would lead to the privatisation of forests and give impetus to their destruction. It does not solve the core problems of compensatory afforestation.  Forests are treated as mere commodities without any social or ecological character.  If the economic value of these plantations becomes lucrative, it can pose a severe threat to agricultural land, which could be diverted for plantations.  The plantations will be ready to be traded after three years. So, a private company would want to grow species like eucalyptus (invasive species) which will mature quickly within three years. Aerial Seeding for Reforestation The Delhi High Court asked forest authorities whether “planting of seeds could be done by throwing dart shots containing them from helicopters into forest areas”. The Forest Department has concluded that such technology need not be employed for places that are easily accessible. Aerial seeding Aerial seeding (aerial reforestation) is a reforestation technique wherein seeds, or seed balls (seed bombs made up of compost, clay and seeds) are sprayed using aerial devices like helicopters, drones, etc. Seeds planted through this procedure have a success rate of 50%. Aerial seeding can spread grasses and plants to large areas after wildfires. It is adopted because it is quicker and more effective than planting manually. It also allows access to areas where the terrain is rocky or at high elevation. It has been used with varying degrees of success around the world. Dart seeding Dart seeding is used with the same broad objective as aerial seeding. The process involves throwing darts containing seeds onto open ground. In aerial seeding, many seeds fail to germinate. If dart plantation is done from a low-flying helicopter, seeds have a relatively better chance of survival as they reach deeper into the ground. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 201 Plantation with both aerial and dart plantations is carried out close to the onset of monsoon. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - End of Chapter - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

pmf ias Flashcards by Naveen Kumar

Table of Contents
1. Environment, Habitat and Ecosystem…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
1.1. Environment …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
1.2. Habitat…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
Habitat vs Environment…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
1.3. Ecosystem……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
Classification of Ecosystems………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
Ecosystem vs Environment vs Ecology…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
1.4. Components of an Ecosystem ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3
Abiotic Components………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3
Biotic Components……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 6

1.1. Environment
* An environment is a natural component in which biotic (resulting from living organisms) and abiotic (physical; not directly derived from living organisms) factors interact among themselves and with each other.
These interactions shape the habitat and ecosystem of an organism or ecological community (a group of
species found together).
 Biotic components include living organisms, dead and decaying matter, bones, fossils, etc. Abiotic components include climate, weather, humus (the organic component of soil formed by the decomposition of
plant material), natural phenomenon like lightning, etc. Soil usually has both biotic (dead and decaying
matter) and abiotic components (humus, minerals, etc.).
 Biotic is not the same as organic: Organic compounds (biomolecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and nucleic acids having at least one carbon-hydrogen bond) are those obtained directly or indirectly from
plants and animals. The compounds obtained from minerals are known as inorganic compounds (typically
lacking carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds).
* In the biological sense, an environment constitutes the physical (nutrients, water, air, climate) and biological
factors (biomolecules, organisms) along with their chemical interactions (chemical cycles – carbon cycle,
nitrogen cycle, etc.) that affect an organism or a group of organisms. All organisms depend on the environment to carry out their natural life processes and meet their physical requirements (food, energy, water,
oxygen, shelter, etc.).
1.2. Habitat
* Habitat is the physical environment in which an organism lives (address of an organism). Many habitats
together make up the environment.
* A single habitat may be common for multiple organisms which have similar requirements. For example, a
single aquatic habitat may support a fish, frog, crab, phytoplankton, and many others. The various species
sharing a habitat thus have the same ‘address’. E.g., forest, lake, etc.
Habitat vs Environment
* A habitat always has life in it, whereas the environment does not necessarily have life in it  All habitats
are environments, but all environments are not habitats.
* A habitat is always a preference of one species. An environment could be a preference of many species
that could eventually become many habitats.
* Usually, the environment governs the properties of a habitat, but not vice versa.
1.3. Ecosystem
* An ecosystem can be visualised as a functional unit of nature, where living organisms (producers, consumers, and decomposers) interact among themselves and with the surrounding physical environment. An ecosystem can be of any size but usually encompasses specific and limited species. E.g., Aquatic Ecosystem. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 2
* In the ecosystem, biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy
flows. Everything species in an ecosystem depends on the other species and elements that are also part of
that ecological community. If one part of an ecosystem is damaged/disappears, it impacts everything else.
Classification of Ecosystems
* Ecosystems are classified into terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Forest, grassland, and desert are some examples of terrestrial ecosystems; pond, lake, wetland, river and estuary are some examples of aquatic ecosystems. Crop fields and an aquarium are human-made ecosystems.
Ecosystem vs Environment vs Ecology
 An ecosystem (has life in it) is a functional unit of nature or environment. A habitat is a part of the
ecosystem.
 An environment (may or may not have life) is a group of ecosystems. (All ecosystems are environments,
but not vice versa)
 Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms, and organisms and the surroundings in an ecosystem. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 3
1.4. Components of an Ecosystem
Abiotic Components
* A lot of abiotic factors determine the survival of an organism. But one single factor can limit the range of
an organism. This single factor is called a limiting factor. For example, seeds do not germinate quickly in
evergreen rainforests despite good rains and luxuriant vegetation. This is because the surface soil is heavily
leached (nutrients washed away) by running water. Here, the inferior surface soil is the limiting factor that WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
4
limits the germination of seeds. Likewise, germinated saplings may not survive due to a lack of light because
of the dense canopy. Here, the absence of light (shade) is the limiting factor.
[UPSC 2015] Which one of the following is the best description of the term “ecosystem”?
a) A community of organisms interacting with one another
b) Part of the earth which is inhabited by living organisms
c) A community of organisms together with the environment in which they live.
d) The flora and fauna of a geographical area.
* A community of organisms interacting with one another  Ecological community.
* Earth inhabited by living organisms  Biosphere.
* A community of organisms together with the environment in which they live  Ecosystem.
* The flora and fauna of a geographical area  Biodiversity.
 Environment  Almost everything or a small region.
 Biosphere  The part of the earth that supports life.
 Habitat  Area where an organism lives.
 Ecosystem  Producers, Consumers, Decomposers, and their relationships (tiny environment). It is the
functional unit of the environment.
 Ecology  Study of interactions in an ecosystem
Answer: c)
[UPSC 2012] If a tropical rainforest is removed, it does not regenerate quickly as compared to
a tropical deciduous forest. This is because
a) the soil of rain forest is deficient in nutrients
b) propagules of trees in a rainforest have poor viability
c) the rainforest species are slow growing
d) exotic species invade the fertile soil of rainforest.
Explanation:
* The rainforest soil is deficient in nutrients (true): Rainforest ⇒ It rains almost every day ⇒ The topsoil is
continuously washed away ⇒ nutrients are also washed away (leaching of nutrients) ⇒ very little fertility
remains in topsoil ⇒ most of the seeds don’t germinate for years ⇒ regeneration of rainforest is very slow
(it takes decades). But the layer below the topsoil is very fertile. Thus, plants proliferate once their roots
reach the sub-soil and if they receive enough sunlight.
* Propagules of the trees in a rain forest have poor viability (true): Propagule ⇒ detachable structure that
can give rise to a new plant, e.g., a bud, sucker, spore (sexual reproduction in plants), etc. However, seedbearing plants (spermatophytes) are more significant than propagules in a rainforest.
* The rainforest species are slow growing (false): The plant species in rainforests compete for sunlight.
Hence, they grow as rapidly as they can.
* Exotic species (non-native) invade the fertile rainforest soil (false): Since the rainforest topsoil is heavily
leached, they are not fertile (only the topsoil). But exotic invasive species threaten the rainforests significantly when the forests are cleared.
Answer: a)
Major Abiotic Limiting Factors WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 5
* Light: The spectral quality of solar radiation is essential for life. The UV component of the spectrum is harmful
to many organisms.
* Rainfall: Most biochemical reactions take place in an aqueous medium.
* Temperature: A few organisms can tolerate and thrive in a wide range of temperatures (eurythermal), while
most are restricted to a narrow range of temperatures (stenothermal).
* Atmosphere: 21% oxygen helps in the survival of many organisms, 78% nitrogen prevents spontaneous
combustion, and 0.038% carbon dioxide helps primary producers synthesise carbohydrates.
* Organic compounds: Biomolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids etc., are essential for energy transfer in the living world.
* Inorganic compounds: Carbon, carbon dioxide, water, sulphur, nitrates, phosphates, and ions of various
metals are essential for organisms to survive.
* Altitude: Change in temperature with altitude is a limiting factor, and it results in vertical zonation of vegetation.
* Buffering capacity of the earth: A neutral pH (pH of 7) is maintained in the soil and water bodies due to
the buffering capacity of the planet. The neutral pH is conducive to the survival and sustenance of living
organisms.
* Salinity: Some organisms tolerate a wide range of salinities (euryhaline). Others are restricted to a narrow
range of salinities (stenohaline).
Effect of Abiotic Components on Terrestrial Autotrophs
Light
* Extremely high-intensity favours root growth more than shoot growth, resulting in increased transpiration, short stem, and smaller, thicker leaves. On the other hand, low-intensity light retards growth, flowering, and fruiting. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 6
* When the light intensity is less than the minimum, the plants cease to grow due to the accumulation of CO2.
* Of the visible part of the spectrum, only red and blue are effective in photosynthesis. Plants grown in blue
light are small; red light results in the elongation of cells (etiolated plants). Plants grown in ultraviolet
light are dwarf.
Frost
* Frost results in freezing the soil moisture. The plants are killed due to increased transpiration when their
roots cannot supply moisture. Water in the intercellular spaces of the plant gets frozen into ice. This results
in an increased concentration of salts and dehydration of cells. Also, frost leads to canker formation (various plant diseases with similar symptoms are caused by different fungi, bacteria, and viruses).
Snow
* Snow shortens the period of vegetative growth. It acts as a blanket, prevents a further drop in temperature
and protects seedlings from excessive cold and frost. Accumulation of snow on tree parts can break the
branches or even uproot the tree.
Temperature
* High-temperature results in the death of plants due to coagulation of protoplasmic proteins (some bacteria can survive high temperatures because of their protoplasmic proteins that do not coagulate at normally high temperatures).
* High temperature disturbs the balance between respiration and photosynthesis. It also results in the desiccation of plant tissues and depletion of moisture.
Nitrogen
* Plants compete with microbes for the limited nitrogen available in the soil. Thus, nitrogen is a limiting
nutrient for both natural and agricultural ecosystems.
Dieback
* Dieback refers to the progressive dying, usually backwards from the tip of any portion of the plant. This
is one of the adaptive mechanisms to avoid adverse conditions like drought. In this mechanism, the root
remains alive for years together, but the shoots die. E.g. sal, red sanders, silk-cotton tree etc.
Biotic Components
Primary Producers/Autotrophs
* Primary producers (self-nourishing) are green plants, certain bacteria and cyanobacteria/blue-green algae that carry out photosynthesis. In the aquatic ecosystem, microscopic algae (plankton) are the primary
producers.
Consumers/Heterotrophs
* Consumers (other nourishing) are incapable of producing their own food. They depend on organic food
derived from plants, animals, or both. Consumers can be divided into two broad groups, namely micro and
macro consumers.
Macro Consumers
* Herbivores are primary consumers that feed mainly on plants. E.g., sheep, rabbit, etc.
* Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers. E.g., wolves, dogs, snakes, etc. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 7
* Carnivores that feed on both primary and secondary consumers are called tertiary consumers. E.g., lions
(can eat wolves), snakes etc.
* Omnivores are organisms that consume both plants and animals. E.g., man, bear, pig, etc.
Micro Consumers
* Phagotrophs are tiny organisms that feed by ingesting organic matter or organisms.
* Osmotrophs are organisms that obtain their nutrients by the uptake of dissolved organic matter from the
ambient medium through osmosis (movement of a solvent through a semi-permeable membrane).
* Saprotrophs/decomposers are bacteria and fungi (e.g., mushrooms) which obtain energy and nutrients
from dead organic substances (detritus). Earthworms and certain soil organisms (such as nematodes and
arthropods) are detritus feeders and help decompose organic matter and are called detrivores.

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Ecology – Principles and Organizations …………………………………………………………………………………………. 8
2.1. Levels of Organizations in Ecology ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 8
Individual and Species ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 8
Population ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 8
Community ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9
Ecosystem……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10
Biome……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 11
Ecotone…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 11
Biosphere ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 12
2.2. Principles of Ecology……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13
Adaptation …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 13
Variation ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 14
Speciation ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 14
Mutation ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 15
Natural Selection ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 15
Evolution ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 16
Extinction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 16

The term ecology was derived from two Greek words, ‘Oikos’ meaning home and ‘logos’ meaning study.
Ecology is the branch of biology concerned with the relations of organisms to one another (energy flow
and mineral cycling) and their physical surroundings (environment).
2.1. Levels of Organizations in Ecology
Ecology encompasses the study of individuals, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, biomes and biosphere, which form the various levels of ecological organisation.
Individual and Species
An organism is an individual living being that can act or function independently. Species are a group of living
organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes (interbreeding). They are considered the basic unit of taxonomy and are denoted by a Latin binomial, e.g., Homo sapiens.
Population
The population is a community of interbreeding organisms (same species) occupying a defined area during a specific time. Population growth rate can be positive due to birth/immigration or negative due to
death/emigration. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 9
Identifying Populations using Pugmarks
In large, mobile animals like tigers, leopards, lions, deer etc., the population density may be determined
by counting the pugmarks (foot imprints) left by the animals in a defined area. The study of pug marks
can provide the following information reliably:
 Presence of different species in an area.
 Identification of individual animals.
 Population of large cats (tigers, lions etc.).
 Sex ratio and age (young or adult) of large cats.
(Sex of tigers can be determined from pugmarks!)
Community
Communities are named after the dominant plant form. For example, a grassland community is dominated
by grasses, though it may contain herbs, trees, etc.
Major Communities: These are large-sized and relatively independent. They depend only on the sun’s energy from outside. E.g., Tropical evergreen forests.
Minor Communities: These depend on neighbouring communities and are often called societies. They are
secondary aggregations within a major community. E.g., A mat of lichen on a cow dung pad. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 10
Stable Community
A stable community means that there is not much variation in productivity from year to year. It is either
resistant or resilient to occasional disturbances (natural or human-made) and invasions by alien species.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem constitutes habitats of various species, usually overlapping with each other. In an ecosystem,
the organisms interact with each other and their environment such that energy is exchanged and systemlevel processes, such as the cycling of elements, emerge.
Ecological Niche
Niche refers to the unique functional role and position of a species in its habitat or ecosystem. In nature,
many species occupy the same habitat, but they perform different functions:
a) habitat niche – where it lives,
b) food niche – what it eats or decomposes and what species it competes with,
c) reproductive niche – how and when it reproduces,
d) physical and chemical niche – temperature, land shape, land slope, humidity and another requirement.
Niche plays an essential role in the conservation of organisms. If we must conserve species in their native
habitat, we should know the niche requirements of the species.
Difference Between Niche and Habitat
The habitat of a species is like its ‘address’. In contrast, niche can be considered its “lifestyle and profession” (i.e., activities and responses specific to the species).
A niche is unique for a species, while many species share the habitat. No two species in a habitat can
have the same niche. This is because of the competition with one another until one is displaced. For example, many different species of insects may be pests of the same plant, but they can co-exist as they feed on
different parts of the same plant. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 11
[UPSC 2013] Which one of the following terms describes not only the physical space occupied by an organism but also its functional role in the community of organisms?
a) Ecotone
b) Ecological niche
c) Habitat
d) Home range
Explanation:
Ecotone  zone of transition between two ecosystems. E.g., grasslands, mangroves etc.
Habitat  surroundings in which an organism lives (home).
Home Range  A home range is an area where an animal lives and moves on a daily or periodic basis (a
little bigger than habitat – home → office → home).
Answer: b) Niche
Biome
A biome is a large, naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a major habitat. E.g.,
Rainforest biome or tundra biome. Biomes are distinct from habitats because any biome can comprise a
variety of habitats.
Plants and animals in a biome have common characteristics due to similar climates and can be found
over various continents. For example, taiga forests are found beyond the temperate regions of all the
continents in the northern hemisphere.
Ecotone
An ecotone is a zone of junction or a transition area between two biomes (diverse ecosystems). It is the
zone where two communities meet and integrate. For example, the mangrove forests represent an ecotone
between marine and terrestrial ecosystems.
Other examples are grassland (between forest and desert), estuarine (between fresh water and saltwater)
and riverbank or marshland (between dry and wet).
Characteristics of An Ecotone
An ecotone may be narrow (between grassland and forest) or wide (between forest and desert). It has
conditions intermediate to the adjacent ecosystems. Hence it is a zone of tension. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 12
Usually, the number and the population density of the species of an outgoing community decrease as we
move away from the community or ecosystem.
A well-developed ecotone contains some organisms which are entirely different from that of the adjoining communities.
Ecotone regions (transitional zones) like mangroves, wetlands, estuaries, grasslands etc., have far
greater productivity than natural ecosystems like a forest ecosystem, ocean ecosystem, pond ecosystem,
riverine ecosystem, desert ecosystem, etc. This is because of the wide-ranging species from the adjacent
ecosystems being present in the ecotone.
Ecocline
Ecocline is a zone of gradual but continuous change from one ecosystem to another when there is no
sharp boundary between the two in terms of species composition. It occurs across the environmental gradient (gradual change in abiotic factors such as altitude, temperature (thermocline), salinity (halocline),
depth, etc.).
 Ecotone  Zone of transition between two ecosystems. It has characteristics of both ecosystems.
 Ecocline  An indistinct boundary (not-so-sharp environmental gradient of physiochemical factors such as
humidity, temperature, salinity, pH, etc.) between ecosystems.
Edge Effect and Edge Species
Sometimes, due to the more diverse ecological characteristics found in an ecotone, the number of species
(biodiversity) and the population density of some species in the ecotone is much greater than in either
community. This is called the edge effect, and the species which occur primarily or most abundantly in this
zone are known as edge species.
In terrestrial ecosystems, the edge effect is especially applicable to birds. For example, the density of birds
is greater in the ecotone between the forest and the desert.
Biosphere
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 13
The biosphere is the biological component (supporting life) of the earth which includes the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. It consists of all living organisms, together with the dead organic matter produced by them. The biosphere is absent at extremes of the North and South poles, the highest mountains,
and the deepest oceans since existing hostile conditions do not support life. Occasionally, spores of fungi
and bacteria do occur at a great height beyond 8,000 metres, but they are metabolically inactive and hence
represent only dormant life.
2.2. Principles of Ecology
Certain principles govern the evolution of ecosystems. Such principles are discussed in this section.
Adaptation
An adaptation is the appearance/behaviour/structure/mode of life of an organism that allows it to survive in a particular environment. Adaptation may be:
1. Morphological – when trees grew higher, the giraffe’s neck got longer.
2. Physiological – in the absence of an external water source, the kangaroo rat in North American deserts can
meet all its water requirements through internal fat oxidation (in which water is a by-product). It also has
the ability to concentrate its urine so that a minimal volume of water is used to remove excretory products.
3. Behavioural – animals migrating temporarily to a less stressful habitat.
Examples of Adaptation
Morphological
Many desert plants have thick cuticles on their leaf surfaces and have their stomata arranged in deep pits
to minimise water loss through transpiration. Some desert plants like Opuntia have no leaves – they are
reduced to spines (to reduce transpiration), and the photosynthetic function is taken over by the flattened stems (few leaves mean less area is available for transpiration).
Mammals from colder climates generally have shorter ears and limbs to minimise heat loss. (This is called
Allen’s Rule.) Guess why an elephant has enormous ears? Because elephants don’t sweat. They use their
flapping ears to lose heat and keep the rest of the body cool.
A hyperthermophile is an organism that thrives in extremely hot environments (60 °C). E.g., Archaebacteria flourish in hot springs and deep-sea hydrothermal vents.
Archaebacteria (Archaea) and Eubacteria
Archaebacteria (ancient bacteria), eubacteria (true bacteria) and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
belong to the kingdom Monera, which contains the least organised unicellular prokaryotic (genetic
material is not stored within a membrane-bound nucleus) microorganisms on earth.
The main difference between archaebacteria and other groups in Monera is that archaebacteria can survive in extreme environmental conditions. A special protein helps these organisms form a protective,
lipid-linked cellular membrane – a key to withstanding extremely highly salty areas (halophiles), hot
springs and acidic habitats (thermoacidophiles).
Physiological
We need to breathe faster when we are in high mountains. After some days, our body adjusts to the changed
conditions on the high mountain. Such small changes taking place in the body of an organism over short
periods to overcome minor problems due to changes in the surroundings is called acclimatisation. The WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 14
body compensates for low oxygen availability by increasing red blood cell production, decreasing the
binding capacity of haemoglobin, and increasing breathing rate.
Behavioural
Desert lizards lack the physiological ability that mammals have. They bask in the sun and absorb heat when
their body temperature drops but move into the shade when the ambient temperature increases. Some species can burrow into the soil to hide and escape from the above-ground heat.
Variation
Variations are induced by changes in genetic makeup due to the addition or deletion of specific genes.
Mutations, changes in climate, geographical barriers etc., induce variations over a period of time. The
difference in the colour of skin, type of hair, curly or straight, eye colour, and blood type among different
ethnic groups represents the variation within the human species.
Adaptive radiation
Adaptive radiation is a process in which organisms diversify from an ancestral species into many new forms
when the environment creates new challenges or opens new environmental niches.
Speciation
Speciation is the process by which new species are formed, and evolution is the mechanism by which speciation is brought about.
A species comprises many populations. Often different populations remain isolated due to geographic barriers such as mountains, oceans, rivers, etc. Over a period, geographic isolation leads to speciation (allopatric speciation or geographic speciation). After an extended period, the sub-populations become very
different (genetic drift) and get isolated, reproductively (they no longer interbreed).
Later even when the barrier is removed, the sub-populations are unable to interbreed, and thus subsequently,
the sub-populations become different species. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 15
In sympatric speciation, no physical barriers prevent the same species’ populations from mating. However,
a new species, perhaps based on a different food source or characteristic, seems to develop spontaneously.
Mutation
Mutation (a change in genetic material that results from an error in DNA replication) causes new genes to
arise in a population. Further, in a sexually reproducing population, meiosis and fertilisation produce a new
combination of genes every generation, which is termed recombination. Thus, members of the same species
show ‘variation’ and are not identical.
Natural Selection
Natural Selection is the mechanism proposed by Darwin and Wallace.
It is the process by which species adapt to their environment. It is an evolutionary force that selects
among variations, i.e. genes that help the organism to better adapt to its environment. Such genes are WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 16
reproduced more in a population due to natural selection. Those offsprings which are suited to their immediate environment have a better chance of surviving, reaching reproductive age and passing on suitable
adaptations to their progeny.
Evolution
Evolution is the change which gives rise to new species. It happens to make the organism better suitable
to the present environment. Evolution involves the processes of natural selection, adaptation, variation
etc. Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace propounded a valid theory of evolution in 1859. This theory has been
extended in light of progress in genetics and is known as Neo-Darwinism.
Extinction
The primary reason behind extinctions is an environmental change or biological competition. Extinction occurs when species cannot evolve fast enough to cope with the changing environment. Currently, the 6th Mass
Extinction (Anthropogenic Extinction – human-induced) is in progress.
Q. Which of the following are true?
1. The presence of specific features or certain habits, which enable a plant or an animal to live in its surroundings, is called evolution.
2. The surroundings where an organism lives is called its habitat.
3. Small changes that take place in the body of a single organism over short periods, to overcome small
problems due to changes in the surroundings, is called acclimatization
4. Gradual changes in an organism to survive in an environment is call adaptation
Codes:
a) All
b) 2, 3 only
c) 1, 2, 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 only
Explanation:
The presence of specific features/habits, which enable a plant or an animal to live in its surroundings, is
called adaptation and not evolution. E.g., Hibernation.
The surroundings where an organism lives is called its habitat. (True)
Small changes that take place in the body of a single organism over short periods to overcome minor
problems due to changes in the surroundings is called acclimatisation (True). E.g., Soldiers undergo rigorous acclimatisation training before serving in harsh climatic regions like Siachen Glacier.
Gradual changes in an organism to survive in an environment is called evolution and not adaptation
(adaptation may be gradual or quick). E.g., The evolution of the Giraffes neck over a period of time.
Answer: b) 2,3 only
Q. Choose the incorrect pairs
Characteristic feature Vegetation
1) Sloping branches and needle-like leaves Desert vegetation
2) Deep roots Taiga vegetation
3) Waxy stem, thick leaves or no leaves Tundra vegetation WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 17
4) Canopy Tropical vegetation
Codes:
a) All
b) 4 only
c) 1, 2, 3 only
d) 2, 3 only
Explanation:
Sloping branches (prevent snow accumulation) and needle-like leaves (reduce transpiration) 
Taiga.
Deep roots, waxy stem, thick leaves/no leaves  Desert vegetation
Canopy  the characteristic feature of tropical forests – rainforests, deciduous forests etc.
Answer: c) 1, 2, 3 only (incorrect pairs)
[UPSC 2018] The term “sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction” is often mentioned in the
news in the context of the discussion of (2018)
a) Widespread monoculture practices in agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate
use of chemicals in many parts of the world that may result in the loss of good native ecosystems.
b) Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the earth in the near future in the manner it happened 65
million years ago that caused the mass extinction of many species, including those of dinosaurs.
c) Large-scale cultivation of genetically modified crops in many parts of the world and promotion of their
cultivation in other parts of the world, which may cause the disappearance of good native crop plants and
the loss of food biodiversity.
d) Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss of natural habitats, destruction of ecosystems, pollution, and global climate change.
Explanation: Extinction Events
1. Ordovician-Silurian Extinction (440 million years ago): Small marine organisms died.
2. Devonian Extinction (365 million years ago): Many tropical marine species went extinct.
3. Permian-Triassic Extinction (250 million years ago): The largest mass extinction event in earth’s history
affected many species, including many vertebrates.
4. Triassic-Jurassic Extinction (210 million years ago): The extinction of other vertebrate species on land allowed dinosaurs to flourish.
5. Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction (65 million years ago): It wiped out dinosaurs and some 50 per cent of
plants and animals.
6. The sixth mass extinction is the Anthropocene/Holocene Extinction — a result of human activity.
 The ongoing Anthropocene (since the agricultural revolution 12,000–15,000 years ago to the present) is a
proposed geological epoch dating from the commencement of significant human impact on Earth’s geology
and ecosystems, including, but not limited to, anthropogenic climate change.
Answer: d

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Functions of an Ecosystem – Succession and Homeostasis…………………………………………………………….. 18
3.1. Ecological Succession…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 18
Stages in Ecological Succession ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 18
Primary Succession …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 18
Secondary Succession ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 19
Autogenic and Allogenic Succession………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 20
Succession in Plants………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 21
Succession in Water………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 21
3.2. Homeostasis in Ecosystem …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 21
Homeostasis ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 22

The function of an ecosystem includes:
1. Ecological succession or ecosystem development
2. Homeostasis (cybernetic)/feedback control mechanisms
3. Energy flow through the food chain
4. Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
3.1. Ecological Succession
The process by which communities of plant and animal species in an area are replaced or changed into
another over a period of time is known as ecological succession. It occurs due to large-scale changes or
destruction (natural or manmade).
Stages in Ecological Succession
Succession is a directional change in vegetation on an ecological time scale. The process involves a progressive series of changes, with one community replacing another until a stable, mature, climax community
develops.
The first plant to colonise an area is called the pioneer community. The final stage of succession is called
the climax community, which is more complex and long-lasting. The stages leading to the climax community
are called successional stages or seres. Each transitional community that is formed and replaced during
succession is called a stage in succession or a seral community.
Succession is characterised by the following: increased productivity, the shift of nutrients from the reservoirs, increased diversity of organisms, and a gradual increase in the complexity of food webs.
Succession would occur faster in an area existing in the middle of the large continent. This is because
here seeds of plants belonging to the different seres would reach much faster.
Primary Succession
Primary succession takes place over an area where no community has existed previously. Such areas
include rock outcrops, newly formed deltas and sand dunes, emerging volcano islands and lava flows, glacial
moraines (muddy areas exposed by a retreating glacier), slopes exposed by landslides, etc. In primary WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 19
succession on a terrestrial site, the new site is first colonised by a few hardy pioneer species that are often microbes, lichens, and mosses. The pioneers, over a few generations, alter the habitat through their
growth and development.
[UPSC 2014] Lichens, which are capable of initiating ecological succession even on a bare
rock, are actually a symbiotic association of
a) algae and bacteria
b) algae and fungi
c) bacteria and fungi
d) fungi and mosses
Explanation:
Lichen are plant-like organisms that consist of a symbiotic association of algae and fungi. Fungi
provide shelter, water and minerals to the algae and, in return, the alga provides food.
Answer: b) Algae and Fungai
[UPSC 2021] In nature, which of the following is/are likely to be found surviving on a surface
without soil?
1) Fern
2) Lichen
3) Moss
4) Mushroom
Select the correct answer using the code given below
a) 1 and 4 Only
b) 2 Only
c) 2 and 3
d) 1, 3 and 4
The pioneers, through their death and decay leave patches of organic matter in which small animals can live.
The organic matter produced by these pioneer species produce organic acids during decomposition that
dissolve and etch the substratum releasing nutrients. Organic debris accumulates in pockets and crevices,
providing soil where seeds can become lodged and grow. The new conditions may be conducive for the
establishment of additional organisms that may subsequently arrive at the site.
As the community of organisms continues to develop, it becomes more diverse, and competition increases,
but at the same time, new niche opportunities develop. The pioneer species disappear as the habitat conditions change and the invasion of new species progresses, leading to the replacement of the preceding
community.
Autotrophic and Heterotrophic succession
Succession in which, initially, the green plants are much greater in quantity is known as autotrophic succession, and the ones in which the heterotrophs are greater in quantity is known as heterotrophic succession.
Secondary Succession
Secondary succession is the sequential development of biotic communities after the complete or partial
destruction of the existing community.
Explanation WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 20
A mature or intermediate community may be destroyed by natural events such as floods, droughts, fires, or
storms or by human interventions such as deforestation, agriculture, overgrazing, etc. This abandoned land
is first invaded by hardy grasses that can survive in bare, sun-baked soil. Tall grasses and herbaceous plants
may soon join these grasses. These dominate the ecosystem for some years, along with mice, rabbits, insects,
and seed-eating birds.
Eventually, some trees come up in this area, seeds of which may be brought by wind or animals. And over
the years, a forest community develops. Thus, an abandoned land over a period becomes dominated by trees
and is transformed into a forest.
Difference Between Primary and Secondary Succession
Unlike the primary succession, the secondary succession starts on a well-developed soil already formed at
the site. Thus, secondary succession is relatively faster.
Autogenic and Allogenic Succession
When living inhabitants of that community itself bring about succession, the process is called autogenic
succession, while change brought about by outside forces is known as allogenic succession.
[UPSC 2013] In the grasslands, trees do not replace the grasses as a part of an ecological succession because of
a) insects and fungi
b) limited sunlight and paucity of nutrients
c) water limits and fire
d) None of the above
Explanation:
Grasses have one good trick to monopolise a place. In the dry season, the grasses dry up and cause fires
which destroy other plant species and their seeds (autogenic succession). Also, grasslands develop in
regions with scanty rainfall where plant growth cannot be achieved.
Though forests form the climax community in most ecosystems, in the grassland ecosystem, grasses
form the climax community. Thanks to fire and lack of water. Grasslands are almost irreversible once
deforestation in water-scarce areas gives way to grasslands.
Answer: c)
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 21
 The biotic components of an ecosystem drive autogenic succession. Allogenic succession is driven by the
abiotic components (fire, flood) of the ecosystem.
Succession in Plants
Succession that occurs on land where moisture content is low, for e.g. on a bare rock, is known as xerarch.
Succession that takes place in a water body, like a pond or lake, is called hydrarch.
Both hydrarch and xerarch successions lead to medium water conditions (mesic) – neither too dry (xeric) nor
too wet (hydric). With time, the xerophytic habitat gets converted into a mesophytic habitat (requiring
only a moderate amount of water).
Succession in Water
In primary succession in water, the pioneers are the phytoplankton. They are replaced by floating angiosperms, then by rooted hydrophytes (aquatic plants), sedges (some monocotyledonous plants), grasses
and finally, the trees. The climax again would be a forest. As time passes, the water body is converted to land.
Succession, whether taking place in water or on land, proceeds to a similar climax community – the mesic.
3.2. Homeostasis in Ecosystem
In ecology, homeostasis is the tendency for a biological system to resist changes. Ecosystems can maintain
their state of equilibrium. They can regulate their own species’ structure and functional processes. This capacity of the ecosystem of self-regulation is known as homeostasis.
For example, in a pond ecosystem, if the population of zooplankton increases, they consume much phytoplankton, and as a result, food would become scarce for zooplankton. When the number of zooplankton is
reduced because of starvation, the phytoplankton population increases. After some time, the population size
of zooplankton also increases, and this process continues at all the trophic levels of the food chain. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 22
In a homeostatic system, a negative feedback mechanism (an increase in one factor causes a decrease in
another, and vice versa) induced by the limiting resource (here, its scarcity of food) is responsible for maintaining stability in an ecosystem. However, the homeostatic capacity of ecosystems is not unlimited as well
as not everything in an ecosystem is always well-regulated.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of stable equilibrium, especially through physiological (bodily) functions. E.g., Cooling one’s body through sweating processes. Organisms try to maintain the constancy of
their internal environment despite varying external environmental conditions that tend to upset their homeostasis.
Regulate
Some organisms can maintain homeostasis by physiological means (sweating to cool the body, increase
in metabolism to keep the body warm, etc.), and sometimes by behavioural means (animals migrating to
under tree shade to avoid the summer heat), which ensure constant body temperature, constant osmotic
concentration, etc.
All birds and mammals and a very few lower vertebrate and invertebrate species are indeed capable of
such regulation (thermoregulation and osmoregulation). The success of mammals is largely due to
their ability to maintain constant body temperature and thrive whether they live in Antarctica or the
Sahara Desert. Plants, on the other hand, do not have such mechanisms to maintain internal temperatures. Hence their range is comparatively limited.
Conform
An overwhelming majority of animals and nearly all plants cannot maintain a constant internal environment. Their body temperature changes with the ambient temperature. In aquatic animals, the osmotic
concentration of the body fluids changes with that of the ambient water osmotic concentration. These
animals and plants are simply conformers.
Conformers have not evolved to become regulators
Thermoregulation is energetically expensive for many organisms. This is particularly true for small animals like shrews and hummingbirds. Since small animals have a larger surface area relative to their
volume, they tend to lose body heat very fast when it is cold outside. Hence, they must expend much
energy to generate body heat (a lot of food energy goes into heat generation) through metabolism. This
is the main reason why very small animals are rarely found in polar regions.
Migrate
The organism can move away temporarily from the stressful habitat to a more hospitable area and return
when a stressful period is over. For example, every winter, the famous Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) in Rajasthan hosts thousands of migratory birds coming from Siberia and other extremely cold
regions.
Suspend
In bacteria, fungi and lower plants, various kinds of thick-walled spores are formed, which help them to
survive unfavourable conditions. They germinate on the availability of a suitable environment. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 23
In higher plants, seeds and some other vegetative reproductive structures serve as means to tide over
periods of stress besides helping in dispersal.
In animals, the organism, if unable to migrate, might avoid the stress by escaping in time. The familiar case
of polar bears going into hibernation during winter is an example of an escape in time.
Some snails and fish go into aestivation to avoid summer-related problems – heat and desiccation.
Under unfavourable conditions, many zooplankton species in lakes and ponds are known to enter diapause, a stage of suspended development. 4. Functions of an Ecosystem – Trophic Levels
A trophic level (trophe means nourishment) represents energy flow in an ecosystem. The trophic level of
an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain. Energy flows through the trophic levels from producers to subsequent trophic levels is unidirectional.
Energy level decreases from the first trophic level upwards due to loss of energy in the form of heat at
each trophic level. This energy loss at each trophic level is quite significant. Hence there are usually not more
than four-five trophic levels (beyond this, the energy available is negligible to support an organism).
Trophic Levels
Autotrophs Green plants (Producers)
Heterotrophs Herbivores (Primary consumers)
Heterotrophs Carnivores (Secondary consumers)
Heterotrophs Top Carnivore (Tertiary and Quaternary consumers)
The trophic level interaction involves three concepts, namely:
1) Food Chain
2) Food Web
3) Ecological Pyramids
4.1. Food Chain
Transfer of energy from producers through a series of organisms at each tropic level with repeated eating
and being eaten link is called a food chain. E.g., Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Eagle. The two
types of food chains: 1) Grazing food chain and 2) Detritus food chain
Grazing food chain WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 25
The consumers which start the food chain, utilising the plant/plant part as their food, constitute the grazing
food chain. For example, in a terrestrial ecosystem, the grass is eaten by a caterpillar, which is eaten by a
lizard and the lizard is eaten by a snake. In an aquatic ecosystem, phytoplankton (primary producers) are
eaten by zooplankton, which fishes eat, and pelicans (birds) eat fishes.
Detritus food chain
Detritus food chain starts from organic matter of dead and decaying animal and plant bodies from the
grazing food chain. Dead organic matter or detritus-feeding organisms are called detrivores or decomposers. Predators eat the detrivores.
In an aquatic ecosystem, the grazing food chain is the major conduit for energy flow. As against this, in a
terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy flows through the detritus food chain than through
the grazing food chain.
[UPSC 2013] With reference to the food chains in ecosystems, which of the following kinds of
organism(s) is/are known as decomposer organism(s)?
1) Virus
2) Fungi
3) Bacteria
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 26
Explanation:
Fungi and Bacteria are decomposers. They break down organic matter into simple inorganic substances.
Virus represents dormant life. They are metabolically inactive if they are outside a host body. They are
not decomposers. They invade host cells and use their nucleus (DNA machinery) to carry out their life
processes.
 Protists are unicellular organisms. Some protists, such as paramecium and euglena, are not decomposers. While the other protists, like slime moulds, typically grow on dead animals, rotting logs and compost.
Humus
Bacterial and fungal enzymes decompose detritus into simpler inorganic substances. This process is
called catabolism. Humification and mineralisation occur during decomposition in the soil. Humification leads to the accumulation of a dark-coloured amorphous (formless) substance called humus that is
highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition at a very slow rate. Some microbes
further degrade the humus, and the release of inorganic nutrients occurs through the process of mineralisation. Being colloidal in nature, the humus serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
Warm and moist environment favour decomposition, whereas low temperatures & anaerobiosis (lack of
oxygen) inhibit decomposition resulting in a buildup of organic matter, and soils become acidic (taiga
climate).
Answer: b) 2 and 3 only
[UPSC 2021] Which of the following are detritivores?
1) Earthworms
2) Jellyfish
3) Millipedes
4) Seahorses
5) Woodlice
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1, 2 and 4 Only
b) 2, 3, 4 and 5 Only
c) 1, 3 and 5 Only
d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Explanation:
The easiest of the option: 1) Earthworms (detrivores), 2) Jellyfish (marine animals of phylum cnidaria)
and Seahorses (small marine fishes) —Biology NCERT.
Answer: c) 1, 3 and 5 only
4.2. Food Web
Multiple interlinked food chains make a food web. A food web represents all the possible energy flow
pathways in an ecosystem. If any of the intermediate food chains are removed, the succeeding links of the
chain will be affected. A food web provides more than one alternative for food to most organisms in an
ecosystem and therefore increases their chance of survival. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 27
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 28
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 29
Types of Biotic Interactions in a Food Web
‘0’ → no effect ‘–’ → is detrimental ‘+’ → beneficial
Interactions Species
Effect Comments
1 2
Negative Interactions
Amensalism – 0 One species is
inhibited, while
the other species is unaffected.
The bread mould fungi Penicillium produces penicillin —
an antibiotic substance — which inhibits the growth of a
variety of bacteria.
A large tree shades a small plant and retarding the
growth of the small plant. The small plant has no effect on
the large tree.
Predation + – One species
(predator) benefits, while the
second species
(prey) is harmed.
Predators like leopards, tigers and cheetahs use speed,
teeth, and claws to hunt and kill their prey.
Predators help maintain species diversity in a community
by reducing the intensity of competition among competing
prey species.
Parasitism + – Beneficial to one
species (parasite)
and harmful to
the other species
(host).
Parasitism involves a parasite living in or on another living
species called the host. The parasite gets its nourishment
and often shelter from its host.
Tap worms, roundworms, malarial parasites, many bacteria,
fungi, and viruses are common parasites of humans.
 The female mosquito is not considered a parasite, although it needs our blood for reproduction. Why? Because it
does not live on the host.
Competition – – Adversely affects
both species.
Competition occurs when two populations or species need
a common vital resource that is in short supply.
Positive Interactions
Commensalism
+ 0 One species (the
commensal)
benefits, while
the other species (the host) is
neither harmed
nor inhibited.
Suckerfish often attaches to a shark. This helps the
suckerfish get protection, a free ride as well as a meal from
the leftover of the shark’s meal. The shark does not, however, get any benefit, nor is it adversely affected by this
association.
Another example of commensalisms is the relationship between trees and epiphytic plants.
Mutualism + + Interaction is favourable to both
species.
Sea anemone gets attached to the shell of hermit
crabs for the benefit of transport and obtaining new food.
The anemone provides camouflage and protection to the
hermit crab by utilising its stinging cells. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 30
Some mutualisms are so intimate that the interacting species can no longer live without each other as they depend
totally on each other to survive. Such close associations
are called symbiosis (symbiosis is intense mutualism – E.g.,
coral and zooxanthellae).
Neutral Interactions
Neutralism 0 0 Neither species
affects the other
True neutralism is extremely unlikely.
[UPSC 2014] Which one of the following is the correct sequence of a food chain?
a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings
b) Crustaceans-Diatoms-Herrings
c) Diatoms-Herrings-Crustaceans
d) Crustaceans-Herrings-Diatoms
Explanation:
The food chain starts with a producer and ends with a top consumer.
Phytoplankton are the primary producers in the oceans. They include:
 diatoms (unicellular algae),
 coccolithophores (unicellular, eukaryotic protist),
 Cyanobacteria (Bluegreen algae) – Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus, Nostoc, spirogyra, etc., and
 Dinoflagellates (flagellated protists).
Crustaceans form a large group of arthropods which includes crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, etc.
Herrings are fish, and they eat crustaceans.
Answer: (a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings (NCERT)
[2021] Consider the following kinds of organisms:
1) Copepods
2) Cyanobacteria
3) Diatoms
4) Foraminifera
Which of the above are primary producers in the food chains of oceans?
a) 1 and 2
b) 2 and 3
c) 3 and 4
d) 1 and 4
Explanation:
Copepods are a group of small aquatic crustaceans, and foraminifera are amoeboid protists.
Answer: b) 2 and 3 only
[UPSC 2013] With reference to food chains in ecosystems, consider the following statements:
1) A food chain illustrates the order in which a chain of organisms feed upon each other.
2) Food chains are found within the populations of a species. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 31
3) A food chain illustrates the numbers of each organism which are eaten by others.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None
Explanation:
Statement 1 is True.
Statement 2 is False — In a food chain, a species occupies a specific trophic level.
A food chain illustrates the numbers of each organism which are eaten by others (false – the food web
illustrates the number, not the food chain).
Answer: a) 1 only
[2021] Which of the following have species that can establish symbiotic relationship with
other organisms?
1) Cnidarians
2) Fungi
3) Protozoa
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
a) 1 and 2 Only
b) 2 and 3 Only
c) 1 and 3 Only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation:
Corals and sea anemones belong to phylum cnidaria.
Lichen are plant-like organisms that consist of a symbiotic association of algae (usually green) or cyanobacteria and fungi.
Protozoans are mostly predators and parasites.
4.3. Ecological Pyramids
The pyramidal representation of trophic levels of different organisms based on their ecological position
(producer to final consumer) is called as an ecological pyramid. The pyramid consists of several horizontal
bars depicting specific trophic levels. The length of each bar represents the total number of individuals
or biomass or energy at each trophic level in an ecosystem. The producers forms the base of the pyramid,
and the top carnivore forms the tip. Other consumer trophic levels are in between.
The ecological pyramids are of three categories:
1) Pyramid of numbers,
2) Pyramid of biomass, and
3) Pyramid of energy or productivity.
Pyramid of Numbers WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 32
Pyramid of numbers represents the total number of individuals (population) of different species at each
trophic level. Depending upon the size, the pyramid of numbers may not always be upright and may even
be completely inverted. It is very difficult to count all the organisms in a pyramid of numbers, so the pyramid of numbers does not completely define the trophic structure of an ecosystem.
Pyramid of Numbers – Upright
In this pyramid, the number of individuals decreases with each higher trophic level. This type of pyramid
can be seen in the grassland ecosystem and pond ecosystem.
Pyramid of Numbers – Inverted
In this pyramid, the number of individuals increases with each higher trophic level.. E.g., Tree ecosystem. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 33
Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting all organisms occupying each trophic level separately
and measuring their dry weight.
This overcomes the size difference problem because all kinds of organisms at a trophic level are weighed.
Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called the standing crop.
The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area.
Pyramid of Biomass – Upright
For most terrestrial ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass has a large base of primary producers with a smaller
trophic level perched on top. The biomass of the base trophic level, i.e., producers (autotrophs), is at the
maximum. The highest trophic level has the least amount of biomass. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 34
Pyramid of Biomass – Inverted
In contrast to terrestrial ecosystems, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may assume an
inverted form. (In contrast, a pyramid of numbers for the aquatic ecosystem is upright). This is because
the producers are tiny phytoplankton that grows and reproduces rapidly. Here, the pyramid of biomass has
a small base, with the consumer biomass at any instant exceeding the producer biomass and the pyramid
assumes an inverted shape. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 35
Pyramid of Energy
Energy pyramid is most suitable for comparing the functional roles of the trophic levels in an ecosystem.
An energy pyramid represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and loss of energy at each
transfer to another trophic level. Hence the pyramid is always upward, with a large energy base at the
bottom.
Ecological Efficiency
Ecological efficiency describes the efficiency with which energy is transferred from one trophic level to the
next. The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted as the transfer of energy follows
the 10 per cent law — only 10 per cent of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower
trophic level.
The energy decreases at each subsequent trophic level due to two reasons:
 At each trophic, a part of the available energy is lost in respiration or used up in metabolism.
 A part of the energy is lost at each transformation.
Explanation
Suppose an ecosystem receives 1000 calories of light energy on a particular day; some of it is reflected back
to space. Of the energy absorbed, only a small portion is utilised by green plants, out of which the plant uses
up some for respiration; therefore, only 100 calories are stored as energy-rich materials.
When a deer eats a plant containing 100 calories of food energy, it uses some of it for its metabolism and
stores only 10 calories as food energy. A lion that eats the deer gets an even smaller amount of energy. Thus,
usable energy decreases from sunlight to producer to herbivore to carnivore. Therefore, the energy pyramid
will always be upright.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 36
The energy pyramid explains the phenomenon of biological magnification — the tendency for toxic substances
to increase in concentration progressively with higher trophic levels.
Limitations of Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramids do not consider the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels. It assumes a simple food chain, which seldom exists in nature; it does not accommodate a food web. Moreover,
saprophytes (plant, fungus, or microorganism that lives on decaying matter) are not given any place in
ecological pyramids even though they play a vital role in the ecosystem.
Biomagnification – Pollutants and Trophic Level
Pollutants move through the various trophic levels in an ecosystem. Non-degradable pollutants (persistent
pollutants), which detrivores cannot break down, not only move through the various trophic levels but
also remain in that tropic level for a very long duration.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (Perfluoro Chlorides) are the most damaging non-degradable pollutants that
are long-lasting. The movement of these pollutants involves:
1) Bioaccumulation
2) Biomagnification
Bioaccumulation WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 37
Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of pollutants, chemicals (chronic poisoning) or other substances in an organism. It occurs when the rate of loss of the substance from the body of the organism
through catabolism (breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms) or excretion is lower than the
rate of accumulation of the substance.
As persistent organic pollutants like DDT are long-lasting, the risk of bioaccumulation is high even if the
environmental levels of the pollutant are not high.
Biomagnification
Biomagnification refers to progressive bioaccumulation (increase in concentration) at each tropical level
with the passage of time. For biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must have a long biological halflife (long-lived) and must not be soluble in water but be soluble in fats. E.g., DDT. If the pollutant is
soluble in water, it will be excreted by the organism. Pollutants that dissolve in fats are retained for a long
time. Hence it is traditional to measure the amount of pollutants in fatty tissues of organisms such as fish.
In mammals, milk produced by females is tested for pollutants since the milk has a lot of fat in.
- - - - End of Chapter - - - - - - - - - - - - -

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Wetland Ecosystem

Wetlands are transition zones (ecotone) between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Hydric soils (not
enough O2), periodic flooding from adjacent deepwater habitats and plant life (hydrophytes) adapted to
shallow waterlogged soils are the chief characteristics.
According to the definition under Ramsar Convention and Wetlands (Conservation and Management)
Rules 2017, an area of marsh, fen, peat land or water; whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth
of which at low tide does not exceed six meters, is considered as a wetland.
Wetlands include all lakes and rivers, lake littorals (marginal areas between the highest and lowest water
level of the lakes), floodplains (areas lying adjacent to the river channels beyond the natural levees and
periodically flooded during high discharge in the river), underground aquifers, swamps and marshes, wet
grasslands, peatland, oases, estuaries, deltas, tidal flats, mangroves and other coastal areas, coral reefs,
and all human-made sites such as fishponds, rice paddies, reservoirs, and salt pans.
7.1. Differences Between Wetlands and Lakes
Characteristic Lake Wetland (shallow lake)
Origin Tectonic, fluvial, geomorphic, increase in the
water table, etc. The largest lakes are due to tectonic forces.
Mostly fluvial, residual lakes. E.g.,
Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh
Water turnover Permanent Permanent or Temporary
Water level
changes
Relatively small Relatively Large
Thermal stratification
Yes No
Vertical mixing Thermally regulated (because of depth) Wind regulated
Dominant Producers
Phytoplankton Macrophytes
Food chain Grazing Pathway Detritus Pathway WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 70
Productivity Low High
Trophic status Oligotrophic (low nutrient levels; low turbidity; low sedimentation; low population density; low diversity)
Mostly Eutrophic (high nutrient
levels; high turbidity; high sedimentation; high population density; high diversity)
Flood control Negligible Significant
Waste treatment Negligible Significant
There is no clear distinction between lakes & wetlands. Wetlands are shallow water bodies, whereas lakes
can be deep or shallow. Lakes are generally less critical than wetlands from the viewpoint of ecosystem and
conservation.
National Lake Conservation Programme (NLCP) considers lakes as standing water bodies that have a minimum water depth of 3 m, generally cover a water spread of more than ten hectares and have no or very
little aquatic vegetation.
Wetlands (generally less than 3 m deep) are usually rich in nutrients (derived from surroundings and their
sediments). They have abundant growth of aquatic macrophytes (aquatic plants large enough to be WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 71
seen by the naked eye). They support high densities and diverse fauna, particularly birds, fish and
macroinvertebrates, and therefore, have high value for biodiversity conservation.
 Excessive growth of macrophytes (both submerged and free-floating) in wetlands affects the water quality
adversely and interfere with the utilisation of the water body. However, marginal aquatic vegetation is desirable as it checks erosion, serves habitat for wildlife and helps improve water quality.
7.2. Estuarine Wetland Ecosystem
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area of brackish water (salinity of 0-35 ppt) where a river or a
stream opens into the sea (mouth of the river). At the estuaries, freshwater carrying fertile silt and runoff
from the land mixes with salty seawater. Examples of estuaries are river mouths, coastal bays, tidal marshes,
lagoons, and deltas.
Estuaries are formed due to the rise in sea level, movement of sand and sandbars, glacial processes, and
tectonic processes. They are greatly influenced by tidal action. They are periodically washed by seawater
once or twice a day based on the number of tides. In some narrow estuaries, tidal bores are significant. They
cause significant damage to the estuarine ecology.
Differences between Lagoon and Estuary
A lagoon is a stretch of saltwater separated from the sea by a low sandbank or coral reef. Backwaters in
Kerala are lagoons where seawater flows inwards through a small inlet that is open towards the sea.
Lagoons (like Chilika Lake in Odisha) are formed due to falling sea levels (coastline of emergence. E.g.,
Kerala (Malabar) Coast, Odisha (Utkal) Coast and Tamil Nadu (Coromandel) Coast).
In contrast, estuaries (like Mandovi and Zuari estuarine systems in Goa) are mainly formed due to rising
sea levels (coastline of submergence. E.g., Konkan Coast).
Lagoons mostly do not have any fresh water source, while the estuaries have at least one. Hence lagoons are more saline than estuaries.
Estuaries are usually deeper, and the water flows fast, while in lagoons, the water is shallower and flows
sluggishly.
Importance of Estuaries
Ecological Importance
Estuaries (coastal wetlands) form a transition zone (ecotone) between the river and maritime environments. They are the most productive (more productive than other wetlands) water bodies in the world
because of the mixing of freshwater and saline water zone where marine organisms of both ecosystems
meet. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 72
An estuary has minimal wave action, so it provides a calm refuge from the open sea and hence becomes
ideal for the survival of numerous aquatic species. The vast mangrove forests on the seaward side of an
estuary act as a barrier for the coastal habitat to check the wind speed during cyclones and high-velocity
landward winds.
Precipitation of clay and alluvium particles in the estuarine region is high because of exposure to saline
water (quick at precipitating fine alluvium). Mangroves act as a filter trapping suspended mud and
sand carried by rivers which leads to delta formations around estuaries.
Estuaries store and recycle nutrients, trap sediment and form a buffer between coastal catchments and the
marine environment. They also absorb, trap and detoxify pollutants, acting as a natural water filter.
Economic Importance
Estuaries are the most heavily populated areas worldwide, with about 60% of the world’s population living
along estuaries and the coast. Estuaries with their wetlands, creeks, lagoons, mangroves and seagrass beds
are rich in natural resources, including fisheries. They are deep and well protected from marine transgressions, and hence they are ideal locations for the construction of ports and harbours.
Estuarine Vegetation
Estuaries are subjected to large variations in salinity. Only certain types of plants and animals (capable of
osmoregulation) adapted to the brackish estuarine waters flourish in the estuaries. Salinity and flooding
determine the distribution (diversity and density) of organisms.
Estuaries are dynamic productive ecosystems since the river flow, tidal range, and sediment distribution are
continuously changing. Hence, they support diverse habitats, such as mangroves, salt marshes, seagrass,
mudflats etc.
Thye are homes to many terrestrial or land-based plants and animals, such as wood storks, pelicans, coniferous and deciduous trees, and butterflies. Estuaries are also home to unique aquatic plants and animals, such
as sea turtles, sea lions, sea catfish, salt grasses, seagrass, bulrush, etc.
The estuarian phytoplankton are diatoms, dinoflagellates, green algae, and blue-green algae. Towards
the seacoast, there are algae and seagrasses. Near the mouth of the rivers and deltas, there are mangrove
forests.
Indian Estuarine Ecosystem
India has 14 major, 44 medium, and 162 minor rivers draining into the sea through various estuaries. Most
of India’s major estuaries occur on the east coast. In contrast, the estuaries on the west coast
are smaller (in environmental studies, deltas are subsections of estuaries). Many estuaries are locations of
some of the major seaports. E.g., Mormugao Port on the Zuari Estuary.
Threats Faced by the Estuarine Ecosystem
 Changes in water flow due to modifications of the catchments (E.g., Hooghly, Godavari, Pulicat, etc.).
 Pollution through industries and city sewage discharge.
 Navigation, dredging and shipping (e.g. Hooghly).
 Expansion of urban and rural settlements, mining and industries, agriculture and dumping of solid wastes.
 Intensive aquaculture in pens and obstructing the migratory routes of fish and prawns (e.g., Chilka, Pulicat). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 73
 Polluting the environment through feeding stocked fish and prawns in pens (Chilka).
 Destruction of biodiversity through prawn seed collection through small-meshed nets (e.g., Hooghly, Chilka,
Pulicat).
 Submergence of catchment areas due to water level rise.
7.3. Mangroves
Mangroves are salt-tolerant (halophytes) evergreen shrubs or small trees (vary in height from 8 to 20 m)
that represent a characteristic littoral (near the seashore) forest ecosystem. They grow below the highwater level of spring tides. The best locations are where abundant silt is brought down by rivers or on the
backshore of accreting sandy beaches. Such locations include brackish waters of sheltered low-lying
coasts, estuaries, mudflats, tidal creeks, backwaters (coastal waters held back on land), marshes and
lagoons of tropical and subtropical regions.
Adaptive Mechanism of Mangroves
Mangroves exhibit varied morphological (shape and structure) and physiological (functional) evolutionary
adaptations to survive the limiting factors — lack of oxygen, high salinity, and diurnal tidal inundation.
Some of the adaptations exhibited by mangroves are:
 Succulent leaves (thick leaves adapted to store water and reduce evapotranspiration),
 Sunken stomata (to protect from drying winds),
 Leaves with salt-secreting glands (to flush out the excess salt)
 Aerial breathing roots called pneumatophores,
 Vivipary (seeds or embryos begin to develop before they detach from the parent),
 Stilt and prop roots (they are fibrous (adventitious) support roots)
 Buttresses (large, wide support roots on all sides of a shallowly rooted (mangrove) tree).
The adventitious roots (prop and stilt roots), which emerge from the main trunk above ground level, act
as support roots. The complex root system helps mangroves overcome the strong wave action and diurnal
tidal inundation. The pneumatophores (blind roots), prop roots and stilt roots help mangroves overcome the respiration problem in anaerobic (low oxygen — anoxic) soil conditions (a classic example of
adaptation).
 Some species (e.g., Rhizophora) of mangroves send arching prop roots into the water. While others
(e.g., Avicennia) send vertical pneumatophores (air roots) up from the mud.
Mangroves exhibit a viviparity mode of reproduction, i.e., seeds germinate in the tree itself (before falling
to the ground). This is an adaptive mechanism to overcome the problem of germination in saline water.
Mangroves in India
In size, mangroves range from bushy stands of dwarf mangroves found in the Gulf of Kutch to taller stands
found in the Sundarbans. On the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the small tidal estuaries and the lagoons
support a dense and diverse undisturbed mangrove flora.
Mangroves of Sundarbans
The Sundarbans received its name from the Sundari mangrove tree. It is the largest single block of tidal
halophytic mangroves in the world. The eco-geography is dependent on the tidal effect — deposits silt
back on the channels, raising the bed and forming new islands and creeks. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 74
The Sundarbans delta (India and Bangladesh) is the only mangrove forest inhabited by tigers. Sundarbans
support 400+ tiger population (88 tigers are in the Indian part).
Major fauna of Sundarbans includes Royal Bengal tiger (EN), saltwater crocodile (LC), river terrapin, olive
ridley turtle (VU), Ganges river dolphin (EN), hawksbill turtle, mangrove horseshoe crab, etc.
Bengal tigers may not survive climate change
70 per cent of the land in the Sundarbans is just a few feet above sea level. In 2010, a study led by the
World Wide Fund for Nature projected that a sea-level rise of 11 inches could reduce the number of tigers
in the Sundarbans by 96 per cent within a few decades. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 75
Other major Mangrove Forests on the East Coast
The mangroves of Bhitarkanika (Orissa), the second largest in the India, harbour a high concentration of
typical mangrove species and high genetic diversity. They cover the area of Brahmani and Baitarani river
deltas. Mangrove swamps occur in profusion in the intertidal mudflats on both sides of the creeks in the
Godavari-Krishna deltaic regions of Andhra Pradesh.
Mangroves of Pichavaram and Vedaranyam are degraded due to aquaculture ponds and salt pans.
Mangrove Forests on the West Coast
On the west coast of India, mangroves, mostly scrubby (stunted) and degraded, occur along the intertidal
region of estuaries and creeks in Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka. The mangrove vegetation in the coastal
zone of Kerala is very sparse and thin.
In Gujarat (north-west coast), mangroves are found mainly in the Gulf of Kutch and the Kori creek region
(paleo delta of the Indus River (once upon a time, it was part of the Indus delta)). They are scrubby with
stunted growth, forming narrow, discontinuous patches on soft clayey mud.
Creeks in the Kutch Region
[UPSC 2016] What is/are unique about ‘Kharai camel’, a breed found in India? (2016)
1. It is capable of swimming up to three kilometres in seawater.
2. It survives by grazing on mangroves.
3. It lives in the wild and cannot be domesticated.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 76
Kharai Camel – India’s swimming camels
Since 2015, Kharai camels (India’s swimming camels) have been getting protection similar to endangered species. They depend on the mangroves of the Kutch region for their food for eight months of the
year. During monsoons, they swim to the mangrove islands in hordes.
Kharai camels are the primary source of livelihood for the Jat, Rabari and Maldhari communities of the
Kutch region. Along with the kankrej and Banni buffalos, the Maldharis have developed other tolerant
breeds of livestock, such as the kharai camel.
Answer: a) 1 and 2 only
Global Status of Mangrove Cover
As per FAO’s Global Forest Resource Assessment, 2020, 113 countries have mangrove forests covering
~14.79 million ha (1% of the tropical forests), primarily in tropical and subtropical regions. The largest
mangrove area is in South East Asia (5.55 mha), followed by Africa, the Americas and Oceania (1.30 mha).
More than 40 per cent of the total area of Mangroves was reported to be in just four countries: Indonesia
(19%), Brazil (9%), Nigeria (7%) and Mexico (6%). The mangrove cover in India is 4,992 sq km (ISFR 2021),
which is 0.15% of the country’s total geographical area.
Why are mangroves not found beyond subtropics?
Mangroves are confined to the tropics and subtropics, occurring mainly in the intertidal regions between
latitudes 24° N and 38° S. This is because the mangrove vegetation contains a complex salt filtration system that facilitates high water loss at the root level itself to cope with the brackish conditions. These adaptive mechanisms are energy-intensive and require high solar radiation.
Importance of mangroves
 Mangroves (ecotone between land and sea) are highly productive ecosystems with rich biodiversity.
 They have a complex root system that is very efficient in dissipating the sea wave energy, thus protecting
the coastal areas from tsunamis, storm surges (produced by cyclones) and soil erosion.
 Mangroves slow down water flow and act as a zone of land accretion by enhancing sediment deposition.
 They moderate monsoonal tidal floods and reduce the inundation of coastal lowlands. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 77
 They act as a riparian buffer and trap pollutants, including heavy metal contaminants. They enhance the
natural recycling of nutrients.
 Mangroves are an essential carbon sink.
 They provide a safe and favourable environment for breeding, spawning, and rearing several fishes. They act
as an essential source of livelihood for the coastal communities dependent on the collection of honey, tannins, wax, firewood, medicinal plants, edible plants, and fishing.
[UPSC 2013] Which one of the following is the correct sequence of ecosystems in the order of
decreasing productivity? WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 78
a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands, mangroves
b) Mangroves, oceans, grasslands, lakes
c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, oceans
d) Oceans, mangroves, lakes, grasslands
Explanation:
Productivity = production/unit area/unit time. It depends on the number and diversity of producers.
Ecotones (Mangroves, estuaries, and grasslands) have greater productivity than the surrounding ecosystems. Tropical Rainforests and coral reefs are an exception, as they have productivity comparable
to wetlands because of their rich diversity of primary producers.
Note: Grasslands are not transitional all the time. E.g., Steppe and Savanna grasslands, which are very
vast, are non-transitional and have very low productivity because of the minimal diversity of primary
producers. (Grasslands become transitional only when they are narrow). So, the order of decreasing
productivity will be like Mangroves, ……, ……, ……..
Oceans are very deep, and hence productivity is limited to the surface only (deep below in the aphotic
zone, productivity is negligible. The Aphotic zone in oceans is a few kilometres thick!). Also, ocean surface
water is abysmal (very poor) in nutrients (except near the shoreline).
Nutrient-rich cold water flows as a sub-surface flow in the aphotic zone. Sunlight and nutrients are far
apart, so primary productivity is very low except in regions with an upwelling of nutrient-rich cold
water (cold and warm ocean current mixing zones).
So, among the options, the open ocean ecosystem has the least productivity. (Desert ecosystem also
has very low productivity, lesser than the oceans).
So, the answer will look like Mangroves, ………., ………, Oceans. The only such option is c)
Lakes, just like oceans, have low productivity. But due to some plants in the photic zone, lakes have
productivity slightly greater than that of oceans.
Answer: c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, oceans
Threats to Mangroves
[UPSC 2019] Discuss the causes of the depletion of mangroves and explain their importance
in maintaining coastal ecology.
Aquaculture, Agriculture and Salt Ponds
 Agriculture and aquaculture pose the greatest threat.
Threat
 Mangroves are rich in nutrients, which makes them attractive for agriculture. They are also ideal for shrimp
farming and mariculture (food production in a confined marine environment). Hence thousands of hectares
of mangrove forests have been cleared for the commercial production of shrimp and other species, cultivation of crops, and creation of salt ponds.
Consequences
 The shrimp and other species in the artificial ponds are fed specific diets that often include chemicals. These
chemicals enter the food chain.
 Extra nutrients from the concentration of food and animals cause eutrophication, which harms the surrounding marine habitats by lowering oxygen levels. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 79
Coastal Development and Lumbering
Threat
 The direct use of mangrove wood and leaf products and the conversion of wetland habitats for coastal development projects like hotels, resorts, infrastructure, desalination plants, port facilities, etc. lead to deforestation.
 Mangrove wood is used for building materials, fencing, and fuel. It also yields valuable, high-quality charcoal. In places where fishing has declined, people have turned to charcoal production, which furthers the
cycle of habitat loss and fishery decline.
Consequence: Habitat loss and climate vulnerability
 The delicate tidal regimes are interrupted, and the balance between fresh and saltwater is lost. It inevitably
leads to altered hydrology, erosion, and pollution. Rivers that once travelled through the mangroves before
emptying into the sea are blocked or re-routed, causing changes in flooding, drainage, filtration, sedimentation, temperature, and salinity. These changes, in turn, affect the aquatic species, including subsistence fish
species for coastal communities.
 Loss of species and genetic diversity: The trees and associated species (e.g., birds, snakes, crabs) are visibly
lost, but so too are the specific genotypes and phenotypes that have evolved in microhabitats to withstand
insects, tidal fluctuations, precipitation patterns and salinity regimes.
The Curious Case of Mumbai’s Coastal Road Project
Mumbai, Guangzhou, Jakarta, Miami, and Manila are on the list of cities endangered by climate change.
The anthropogenic climate change, coupled with trends in coastal development, will inundate sections
of Mumbai by 2050 and will increase annual flood damages by 2-3 times by 2100. Despite the need for
action, the city is ignoring climate adaptation programs. Mumbai’s Coastal Road Project is an example.
The 29.2 km long Mumbai’s Coastal Road Project is being constructed on 90 hectares of reclaimed land
prone to flooding and frequent tidal inundation. The road will cost the public Rs 11,300 crore. But it will
serve only 2% of the populace. The project will extend tens of meters into the sea, and 1,000 mangrove
trees, which act as a natural storm/flood barrier, will be cut for the project.
Ecological and Economic Damage
The project will exacerbate the flooding situation (heavy rains + high tide) during the SW monsoon
season.
Changes in the tidal pattern will lead to the erosion of Mumbai’s beaches.
Tidal inundation will block the natural drainage systems. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 80
Cutting mangroves will deplete fishing grounds.
While the amendment to coastal rules mandates planting new mangroves three times the size of the destroyed mangroves, the new ones will take several years to grow. Also, since they will be at a different
location, the replanting will not replace the storm protection services of the old mangroves.
Climate Change
 Coastal wetlands, including mangrove forests, absorb a significant amount of GHG emissions. When these
forests are cleared, it compounds the climate change problem by releasing even more carbon into the atmosphere.
 For mangroves, sea-level rise is the biggest climate-related threat, with some tree species unable to tolerate
the influx of saltwater or escape the surging tides.
Replantation Does not Produce Optimum Results
 In comparison with other tropical forests, mangroves are not species-rich. And in the areas where replanting
is attempted, it is often done with seeds of one species rather than the mix of species that initially existed.
Thus reforestation/afforestation cannot reverse the habitat loss.
7.4. Importance of Wetlands
Wetlands are indispensable because of the ecosystem services they provide, ranging from freshwater supply,
food and building materials, and biodiversity to flood control, groundwater recharge, and climate change
mitigation.
 Wetlands are habitats for aquatic flora and fauna and numerous species of native and migratory birds.
 They are an important resource for sustainable tourism.
 They carry out water purification and filtration of sediments and nutrients from surface water.
 They help in nutrient recycling, groundwater recharging and stabilisation of the local climate.
 They play an essential role in flood mitigation by controlling the rate of runoff.
 They buffer shorelines (act as a riparian buffer) against erosion and pollutants.
 They act as a genetic reservoir for various species of plants (especially rice).
 They act as a carbon sink.
[UPSC 2022] “If rainforests and tropical’ forests are the lungs of the Earth, then surely, ‘wetlands function as its kidneys.” Which one of the following functions of wetlands best reflects
the above statement?
a) The water cycle in wetlands involves surface runoff, subsoil percolation and evaporation.
b) Algae form the nutrient base upon which fish, crustaceans, molluscs, birds, reptiles and mammals thrive.
c) Wetlands play a vital role in maintaining sedimentation balance and soil stabilisation.
d) Aquatic plants absorb heavy metals and excess nutrients.
Explanation:
Kidneys detoxify by filtering toxins out of the blood into the urine. Similarly, aquatic plants in a wetland
absorb heavy metals and excess nutrients.
7.5. Reasons for the Depletion of WetlandsWWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 81
 Excessive pollutants (Industrial effluents, domestic waste, agricultural runoff etc.) are dumped into wetlands
beyond the recycling capacity.
 Habitat destruction and deforestation create ecological imbalance by altering the population of wetland species.
 Conversion of wetlands for agriculture and encroachment by public and mafia.
 Overfishing and fish farming (aquaculture).
 Overgrazing in marshy soils.
 Removal of sand from beds near seas makes the wetland vulnerable to wave action and tidal bore.
Mitigation of Wetland Destruction
 Demarcation of wetlands using technology, proper enforcement of laws and stringent punishments for violators.
 Preventing unsustainable aquaculture and cultivation of shellfish.
 Treating industrial effluents and water from farmlands before discharging into wetlands.
 Utilizing wetlands sustainably by giving enough time for natural regeneration.
 Artificial regeneration for a quick recovery.
 Afforestation, weed control, and preventing invasive species is the key to wetland conservation.
 Preventive measures to stop introducing exotic invasive species like water hyacinth.
 Soil conservation measures and afforestation.
 Preventing grazing in peripherals of wetlands.
 Wildlife conservation, sustainable tourism, ecotourism and sensitising the local populace.
 Eutrophication abatement by processing nutrient-rich discharge into the water body.
 Involving the local population in the conservation.
7.6. Measures to Protect Wetlands of India
As per the National Wetlands Atlas, published by ISRO’s Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad, India
has 15.26 million ha area (4.6% of India’s land area) under wetlands. Of this, 70% are under paddy cultivation (human-made). Inland wetlands constitute 69.22% (10.56 million ha). Nearly 12% of the inland
wetland area is in the form of lakes and ponds (including those less than 2.25 ha).
Natural wetlands in India range from high altitude wetlands in the Himalayas (glacial lakes, swamps, and
floodplain marshes); flood plains of the major river system, saline and temporary wetlands of the arid and
semi-arid regions; coastal wetlands such as lagoons, backwaters, estuaries, mangroves, swamps, and coral
reefs, and so on.
 The alluvial plains of River Ganga and Brahmaputra have extensive riverine wetland formations as floodplains and oxbows known as maun, beel, chaur, jheel and pat.
 The arid zone spanning Rajasthan and Gujarat has vast saline flats, monsoon-fed freshwater lakes as well as
salt lakes (for example, Sambhar, Pachpadra, Deedwana and Lukransar).
 The Peninsular Deccan region is studded with man-made lakes. Several lakes act as suitable habitats for
water birds (e.g., Varthur, Rachenahalli and Amruthalli Lakes in Bangalore).
National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-systems (NPCA) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 82
For the integrated and cross-sectoral conservation (coordinating administrations at all levels) of aquatic ecosystems (lakes and wetlands), the MoEF has been implementing the Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS)
National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-systems (NPCA).
NPCA was formed by merging the National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCA) and National Wetlands Conservation Programme (NWCP). It envisages halting and reversing the continued degradation and loss of
wetlands.
The merged NPCA scheme has been operational since the 12th Plan Period (2012-17) with a funding pattern
of 70:30 cost-sharing between the Central Government and respective State Governments (90:10 for the
NE States).
The Central Government (MoEF) coordinates aquatic ecosystem (lakes and wetlands) conservation programmes. It provides guidelines and financial and technical assistance to the state govt. Since the land resources belong to states, the State/UT governments manage the aquatic ecosystems.
Criteria for identifying wetlands of national importance under NPCA are the same as those prescribed
under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
Wetlands (Conservation-Management) Rules 2010
MoEF has notified these legally enforceable rules under the provisions of the Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986, to ensure that there is no further degradation of wetlands.
Central Wetland Regulatory Authority (CWRA) has been set up under the chairmanship of the Secretary,
MoEF, to ensure proper implementation of the Rules.
Wetlands have been classified for better management and easier identification. The rules encompass the
drainage area of the wetlands as determined by the CWRA.
The rules specify and prohibit harmful activities to wetlands, such as industrialisation, construction of
permanent nature, solid waste dumping, dumping untreated waste, reclamation in the wetlands, etc.
Other activities, such as aquaculture, agriculture, harvesting of living and non-living resources, dredging
to remove siltation, etc., may be carried out in the wetlands but only with prior permission from the concerned authorities.
The Central Government may, however, permit any prohibited activities or non-wetland use in the protected wetland on the recommendation of CWRA.
Wetlands (Conservation-Management) Rules 2017
The new rules replaced the 2010 version of the rules. They have decentralised wetlands management by
giving states/UTs powers to not only identify and notify wetlands within their jurisdictions but also
keep a watch on prohibited activities.
The rules provide an advisory role for the National Wetland Committee to guide the state bodies on the
integrated management of wetlands based on the wise-use principle and review the progress of integrated
management of Ramsar Convention sites, among other roles.
To oversee the work carried out by States, the rules stipulate setting up National Wetlands Committee
(NWC – headed by the MoEF Secretary). NWC is the nodal advisory body for the National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-systems (NPCA). It guides the state bodies on the integrated management of
wetlands based on the wise-use principle.
State Wetland Authority WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 83
States/UTs have been accorded the responsibility for wetland management by setting up State/UT Wetland
Authorities (SWAs). SWA will be headed by Environment Minister and includes experts from the fields of
wetland ecology, hydrology, fisheries, landscape planning and socioeconomics.
SWA of the state/UT must identify and notify the wetlands for protection within the stipulated time. They
need to develop a comprehensive list of activities to be regulated and permitted within notified wetlands
and their zone of influence and recommend additional prohibited activities for specific wetlands.
The State authorities will also need to prepare:
 A list of all wetlands of the state or union territory within three months
 A list of wetlands to be notified within 6 months
 A comprehensive digital inventory of all wetlands within 1 year, which will be updated every 10 years.
What CAN NOT be notified as wetlands under the Rules?
River channels, paddy fields, human-made water bodies, aquaculture, salt production, recreation, irrigation projects, wetlands and protected areas falling within areas covered under the Indian Forest Act, 1927,
Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2019 cannot be notified under the Wetlands Rules 2017.
Prohibited activities (very much similar to the 2011 rules)
 Conversion of wetlands for non-wetland uses.
 Setting up of any industry and expansion of existing industries.
 Manufacture/handling/storage/disposal of hazardous substances and construction and demolition waste.
 Solid waste dumping.
 Discharge of untreated wastes and effluents from industries, cities, towns, villages and other settlements.
 The Rules also restrict encroachment, poaching, or permanent construction, except for boat jetties.
Concerns
A provision in the rules that states, “Central government may consider proposals from the state/UT governments for omitting any of the (prohibited) activities on the authority’s recommendation” can be misused.
According to the 2010 rules, anyone aggrieved with the CWRA’s decisions could have filed an appeal with
the National Green Tribunal, but the 2017 rules are silent on the appeal process.
Subjective definition of the term “wise use” is to be determined by State Wetland Authority, which is prone
to manipulation by vested interests.
7.7. Measures to Protect Global Wetlands
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is an international treaty for “the conservation and sustainable
use of wetlands”. The convention was signed on the 2nd of February (World Wetlands Day), 1971, in the
city of Ramsar in Iran. The number of parties is 172. India is a party since 1982.
At the centre of the Ramsar philosophy is the “wise use — maintenance of ecological character for sustainable development” of wetlands.
The theme for 2023: It’s Time for Wetlands Restoration.
Criteria for Identification of Wetlands
1. Unique wetland: contains a rare or unique example of a natural or near-natural wetland type. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 84
2. Endangered species: supports threatened, vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species/ communities.
3. Essential species: supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining biological
diversity.
4. Species protection: supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles or provides
refuge during adverse conditions.
5. Waterbirds: regularly supports 20,000+ water birds.
6. Single species of water birds: regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or
subspecies of water birds.
7. Indigenous fish: supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies.
8. Multirole: is an essential food source for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path.
9. Ecotourism: is an essential source of food and water resource, increased scope for recreation and ecotourism.
Contracting Parties (COP) to Ramsar Convention
COP is the policy-making organ of the Ramsar Convention. Every three years, representatives of the COP
meet at the Conference of the Contracting Parties (COP).
COP13 took place in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, in 2018. 14th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (COP14) took place in November 2022 in a hybrid
format in Wuhan, China, and Geneva, Switzerland.
 COP14 was initially scheduled to be held in the Chinese city of Wuhan — situated on the left bank of the
Yangtze River (the longest river in Asia – 6,300 km) — in 2021. It was postponed due to the COVID
pandemic.
Wuhan Declaration and 2025-2030 Global Strategic Framework for Wetlands Conservation were
adopted at COP14. (They offer nothing new!)
The Responsibilities of the Contracting Parties
A vital commitment of the Contracting Parties is to identify and place suitable wetlands onto the List of
Wetlands of International Importance, also known as the Ramsar List.
Contracting Parties are expected (not mandated) to manage their Ramsar Sites to maintain their ecological
character and retain their essential functions and values for future generations. The convention specifies that
“Contracting Parties shall (not may) formulate and implement their planning to promote the conservation
of the wetlands included in the List”.
[UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:
1. Under the Ramsar convention, it is mandatory on the part of the Government of India to protect and
conserve all the wetlands in the territory of India
2. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 were framed by the Government of India based
on the recommendations of the Ramsar convention.
3. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 also encompass the drainage area or catchment regions of the wetlands as determined by the authority
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 85
c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation:
Contracting Parties are expected (not mandated) to manage their Ramsar Sites to maintain their ecological character and retain their essential functions and values for future generations.
 It is expected (not mandated) for the government to protect the wetland included in the list.
The convention specifies that “Contracting Parties shall (not may) formulate and implement their planning
to promote the conservation of the wetlands included in the List”.
 It is expected (not mandated) for the government to protect the wetland included in the list, not all.
 Ramsar Convention recommends making laws to protect such wetlands.
Answer: c) 3 only
International Organisation Partners
The Ramsar Convention works closely with six organisations known as International Organisation Partners (IOPs):
1. Birdlife International
2. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
3. International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
4. Wetlands International
5. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
6. International Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT)
Other Partners
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD),
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals
Convention on Migratory Species (CMS),
World Heritage Convention (WHC) and
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species.
Various groups that fund projects include UN agencies such as UNEP, UNDP, etc.
Wetlands International
Wetlands International is a global non-governmental organisation (NGO) that works to sustain and restore wetlands and their resources for people and biodiversity. Its work ranges from research, advocacy, and
engagement with governments, corporate, etc.
[UPSC 2014] With reference to a conservation organisation called ‘Wetlands International’,
which of the following statements is/are correct?
1) It is an intergovernmental organisation formed by the countries which are signatories to Ramsar Convention.
2) It works at the field level to develop and mobilise knowledge and use practical experience to advocate for
better policies.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 only WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 86
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: Wetlands International is an NGO. b) 2 only
Ramsar Site
When a country accedes to the convention, it must designate at least one wetland as a Wetland of International Importance. Including a “Ramsar Site” in the list embodies the government’s commitment to take
the steps necessary to ensure that its ecological character is maintained.
Today, the Ramsar List is the world’s largest protected area network. Over 2,400 Ramsar Sites cover 2.5 million
sq km on the territories of 171 Ramsar Contracting Parties worldwide.
The world’s first site was the Cobourg Peninsula in Australia, designated in 1974.
The countries with the most Ramsar Sites are the United Kingdom with 175 and Mexico with 142.
Bolivia has the largest area under Ramsar protection.
Deletion from the List
A Contracting Party may, because of its urgent national interest, delete or restrict the boundaries of wetlands
already included in the list. However, such deletions or restrictions should be compensated for by creating
additional nature reserves in the same area or elsewhere. No Ramsar Site has ever been “deleted” in this
way, and Parties have only extremely rarely restricted the boundaries of a Site on this basis (success of Ramsar
Convention).
Transboundary Ramsar Sites
Many important wetlands extend as one ecologically coherent whole across national borders. In these cases,
COP can agree to establish Ramsar Sites on their territory as parts of a bigger Transboundary Ramsar Site.
The authorities on both sides of the border agree to collaborate in managing the site.
The Montreux Record
Ramsar Sites potentially at risk because of technological developments, pollution or other human interference may be placed on the Montreux Record of Ramsar Sites where changes in ecological character have
occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur.
[UPSC 2014] If a wetland of international importance is brought under the ‘Montreux Record’, what does it imply?
a) Changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring or are likely to occur in the wetland because
of human interference. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 87
b) The country in which the wetland is located should enact a law to prohibit any human activity within five
kilometres from the edge of the wetland
c) The survival of the wetland depends on the cultural practices and traditions of certain communities living
in its vicinity, and therefore the cultural diversity therein should not be destroyed
d) It is given the status of ‘World Heritage Site’
Answer: a)
The list of Ramsar Sites is provided in the last chapter (Protected Area Network)

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Functions of an Ecosystem – Trophic Levels………………………………………………………………………………….. 24
4.1. Food Chain ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 24
Grazing food chain………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 24
Detritus food chain …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 25
4.2. Food Web ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 26
Types of Biotic Interactions in a Food Web ………………………………………………………………………………………… 29
4.3. Ecological Pyramids………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 31
Pyramid of Numbers……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 31
Pyramid of Biomass………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 33 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart ii
Pyramid of Energy ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 35
Limitations of Ecological Pyramids……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 36
Biomagnification – Pollutants and Trophic Level ………………………………………………………………………………… 36
Functions of an Ecosystem – Biogeo Chemical Cycling………………………………………………………………….. 38
5.1. Types of Nutrient Cycles………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 38
5.2. Carbon Cycle (Gaseous Cycle)………………………………………………………………………………………………… 38
Steps in Carbon Cycle………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 39
5.3. Nitrogen Cycle (Gaseous Cycle)……………………………………………………………………………………………… 40
Nitrogen Fixing – N2 to Ammonia (NH3) …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 40
Nitrification – Ammonia to Nitrites and Nitrates………………………………………………………………………………… 42
Ammonification – Urea, Uric Acid to NH3 to Nitrite …………………………………………………………………………….. 42
Denitrification – Nitrate to Nitrogen …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 43
Nitrogen Cycle Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 43
5.4. Methane Cycle (Gaseous Cycle) ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 44
Natural Sources of Methane Emissions……………………………………………………………………………………………… 45
Human Sources of Methane Emissions………………………………………………………………………………………………. 46
Methane Sink…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 47
5.5. Phosphorus Cycle (Sedimentary cycle) …………………………………………………………………………………… 47
5.6. Sulphur Cycle (Mostly Sedimentary Cycle)……………………………………………………………………………… 47
Steps in Sulphur Cycle ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 48
Natural Ecosystems …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 52
6.1. Terrestrial Ecosystems or Biomes …………………………………………………………………………………………… 52
Major Biomes ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 53
Tundra Biome ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 53
Taiga or Boreal Biome …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 54
Temperate Deciduous Biome (North-Western Europe – British Type Climate)………………………………………… 55
Temperate Rainforest Biome……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 55
Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South-eastern USA…………………………………………………….. 55
Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 55
Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean)…………………………………………………………………………………… 55
Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)……………………………………………………………………………………. 55
Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome……………………………………………………………………………………………. 55
Tropical Rainforest Biome ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 56
Desert Biome …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 59
6.2. Aquatic Ecosystems……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 60
Aquatic Organisms …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 60
Factors Limiting the Productivity………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 61
6.3. Natural Ecosystem Services and Goods ………………………………………………………………………………….. 62
Quantifying the Economic Value of Natural Ecosystems (Ecosystem valuation) ……………………………………… 63
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)…………………………………………………………………………. 63
Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 64
Ecosystem Services by Seagrass ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 65
Ecosystem Services by Seaweed ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 66

A natural ecosystem is an assemblage of plants and animals which functions as a unit and can maintain its
identity. There are two main categories of ecosystems: 1) Terrestrial ecosystems and 2) Aquatic ecosystems.
6.1. Terrestrial Ecosystems or Biomes
The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divisible into enormous regions called biomes. No two biomes are
alike. They are characterised by a distinct climate (precipitation and temperature mainly), vegetation, animal
life and general soil type.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 53
Major Biomes
Tundra
Arctic and Alpine Tundra Biome
Forest
Taiga or Boreal Biome (Evergreen Coniferous forests)
Temperate Deciduous Biome (North-Western Europe – British Type Climate)
Temperate Rainforest Biome
Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA
Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate)
Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)
Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome
Tropical Rain Forest Biome
Grassland
Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome
Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome (Tropical Shrublands and Grasslands)
Desert
Tropical and Mid Latitude Desert Biome
For a detailed explanation and maps of biomes, you must go through PMF IAS Physical Geography > Climatology > Climatic Regions. Here we have discussed the content only from the environment and ecology perspective.
Tundra Biome
There are two types of tundra – arctic and alpine. Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains above the tree line.
E.g., High ranges of the Himalayas, Andes, Alps etc.
There are no trees in the tundra due to permafrost (ground remains completely frozen — (0°C) or colder
— for at least two years straight). The lowest form of vegetation, like mosses, lichens are sparsely found
on bare rocks. Coastal lowlands have reindeer moss which provides the only pasturage for reindeer. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 54
In the summer, birds migrate north to prey on the numerous insects which emerge when the snow thaws.
Insects have short life cycles, which are completed during the favourable period of the year. Animals like
the reindeer, arctic fox, wolves, muskox, polar bear, lemming, arctic hare, and arctic willow live in the tundra
region. Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent.
Most animals have a long life, e.g. arctic willow has a life span of 150 to 300 years. They are protected from
chillness by thick cuticle and epidermal hair or fur. Mammals have a large body size and small tails and
ears to avoid heat loss from the surface.
Taiga or Boreal Biome
The productivity of boreal (Taiga) forests is the lowest among the forest ecosystems. This is mainly because of the harsh weather and the thin and poor soils called podzols. Podzols are very poor because:
 The weathering of rocks proceeds slowly in cold climates.
 The litter derived from conifer leaves decomposes very slowly. It is not rich in nutrients (humus content
is low, and the soils are mostly acidic due to the slow decomposition of organic matter).
 Conifers do not shed their leaves frequently.
The predominant vegetation is an evergreen coniferous forest with species such as spruce, fir, and pine.
The conifers require little moisture and are best suited to the sub-Arctic climate. Animals found in this region
include Siberian tiger, wolverine, lynx, wolf, bear, red fox, squirrel, and amphibians like Hyla, Rana, etc.
Podzols
Podzols are the typical soils of a coniferous or boreal biome. The top layer of the soil is very thin and is
overlain over a sandy or loamy subsurface, which has no organic matter (lost due to the leaching of
nutrients to the bottom layers). The soils are characterised by low moisture levels (excessively drained).
Others have shallow rooting zones and poor drainage due to subsoil cementation.
A low pH further compounds the issue. The low pH (acidic) is due to excessive leaching (loss) of alkaline
(basic) matter, which, if present, would neutralise the organic acids of the accumulating litter. Hence,
most Podzols are poor soils for agriculture. They are primarily used for grazing. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 55
Temperate Deciduous Biome (North-Western Europe – British Type Climate)
Soils of the temperate deciduous biome are podzolic and fairly deep. The natural vegetation is deciduous
(trees shed their leaves in the cold season). This is an adaptation for protecting themselves against winter
snow and frost. Shedding begins in autumn, the ‘fall’ season. Growth begins in spring. Some common species
include oak, elm, ash, birch, beech, and poplar.
Temperate Rainforest Biome
Temperate rainforest biome is small in terms of the area covered. The main stretch of this habitat is along
the north-western coast of North America from northern California through southern Alaska. There are
also small areas in southern Chile, New Zealand, Australia and a few other places worldwide.
Large coniferous trees dominate the habitat, including Douglas fir, Western red cedar, Mountain hemlock, Western hemlock, Sitka spruce and Lodgepole pine. In addition to the trees, mosses and lichens are
very common, often growing as epiphytes (a plant that grows harmlessly (commensalism) upon another
plant).
Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South-eastern USA
Sub-tropical deciduous biome supports luxuriant vegetation. The lowlands carry both evergreen broadleaved forests and deciduous trees (hardwood). On the highlands, various species of conifers, such as pines
and cypresses, are important. Perennial plant growth is not checked by either a dry season or a cold season.
Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome
Steppe biomes are practically treeless, and the grasses are much shorter, fresh, and nutritious. Poleward,
an increase in precipitation gives rise to a transitional zone of wooded steppes where some conifers gradually
appear. The steppes do not have much animal diversity.
Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean)
In temperate deciduous biomes, plants continuously struggle against heat, dry air, excessive evaporation, and
prolonged droughts. They are, in short xerophytic (drought tolerant). Trees with small broad leaves are
widely spaced and never very tall. Regions with adequate rainfall are inhabited by low, broad-leafed evergreen trees (mostly evergreen oaks). Fire is an important hazardous factor in this ecosystem, and the
adaptation of the plants enables them to regenerate quickly after being burnt.
Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)
Tropical monsoon forests are also known as drought-deciduous/dry deciduous/tropical deciduous forests.
Teak, neem, bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, mulberry are some important species.
Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome
The savanna landscape is typified by tall grass and short trees. The trees are deciduous, shedding their
leaves in the cool dry season to prevent water loss through transpiration, e.g., acacias. Trees usually
have broad trunks with water-storing devices to survive through prolonged droughts. Many trees are umbrella-shaped, exposing only a narrow edge to the strong winds. The savanna biome is rich in mammal,
bird, and reptile diversity.
Managed Fires Rejuvenates Savannas WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 56
Lighting dry savanna grasslands is a key ecosystem management activity. Cattle farmers and authorities
usually light fires to stimulate the growth of fresh, nutritious grass for their animals. Others are used to
control the numbers of parasitic ticks or manage the growth of thorny scrub.
 Fires in savannahs are carbon-neutral: Fires in the savannah burn mainly dry grasses that regrow each
year: the CO₂ released by fires is reabsorbed by the growth of new grass the next year.
Tropical Rainforest Biome
High temperatures and abundant rainfall support luxuriant evergreen rainforests. The vegetation comprises
many evergreen trees, e.g. mahogany, ebony, dyewoods, etc. In brackish waters, mangrove forests thrive.
All plants, including epiphytes, struggle upwards for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer arrangement (canopy).
 Epiphyte (commensalism – epiphyte benefits without troubling the host): An epiphyte is a plant that
grows harmlessly upon another plant (such as a tree) and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air,
rain, and sometimes from debris accumulating around it.
In the recent few years, the rainforest has been under threat from deforestation and burning. 17 per cent of
the entire rainforest and about 20 per cent of the Brazilian rainforest has been deforested.
Importance of Rainforests
Rainforests produce about 20% of the earth’s oxygen.
Carbon sink: Rainforests can sequester much carbon released by human activities.
Precipitation: Through evapotranspiration, the rainforests are responsible for creating 50-75 per cent of their
precipitation.
Source of many rivers: Rainforests are the source of many of the world’s largest rivers. Amazon, Mekong,
and Congo (Zaire) are some important rivers fed by the rainforests.
Biodiversity: Rainforests contain over 30 million species of plants and animals. That’s half of the earth’s
wildlife and at least two-thirds of its plant species!
Commercial Agriculture: Rainforests offer a conducive climate for cultivating commercial crops such as
coffee, cocoa (chocolate), palm, rubber, etc. (they all require 100-200 cm of rainfall).
Indigenous communities: Many indigenous people have been living in harmony with the rainforest for thousands of years, depending on it for their food, shelter, medicines and subsistence agriculture (slash-and-burn
agriculture).
Climate
Tropical forests exchange vast amounts of water and energy with the atmosphere and are thought to be
important in controlling local and regional climates. Water released into oceans by the rainforest rivers influences the circulation of ocean currents. This works as a feedback mechanism, as the process also sustains the regional climate on which it depends.
Importance of the Amazon Rainforest
The Amazon basin produces about 20 per cent of the world’s flow of fresh water into the oceans. It returns
at least 75 per cent of the moisture to the westward-moving air mass. In fact, every country in South America
other than Chile (blocked from this moisture by the Andes) benefits from Amazon moisture.
Threats: Frequent Fires in the Amazon Rainforest WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 57
Prolonged droughts due to climate change
Amazonian forests and other tropical rainforest regions are usually immune to fires due to the high moisture content of the undergrowth beneath the protection of the canopy tree cover. But the severe megadroughts in recent times have forever changed this perception.
The severe mega-droughts in the Amazon were most likely driven by large-scale climatic events, with the
warming of the Atlantic and the drying effects of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events. These
droughts are becoming far more frequent and more severe and are generating conditions conducive to wildfires.
Slash and burn agricultural practice
People clear the land by cutting down the vegetation during the rainy season, letting the trees dry out and
burning them during the dry season. Clearing the forest for agricultural use can take several years of slashing
and burning.
Political Discourse and Land grabbers
Ex-President of Brazil, Jair Bolsonaro, has decreased the power and autonomy of forest protection agencies.
Forest clearing has been encouraged by agricultural subsidies, timber concessions, etc. This has been the
case in rainforests worldwide. Hence, most fires are set illegally by landgrabbers who are clearing the forest
for lumbering, cattle ranching, rubber, palm and soybean cultivation.
How do the fires in Amazon affect the world?
Carbon sink to carbon source and global warming
The Amazon is a critical carbon sink. Currently, the world is emitting around 40 billion tons of CO2 into the
atmosphere every year. The Amazon absorbs 2 billion tons of CO2 annually (or 5% of annual emissions).
The fires have not only turned the Amazon into a temporary carbon source but also reduced its potential
to lock carbon in the future.
Forest fires intensify droughts
The rainforest recycles its water to produce a portion of the region’s rain, so deforestation and forest fires
make rains less frequent, extending the dry season.
Pollution and Global Warming
Forest fires cause 15% of GHG emissions, more than 30% of global carbon monoxide emissions, 10% of
methane emissions and more than 85% of global soot emissions. They contribute greatly to global warming, making forests increasingly dry and weak. This destructive cycle often makes it easy for new fires to
develop.
Forest Fires and Droughts Make Way for Grasslands (Decrease in Productivity)
Scientists describe tropical rainforests as fire-sensitive ecosystems. About a third of all ecosystems worldwide are considered fire-sensitive. Plants and animals lack a natural ability to resist and recover from
fires.
In a rainforest like the Amazon, massive forest fires are a disaster. Despite the lush vegetation, the soils are
particularly barren and poor in nutrients (due to leaching). If the rainforest burns down, all nutrients are
permanently lost (no recycling of nutrients) because they are stored in the plants themselves and not
in the soil. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 58
When the rainforests reach their tipping point, they will be unable to sustain themselves. This will lead to a
situation when the trees, and in turn, the forest will start to dieback. In other words, some trees and, eventually, the forests will reach the physiological limits of dryness. Because of the dehydration, the trees will
begin to die from the tip of their leaves or roots backwards.
The fires combined with prolonged droughts can turn the jungle into a tropical savannah (grassland). Grasses
are a dominant species that can grow even in poorer soil. They do not make way for trees so easily.
Fore fires are essential for other Ecosystems
While forest fires are a disaster to rainforests, they are necessary for the preservation of other ecosystems.
This is true for about three-quarters of all habitats worldwide, including the
 taiga (extremely fire-prone in the dry season),
 African savannahs, the South Asian monsoon forests,
 Californian coniferous forests (extremely fire-prone in the dry season),
 Australian eucalyptus forests and the Mediterranean region (extremely fire-prone in the dry season).
In these ecosystems, parts of the natural fauna and flora develop only due to fires. Animals and plants
often have a natural capacity for resistance in such fire-dependent ecosystems. In grasslands, savannahs,
some forests, and wetlands, only a moderately intense ground fire sweeps through, ensuring that the
open landscape structure is maintained.
Fires give new life
The Douglas fir, a conifer, survives most fires thanks to its thick bark — after a fire, it will sprout new shoots.
The North American lodgepole pine also needs the heat of the fire to open its cones and release seeds.
The Australian grass tree needs smoke to open its seed pods.
After a fire, without the usually dense canopy, more sunlight reaches the forest floor, and the seedlings
find enough nutrients to sprout. (Small fires are good even for rainforests).
Catastrophic Forest Fires
Rare but very intense fires are characteristic of bush landscapes or forests. They consume old and
diseased trees, create new habitats, and ensure an ecological rejuvenation of the tree population. Preventing small fires in these ecosystems can have fatal consequences. This is because of the accumulation of more combustible material, which converts even harmless fires into destructive walls of flames.
Such fires repeatedly occur in the boreal forests (Siberian taiga and Canadian taiga), forests of Eastern
Australia and California (US).
Recent examples: 2019-20 Australian Black Summer Bushfires (caused by successive droughts) and
2021 July wildfires triggered by severe heatwave (caused by a heat dome created by the meandering
jet stream) in the North-Western US and South-Western Canada.
Threats: Plantation Boom, Resource Extraction
Petroleum extraction has caused a great deal of destruction in the rainforests of Ecuador and Venezuela.
The rainforest climate is very favourable for the cultivation of certain high-value plantation crops. The plantations destroyed nearly half of equatorial forests and continue to destroy them even today.
Plantations Region(s)
Palm Malaysia, Indonesia
Sugarcane Brazil WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 59
Coffee Brazil
Rubber Malaysia, Indonesia
Cocoa (used to make chocolates) Ghana, Nigeria
Effects of Destroying Rainforests
Soil Degradation
The soil in the rainforest is very poor in nutrients (because of the leaching of the nutrients from the top
layer). This is because the nutrients are stored in the vast numbers of trees and plants rather than in the
soil.
Tree roots bind the soil together, while the canopy protects the soil from heavy rains. When a tree dies,
and its trunk falls to the forest floor, it decays, and the nutrients it contains are recycled. However, if trees are
removed from the forest, the nutrients are removed with it. The unprotected soil is then simply washed away
in heavy rains.
Droughts and famine
Without rainforests continually recycling huge quantities of water, feeding the rivers, lakes and irrigation
systems, droughts would become more common, potentially leading to widespread famine and disease.
Commercial plantation crops would fail in the long run
The plantation crops thrive in the tropics because of the conducive climatic conditions created by the rainforests.
Extinction of indigenous communities
When oil and logging companies come to remove vast areas of forest, they bring diseases that the indigenous people have no resistance to, threatening their survival. Often, they are also forced to move away from
their homes to unfamiliar places, sometimes even killed in the process.
[UPSC 2013] Which of the following is/are unique characteristic/characteristics of equatorial
forests?
1) Presence of tall, closely set trees with crowns forming a continuous canopy.
2) Coexistence of a large number of species
3) Presence of numerous varieties of epiphytes
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: every single statement is correct
Desert Biome
The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or drought resistant. This
includes the cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses, and scattered dwarf acacias. The seeds of many
grasses and herbs have thick, tough skins to protect them while they lie dormant. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 60
Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well spaced out to gather moisture and search for groundwater.
Plants have few or no leaves, and the foliage is either waxy, leathery, hairy, or needle-shaped to reduce
water loss through transpiration.
6.2. Aquatic Ecosystems
Aquatic ecosystems refer to plant and animal communi-ties occurring in water bodies. They are classified
into two subgroups: 1) Freshwater ecosystems, such as rivers, lakes, and ponds; 2) Marine ecosystems,
such as oceans, estuaries, and mangroves. They are classified based on salinity into the following types:
1. Freshwater ecosystems: water on land that is continuously cycling and has low salt content (always less
than 5 ppt) is known as freshwater. There are two types of freshwater ecosystems: 1) Static/still water
(Lentic) ecosystems, e.g. ponds, lakes, bogs and swamps. 2) Running water (Lotic) ecosystems, e.g.
springs, streams, rivers, etc.
2. Marine ecosystems: the water bodies containing salt concentration equal to or above that of seawater (i.e.,
35 ppt or above). E.g., shallow seas and open oceans.
3. Brackish water ecosystems: these water bodies have salt content between 5 to 35 ppt. e.g., estuaries, salt
marshes, mangrove swamps and mangrove forests.
Aquatic Organisms
The aquatic organisms are classified based on their zone of occurrence.
 Neuston: These organisms live at the air-water interface, e.g. floating plants.
 Periphyton: These are organisms that remain attached to stems and leaves of rooted plants or substances
emerging above the bottom mud, such as sessile algae.
 Plankton: Microscopic floating organisms such as algae (plant-like protists), diatoms, protozoans, larval forms, etc., are called plankton. This group includes microscopic plants like algae (phytoplankton – WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 61
primary producers or autotrophs) and animals like crustaceans and protozoans (zooplankton – heterotrophs). The locomotory power of the planktons is limited so that their distribution is controlled, essentially, by currents in the aquatic ecosystems.
 Nekton: This group contains powerful swimmers that can overcome water currents.
 Benthos: The benthic organisms are those found living at the bottom of the water mass.
Factors Limiting the Productivity
Sunlight
The depth to which light penetrates a water body determines the extent of plant distribution. Suspended
particulate matters such as clay, silt, phytoplankton, etc., make the water turbid. Turbidity limits the extent
of light penetration and photosynthetic activity in a significant way. Based on light penetration and plant
distribution, layers of water are classified as photic and aphotic zones. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 62
Photic zone
Photic (euphotic) zone is the portion that extends from the water surface down to where the light level is
1% of that at the surface. Photosynthetic activity is confined to the photic zone.
Aphotic zone
The lower layers of the aquatic ecosystems, where light penetration and plant growth are restricted, form the
aphotic (profundal) zone. It extends from the end of the photic zones to the bottom of the lake. There is
no photosynthesis in this zone.
Dissolved oxygen
In freshwater, the average concentration of dissolved oxygen is 10 parts per million by weight. This is 150
times lower than the concentration of oxygen in an equivalent volume of air. Oxygen enters the aquatic
ecosystem through the air-water interface and the photosynthetic activities of aquatic plants. Dissolved
oxygen escapes the water body through the air-water interface, respiration, and decomposition of organisms (fish, decomposers, zooplankton, etc.)
Winterkill
An ice layer on the top of a water body can effectively cut off the light. Photosynthesis stops, but respiration continues in such a water body. If the water body is shallow, the dissolved oxygen gets depleted, and
the fish die. This condition is known as winterkill.
Impact of Global Warming on Dissolved Oxygen
The amount of dissolved oxygen retained in water is also influenced by temperature. Oxygen is less
soluble in warm water. Warm water also enhances decomposer activity. Therefore, a temperature increase in a water body (due to global warming) increases the rate at which oxygen is depleted in
water. When the dissolved oxygen level falls below 3-5 ppm, many aquatic organisms are likely to die.
Temperature
Since water temperatures are less subject to change, the aquatic organisms have a narrow temperature
tolerance limit. As a result, even small changes in water temperature are a great threat to the survival
of aquatic organisms when compared to the changes in air temperatures in terrestrial organisms.
6.3. Natural Ecosystem Services and Goods
Ecosystem services are the diverse benefits provided to humans by the natural environment and from
healthy ecosystems. Ecosystem goods refer to the natural products harvested by humans from the environment, such as wild fruit and nuts, forage, timber, game, natural fibres, medicines and so on.
The ecosystem services can be grouped under the following broad categories:
 Cultural: tourism, recreation, etc.
 Provisioning: food, drinking water, genetic resources, medicinal herbs, energy from biomass, etc.
 Economic: crops, raw materials, etc.
 Regulating: carbon sequestration, decomposition, detoxification, healthy biodiversity, climate stabilisation,
reducing the risk of extreme weather events, etc.
 Ecological: nutrient cycling, breakdown of pollutants, flood protection, generation and renewal of soils etc.) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 63
Quantifying the Economic Value of Natural Ecosystems (Ecosystem valuation)
Ecosystem valuation is an economic process assigning monetary value to an ecosystem and its ecosystem
services. Quantifying the economic value of natural ecosystems provides a tool for policymakers to evaluate
management impacts and compare a cost-benefit analysis of potential policies.
For example, before replacing a forest with industry, considering the human welfare benefits of a forest —
reducing flooding and erosion while sequestering carbon, providing habitat for endangered species, and
absorbing harmful chemicals — will help policymakers make a better cost-benefit analysis and a better final
decision.
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)
TEEB was a study hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and led by Indian environmental economist Pavan Sukhdev. The study’s objectives were to establish a global standard for natural
capital accounting, mainstream the values of biodiversity and ecosystem services into decision-making
at all levels and highlight the growing cost of biodiversity loss.
 Natural Capital  ecosystems providing invaluable ecosystem services. E.g., Flood protection by mangroves.
[UPSC 2016] With reference to an initiative called ‘The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)’, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2016)
1) It is an initiative hosted by UNEP, IMF and World Economic Forum.
2) It is a global initiative that focuses on drawing attention to the economic benefits of biodiversity.
3) It presents an approach that can help decision-makers recognize, demonstrate and capture the value
of ecosystems and biodiversity. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 64
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: Statement 1) is false; d) 2 and 3 only
Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement
The Tyler Prize is an annual award administered by the University of Southern California for environmental science, environmental health, and energy. The 2020 Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement
was awarded to Pavan Sukhdev in recognition of his work on the first report of TEEB published in 2008.
Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES)
The Himalayan states have been demanding a green bonus for keeping critical ecosystems intact. These
states have been getting incentives based on their forest cover under a formula by the Finance Commission.
This sort of incentive, called payment for ecosystems services (PES), is an emerging global demand to
conserve ecosystems.
The 13th FC allocated Rs. 5,000 crore to states based on the area under forest cover and canopy density.
The 14th FC (2015-20) included forest cover as a determining factor in a state’s share. In distributing funds
to states, FC attached only a 7.5% weight to forest cover. Population, demographic change, and area are
the other factors that decide the share in the tax pool. Hence the Himalayan states have not been a clear
winner under this arrangement.
Ecological services offered by the Himalayan States
 Himalayan states have a forest in around 41.5 per cent of their geographical area — a third of the country’s forest cover, according to the National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystems (NAPCC).
 The total value of forest ecosystem services flowing from the Indian Himalayas is Rs 94,300 crore per year.
 Himalayas are one of India’s major carbon sink. Estimates of the forest carbon pool in the Indian Himalayas is about 5.4 billion tonnes (forest biomass + forest soil).
 Himalayas forests avert soil erosion from the world’s youngest mountain range.
 Annually, 1,200 billion cubic metres of water flow through the Himalayan rivers.
Global scenario
Globally, the services an ecosystem provides are getting increasing policy attention. In 2010, the Conference
of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity held in Nagoya accepted environmental goods as
part of the national accounts (monetary value of ecological services).
Amazon Fund
There is a billion-dollar Amazon Fund backed by Norway (a petroleum exporter) and Germany to save the
Amazon forests. It is a REDD+ mechanism created to raise donations for efforts to prevent, monitor & combat deforestation & promote sustainable use in the Brazilian Amazon.
Brazilian Development Bank manages the Amazon Fund. The Brazilian government wants to alter the governance model for the Amazon fund and wants to exploit forest resources and use forest land for economic
development. Norway and Germany are against such a decision. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 65
Gross Environment Product (GEP) and Green GDP
Gross Environment Product (GEP) is an assessment system that measures ecosystem services of any area
in terms of biophysical value and monetary value. It is one of the components of Green GDP.
Green Gross Domestic Product (GGDP) is an index of economic growth with the environmental consequences of that growth factored into a country’s conventional GDP. It monetises the loss of biodiversity
and accounts for costs caused by climate change.
In Bhutan, culture, society, economy, and environment are linked in the development framework of Gross
National Happiness (GNH). The Uttarakhand government recently announced it will initiate the valuation
of its natural resources as Gross Environment Product (GEP).
 Green GDP = GDP – Net natural capital consumption (resource depletion + environmental degradation
and protective and restorative environmental initiatives).
Ecosystem Services by Seagrass
Seagrass (not grass, as the name suggests) are aquatic flowering plants (angiosperms). They are found in
shallow salty and brackish waters in many parts of the world, from the tropics to the Arctic Circle. The
depth at which seagrass is found is limited by turbidity.
Seagrasses occur all along with the coast of India. They are abundant in the Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar.
Importance of Seagrass
 Seagrass are considered ecosystem engineers (alter the ecosystem around them and adapt rapidly to changing environmental conditions). Dugong or Sea Cow (VU) is a herbivorous marine mammal that relies on
seagrass for food.
 Seagrass can store CO2 using their own biomass as well as by filtering out fine organic material in water. An
acre of seagrass can store about three times as much carbon as an acre of rainforest. Globally, seagrass
meadows are responsible for more than 10% of carbon buried in the ocean, even though they occupy just
0.2% of the area.
 Seagrass produces oxygen and are highly productive and support a high diversity of organisms. The habitats act as nursery grounds for commercially and recreationally (tourism) valued fishery species.
 They dissipate wave energy, thereby protecting vulnerable shorelines from erosion. Large meadows of
seagrass can help protect seawalls by adequate damping of waves.
 They enhance water quality by stabilising heavy metals, pollutants, and excess nutrients. They can trap fine
sediment on the seabed and prevent harmful algal blooms (eutrophication).
 Seagrasses are collected as fertilisers for sandy soil.
[UPSC 2015] With reference to ‘dugong’, a mammal found in India, which of the following
statements is/are correct?
1. It is a herbivorous marine animal.
2. It is found along the entire coast of India.
3. It is given legal protection under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1 and 2
b) 2 only WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 66
c) 1 and 3
d) 3 only
Explanation:
The dugong is a herbivorous mammal. It eats seagrass and aquatic plants found in shallow oceans (at
depths, seagrass and aquatic plants don’t grow due to the absence of sunlight). In India, its range is limited
to the south (Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar) and west coast (Gulf of Kutch). The depletion of seagrass
resources on the east coast has made the dugong locally extinct.
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
Harming endangered (vulnerable, endangered, critically endangered) species listed in Schedule 1 of the
Act is prohibited throughout India.
Hunting species, like those requiring special protection (Schedule II), big game (Schedule III), and small
game (Schedule IV), is regulated through licensing.
A few species classified as vermin (Schedule V) may be hunted without restrictions.
Answer: c) 1 and 3
Threats faced by seagrass
Natural disturbances: grazing, storms, and desiccation.
Human disturbance: eutrophication, mechanical destruction of habitat, and overfishing.
Eutrophication
Excessive input of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus) is directly toxic to seagrasses. They stimulate the growth
of epiphytic and free-floating macro- and micro-algae. Macroalgae (nuisance species) form thick unattached mats or epiphytes over seagrass leaves. This increases turbidity, reducing photosynthesis in seagrass
(autotrophs).
Benthic (bottom) macroalgae have low carbon/nitrogen content, causing their decomposition to stimulate
bacterial activity, leading to sediment resuspension and a further increase in water turbidity. Decaying
seagrass leaves and algae fuels increase in algal blooms (algae start dominating seagrass). Eutrophication
eventually leads to anoxic (deficient in oxygen) conditions for the seagrass and other organisms.
Ecosystem Services by Seaweed
Seagrasses are vascular plants and have roots, stems and leaves. In comparison, seaweed is the common
name for species of primitive non-flowering marine plants (without roots, vascular system, stem, and
leaves), microalgae and macroalgae. They grow in shallow waters in the tidal zone (intertidal region),
estuaries and backwaters. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 67
Some seaweeds are microscopic, such as the phytoplankton that lives suspended in the water column. Some
are enormous, like the giant kelp that grows in abundant forests from their roots at the bottom.
Commercial Significance
 Seaweed is full of vitamins, minerals, and fibre. They contain anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial
agents. Certain seaweeds possess powerful cancer-fighting agents.
 Seaweeds are effective binding agents (emulsifiers) and are used in commercial goods like toothpaste,
fruit jelly, and ice cream and as softeners (emollients) in organic cosmetics and skin-care products.
Ecological Importance of Seaweed Cultivation
Treating coastal pollution
 Seaweeds absorb the excess nutrients and reduce algal blooms. They trap excess levels of iron in the water
by using iron for photosynthesis. Similarly, most heavy metals found in marine ecosystems are removed
by seaweeds.
Oxygen and Nutrient Supply
 Seaweeds supply oxygen and organic nutrients to other marine life forms. Large seaweeds form dense underwater forests known as kelp forests which act as underwater nurseries for fish and other marine life
forms.
Ocean Macroalgal Afforestation (OMA)
 Seaweeds exhibit the highest photosynthesis efficiency due to moist conditions. They contribute to about
50% of all photosynthesis. Hence, seaweed farming is the ideal prospect for Ocean Macroalgal Afforestation (OMA).
 Ocean Afforestation has the potential to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations through expanding natural populations of macroalgae (seaweed), which absorb carbon dioxide. Seaweed can then
be harvested to produce biomethane via anaerobic digestion.
Other Utilities
 They can be used as fertilizers in aquaculture.
 Methane emission from cattle may be reduced substantially if seaweed is used as feed.
 Seaweed can be very helpful in combating beach erosion.
Seaweed Cultivation: Potential in India
India is among the 12 mega-biodiversity nations in the world. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
of 2.17 million km2
. The Indian coastline, with its different coastal ecosystems, supports the luxuriant growth
of diverse seaweed populations, having considerable economic importance.
About 844 seaweed species are reported from India, which has a coastline of 7,500 km. On the West Coast,
especially in Gujarat, abundant resources are present in the intertidal and subtidal regions. These resources
have great potential for the development of seaweed-based industries in India.
Tamil Nadu (Gulf of Mannar and Pulicat), Gujarat coasts, Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands
and Lake Chilka (Orissa) are abundant in seaweed. Rich seaweed beds are also found around Mumbai,
Ratnagiri, Goa, Karwar, Varkala, Vizhinjam, Lake Chilka (Orissa). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smartt 68
Challenges to seaweed harvesting in India
Seaweed cultivation in India remains unpopular.
Labour shortages occur during the paddy harvesting and transplanting season.
Lack of livelihood security due to low wages and bad weather.
Lack of technology to improve processed products.
Lack of information on new and alternative sources of raw material.
Risky as they must be collected from depths of more than 25 to 30 feet.
Over-exploitation: While India has a rich source of seaweed varieties, we have focused only on harvesting
and not cultivation, thus leading to over-exploitation.
Less market demand: lack of awareness about health benefits act as a hindrance to nutrition transition among
the population.

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Biodiversity and Loss of Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the variety of plant, animal, and microbial species plus all the genetic variations in the
world or a particular habitat. The Amazonian rainforest has the most extraordinary biodiversity on earth.
About 8.7 million is the estimated total number of species on earth, with 6.5 million on land and 2.2 million
in oceans. 86% of all species on land and 91% in the seas are yet to be discovered! A large proportion of the
species waiting to be discovered are in the tropics.
Only about 1.2 million species have been formally described. More than 70 per cent of all the species recorded are animals, while plants (including algae, fungi, bryophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms) comprise no more than 22 per cent of the total. Among animals, insects are the most species-rich taxonomic
group, making up more than 70 per cent of the total.
8.1. Terms Related to Biodiversity
Biodiversity
Definition by WHO: Biodiversity underpins all life on earth and refers to biological variety in all its forms, from
the genetic makeup of plants and animals to cultural diversity. Biodiversity is measured by two major components: species richness and species evenness. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 89
Species Richness
Species Richness measures the number of species found in a community. Tropical rainforests in the terrestrial ecosystem and coral reefs in the marine ecosystem have the highest degree of species richness.
Species Evenness
Species evenness is a measure of the relative abundance of the different species making up the richness
of an area.
Low evenness means a few species dominate the site. Example: A sample forest A has 2 tigers, 6 deer and
7 rabbits and sample forest B has 1 tiger, 6 deer and 8 rabbits. Both samples have the same richness (3
species) and the number of individuals (15). However, sample forest A has more evenness than sample forest
B.
Alpha, Beta and Gamma Diversity
Alpha Diversity: It refers to the diversity within a particular area or ecosystem and is usually expressed by
the number of species (i.e., species richness) in that ecosystem.
Beta Diversity: It compares diversity (change in the number of species) between ecosystems.
Gamma Diversity: It measures the overall diversity of the different ecosystems within a region.
Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. A single species might show high diversity at the genetic level (E.g., Homo sapiens: Chinese, Indian, African etc.).
Genetic diversity allows species to adapt to changing environments. It ensures that some species survive
drastic changes and carry on desirable genes. Species that differ from one another in their genetic makeup
(not just the genetic characteristics) do not interbreed in nature.
Closely related species have in common many of their hereditary characteristics. For instance, about 98.4 per
cent of the genes of humans and chimpanzees are the same.
Species Diversity
Species diversity is a measure of the diversity within an ecological community that incorporates both species
richness and the evenness of species. It is the ratio of one species’ population over the total number of
organisms across all species in the given biome. ‘0’ would be infinite diversity, and ‘1’ represents only one
species present. In general, species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator towards the
poles, with a few exceptions.
Ecological Diversity
Ecological diversity refers to different types of habitats. India, for instance, with its deserts, rain forests,
mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries, and alpine meadows, has a greater ecosystem diversity than a
Scandinavian country like Norway.
Endemism
Endemism is the ecological state of a species unique to a defined geographic location, such as an island,
nation, country or other defined zone or habitat type. Organisms indigenous to a place are not endemic if
they are also found elsewhere. A particular type of animal or plant may be endemic to a zone, a state, or a
country. The opposite of endemism is cosmopolitan distribution. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 90
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Species Types
91
Keystone species
Keystone species determine the survival of many other species in an ecosystem. The addition or loss of
a keystone species from an ecosystem leads to significant changes in the occurrence of at least one other
species. If a keystone species is lost, it will result in the degradation of the whole ecosystem. Hence top
predators and other keystone species are given much consideration in conservation. All top predators (Tiger, Lion, Crocodile) and key species like elephants, corals and pollinators are considered keystone WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 92
species because they regulate all other animal populations indirectly. For example, certain plant species
(ebony tree, Indian laurel) exclusively depends upon bats for their pollination. If the bat population is
reduced, then the regeneration of plants becomes more difficult.
Bioprospecting
Bioprospecting refers to exploring biodiversity for commercially valuable genetic resources and biochemicals. As an activity, it involves deriving products of economic importance by nations endowed with
rich biodiversity by exploring their molecular, genetic, and species diversity.
Biopiracy
Biopiracy occurs when genetic resources and traditional knowledge is taken from biodiverse developing countries without permission. In biopiracy, the stolen traditional knowledge is used to benefit the
non-indigenous people through a product or patent with no compensation received by the indigenous
people.
Some in the west pass off biopiracy as bioprospecting. Biopiracy of India’s genetic resources and traditional knowledge by advanced economies and large corporations is a significant concern. The Nagoya Protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) addresses the issues concerning the fair and equitable sharing of benefits from using traditional knowledge and genetic resources.
8.2. Biodiversity of India
The mega-diverse countries are those whose ecosystems have extraordinarily rich biodiversity supporting the majority of the earth’s species, including a large number of endemic species. Although they only
account for around 10% of the earth’s surface, they house at least 70% of the planet’s terrestrial biological
diversity.
The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) of the United Nations Environment Program
(UNEP) has identified a total of 17 mega-diverse countries: Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Ecuador,
United States, Philippines, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru,
Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa and Venezuela.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 93
India is one of the mega-diverse countries, rich in biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge. It has
24.62% of its area under forest and tree cover. With just 2.4% of the land area, India accounts for nearly 7-
8% of the recorded species, even while supporting almost 18% of the human population.
India represents two realms, five biomes, ten bio-geographic zones and twenty-five bio-geographic provinces
with 91,000 species of animals and 45,500 species of plants. Of these 12.6% of mammals, 4.5% of birds,
45.8% of reptiles, 55.8% of amphibians and 33% of Indian plants are endemic.
Realms
Biogeographic realms are large spatial regions within which ecosystems share a broadly similar biota.
In the world, eight terrestrial biogeographic realms are typically recognised. The Indian region falls in two
realms: 1) the Himalayan region represented by the Palearctic Realm, and 2) the rest of the sub-continent
represented by the Malayan Realm. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 94
Biomes, Biogeographic Zones and Provinces
The term biome means the main groups of plants and animals living in areas of specific climate patterns. It
represents how animals, vegetation and soil interact together. The five biomes of India are:
1. Tropical Humid Forests
2. Tropical Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests)
3. Warm deserts and semi-deserts
4. Coniferous forests
5. Alpine meadows
Biogeography deals with the geographical distribution of plants and animals. The ten biogeographic
zones were used as a basis for planning wildlife-protected areas in India. Bio-geographic Province is an
ecosystemic or biotic subdivision of realms. India is divided into 25 biogeographic zones.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 95
Biogeographic Zones (10) Biogeographic Provinces (25)
Trans Himalaya 1A: Himalaya – Ladakh Mountains
1B: Himalaya – Tibetan Plateau
1C: Trans – Himalaya Sikkim
The Himalaya 2A: Himalaya – North West Himalaya
2B: Himalaya – West Himalaya
2C: Himalaya – Central Himalaya
2D: Himalaya – East Himalaya
The Indian Desert 3A: Desert – Thar
3B: Desert – Kutch
The Semi-Arid 4A: Semi-Arid – Punjab Plains
4B: Semi-Arid – Gujarat Rajputana
The Western Ghats 5A: Western Ghats – Malabar Plains
5B: Western Ghats – Mountains
The Deccan
Peninsula
6A: Deccan Peninsular – Central Highlands
6B: Deccan Peninsular – Chotta Nagpur
6C: Deccan Peninsular – Eastern Highlands
6D: Deccan Peninsular – Central Plateau
6E: Deccan Peninsular – Deccan South
The Gangetic Plains 7A: Gangetic Plain – Upper Gangetic Plains
7B: Gangetic Plain – Lower Gangetic Plains
The Coasts 8A: Coasts – West Coast
8B: Coasts – East Coast
8C: Coasts – Lakshadweep
Northeast India 9A: North-East – Brahmaputra Valley
9B: North-East – North East Hills
Islands 10A: Islands – Andaman
10B: Islands – Nicobars
8.3. Biodiversity Hot Spots
Biodiversity hotspots, as defined by British biologist Norman Myers, are biogeographic regions characterised by high species richness, a high degree of endemism, and sometimes severe levels of habitat loss.
Conservation International (CI) adopted Myers’ hotspots, and in 1996, it undertook a reassessment of the
hotspots concept.
 Conservation International (CI) is an American non-profit environmental organisation working towards
protecting nature for the benefit of people.
According to CI, to qualify as a hotspot, a region must meet two strict criteria:
1. It must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (> 0.5% of the world’s total) as endemics –
which is to say that it must have a high percentage of plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A
hotspot, in other words, is irreplaceable.
2. It must have lost at least 70% of its original habitat. (It must have 30% or less of its original natural
vegetation). In other words, it must be threatened.
In 1999, CI identified 25 biodiversity hotspots. Currently, 36 areas qualify as hotspots representing just 2.5%
of the earth’s land surface. They support more than half of the world’s plant species as endemics and
nearly 43% of bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species as endemics. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 96
 In 2011, the Forests of the East Australia region was identified as the 35th biodiversity hotspot. In 2016, the
North American Coastal Plain region was identified as the 36th biodiversity hotspot.
Hope Spots
Hope Spot Network is a joint initiative of Mission Blue (a global coalition) & IUCN. A hope spot is Marine
Protected Area that needs special protection because of its wildlife & significant underwater habitats.
Lakshadweep Islands and Andaman Nicobar Islands are the Hope Spots Sites from India.
Biodiversity Hotspots in India
1) Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region of India and of Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, China, &
Myanmar.
2) Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-Eastern India, Andaman Group of Islands and Myanmar, Thailand,
Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern China.
3) Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, and the Philippines.
4) Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
[UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:
1) Biodiversity hotspots are located only in tropical regions.
2) India has four biodiversity hotspots, i.e., Eastern Himalayas, Western Himalayas, Western Ghats and
Andaman and the Nicobar Islands.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 97
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither I nor 2
Explanation:
Eastern Himalayas was originally part of the Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot and included Bhutan,
North-Eastern India, and southern, central, and eastern Nepal. In 2004, a hotspot reappraisal classified the
region as part of two hotspots: Indo-Burma and the newly distinguished Himalaya.
The Himalaya Hotspot is home to important populations of vultures, tigers, elephants, rhinos, and wild
water buffalo. Indo-Burma holds remarkable endemism in freshwater turtle species, most of which are
threatened with extinction due to over-harvesting and extensive habitat loss. Sundaland Hotspot is
threatened by the explosive growth of industrial forestry (palm and rubber plantations).
Faced with tremendous population pressure, the forests of the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka have been
dramatically impacted by the demands for timber and agricultural land. The region houses significant
populations of Asian Elephants, Indian Tigers, the Lion-tailed Macaque, Niligiri tahr, the Indian Giant
squirrel, etc.
Answer: d) neither
The list of Major Wildlife Species of India is included in the chapter ‘Major Species and Species In News’.
8.4. Loss of Biodiversity
Biodiversity loss is a decrease in biodiversity within a species, an ecosystem, or a geographic area. It includes
the decline in the number (species richness), genetic variability, variety of species, etc. in each area.
The IUCN Red List (2014) documents the extinction of 784 species in the last 500 years. Some examples
include the extinction of the Passenger Pigeon, Steller’s Sea Cow and three subspecies of tigers (Bali,
Javan and Caspian). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 98
During the long period (> 3 billion years) since the origin and diversification of life on earth, there were five
episodes of mass extinction of species. The Sixth Extinction (anthropogenic) is presently in progress,
with species extinction rates estimated to be 100 to 1,000 times faster than in pre-human times. Ecologists
warn that if the present trends continue, nearly half of all the species on earth might be wiped out within
the next 100 years.
The Extent of Biodiversity Loss as per IPBES Report
The IPBES 2019 report is called the “Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
2019.” According to this report, the estimated number of species on earth is 8 million (including 5.5 million
insect species). Up to 1 million species are threatened with extinction, many within decades. The threatened list includes 40% of amphibian species, 33% of reef-forming corals, and more than a third of all
marine mammals.
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES)
IPBES, based in Bonn, Germany, comprises 130 member countries, including India. It examines scientific
literature on biodiversity. Hence, it is often described as the “Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) for biodiversity”. It prepared the UN-sponsored Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 2019 report.
Key Points From Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 2019
Nearly half of the natural ecosystems have vanished due to human activities.
Humans have severely altered 75% of the land, 40% of marine environments and 50% of inland waterways:
 300% increase in food crop production since 1970.
 More than 100% growth in urban areas since 1992.
 23% of land areas have decreased productivity due to land degradation.
 50% of agricultural expansion at the expense of forests.
 16-21 cm rise in global average sea level since 1900.
 100% increase since 1980 in GHG emissions, raising the average global temperature by 0.7 degrees.
 Plastic pollution alone has increased tenfold since 1980.
100-300 million people in coastal areas are at increased risk due to the loss of coastal habitat protection.
Less than 1% of the land is used for mining, but it has significant negative impacts on the environment.
1,000 green activists and journalists reporting environmental issues were killed between 2002 and 2013.
Living Planet Report 2022
Living Planet Report is a biennial report released by World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) since 1998.
According to the 2022 report, there has been a 69% decline in the wildlife populations of mammals, birds,
amphibians, reptiles, and fish across the globe in the last 50 years.
The highest decline in the wildlife populations (94%) was in Latin America and the Caribbean. Africa recorded a 66% fall, whereas the Asia-Pacific recorded a decline of 55%.
Freshwater species populations globally were reduced by 83%. Mangroves continue to be lost to aquaculture, agriculture, & coastal development at a rate of 0.13% per year.
The State of the World’s Birds WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 99
BirdLife International recently published its annual update, The State of the World’s Birds. Around 48%
of bird species worldwide are suspected to be undergoing population declines. Whereas 39% showed
stable trends, 6% showed increasing trends, & 7% with unknown trends. 1 in 8 bird species is threatened
with extinction.
867 species of Indian birds were assessed. 80% of these are suspected to be undergoing population declines. Whereas 6% show stable trends and 14% show increasing trends. The maximum decline occurs in
bird species dependent on forests, followed by grasslands and wetlands.
Trophic cascade effect is among the major threats.
 A trophic cascade is a side-effect when a trophic level (species) of the ecosystem is reduced or removed. This
triggers a cascade (series of events/effects on other species) that changes the balance of the entire ecosystem.
Prelims Practice: Consider the following statements regarding ‘The State of the World’s
Birds’.
1. It’s being published by the IUCN as a part of its Red List.
2. It found that about half of the existing bird species worldwide are suspected to be undergoing decline.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) 1 & 2 both
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Explanation:
The State of the World’s Birds is published by BirdLife International along with several other research
organisations. Hence statement 1 is not correct. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 100
Answer: b) 2 only
8.5. Causes Behind Biodiversity Loss
Natural ecological disturbances, such as weather, wildfire, floods, and volcanic eruptions, change ecosystems
drastically by eliminating local populations of some species. Such disturbances are temporary because natural
disturbances are common, and ecosystems have adapted to their challenges (ecological succession).
Permanent biodiversity loss is typically associated with mass extinction events and anthropogenic causes
— The Evil Quartet — Habitat loss, Overexploitation, Alien species and Secondary extinction.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) identified six key threats to biodiversity. They are agriculture,
hunting, logging, pollution, invasive species, and climate change.
Habitat Loss and Fragmentation
Habitat loss refers to the reduction in space where a particular species or a community of species can survive
and reproduce. The most dramatic examples of habitat loss come from tropical rainforests. Once covering
more than 14 per cent of the earth’s land surface, the rainforests now cover no more than 6 per cent.
The Amazon rain forest (called the ‘lungs of the planet’) is being cleared for cultivating soybean or for
conversion to grasslands for raising beef cattle (ranching). Wetlands are being made dry through landfills
as the demand for land increases. Natural forests are cleared for industry, agriculture, dams, habitation, recreational sports, etc.
Habitat fragmentation is the process in which a large expanse of ecologically prominent habitat is
transformed into many smaller patches (less productive) isolated by a matrix of habitats (human-made) unlike
the original. Habitat loss and habitat fragmentation are the direst causes behind driving animals and plants
to extinction.
Consequence: Barrier Effect and Associated Damage
Habitat fragmentation increases the risk of inbreeding. Inbreeding is the mating of organisms closely
related by ancestry. It goes against the biological aim of mating, which is the shuffling of DNA. Inbreeding
limits the gene pool and creates inbreeding depression, which means the population decreases due to a
lack of healthy mates, and there is an increased risk of local extinction.
Explanation
Genes in DNA fall into two categories, dominant and recessive. If one of the genes in the pair is dominant,
then the result is that the animal/organism gains the trait of the dominant gene. However, for traits that
originate from the recessive gene, the organism needs both genes to be recessive. This is important as
some recessive alleles carry genetic diseases and congenital defects (physical abnormalities present from
birth) in humans and animals. Inbreeding increases the risk of offspring being born with such genetic conditions since the chances of parents carrying the same recessive gene are significantly increased.
For example, inbreeding in koalas in Australia has put the species at risk of local extinction by just one
disease.
Central India’s tigers have the highest genetic variation. This has been made possible by the significant
habitats available in the past. But today, due to linear projects like highways that isolate populations, the risk
of inbreeding of disease and local extinction has increased significantly. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 101
Fragmentation of India’s Tiger Habitats Due to Highways
 According to an estimate, around 55,000 km of roads pass through India’s forests and protected areas.
 GOI will construct a 36 km-long flyover above NH 37, which passes through the Kaziranga National Park.
 NH 44 — India’s longest highway (from Srinagar to Kanyakumari) — cuts through corridors connecting
Kanha, Satpura, Pench, Bandhavgarh & Panna tiger reserves.
 NH 6 — India’s second-longest highway (from Surat to Kolkata) — passes through corridors around
Melghat, Bor, Nagzira, and Simlipal tiger reserves.
Alien Species Invasions
Invasive alien species are non-native species that spread rapidly and interfere in a new ecosystem by
posing a severe threat to the native biodiversity, leading to economic loss. For example, the Nile perch fish
introduced into Lake Victoria in East Africa eventually led to the extinction of an ecologically unique assemblage of more than 200 species of cichlid fish in the lake.
Invasive species are the second-biggest cause of biodiversity loss, next to habitat destruction. When
invasive species are introduced into an ecosystem, they may not have any natural predators or controls,
and native wildlife may not have evolved defences against the invading species. A resin-like substance that
oozes from such alien plant species makes the soil acidic, preventing the growth of any other plant species.
Consequence: Destruction of Sholas by Invasive Species
The Shola vegetation is tropical montane forests found in the Western Ghats separated by rolling grasslands in high altitudes (upper Nilgiris with peaks and plateaus ranging from 1,700 to 2,600 metres). Owing
to the altitude, the Shola patches occur only in the folds of the mountains that receive the least fog.
Invasive species like eucalyptus, tea plantations, wattle (acacia), Lantana, and naturalised alien species like
Parthenium hysterophorus in the Nilgiris are wiping out Shola forests.
Even the grasslands are in danger
Frost traditionally restricted the forests in the Nilgiris from expanding as it freezes the groundwater and stops
the sapling from sprouting in new areas. Over the years, the nights have become warmer, and the amount of
frost has reduced in the Nilgiris.
The reduced frost has allowed the acacia plantations to move beyond the Shola forests and enter the
grasslands. This change in vegetation is resulting in the loss of water sources, causing massive landslides,
and has deprived the original habitat of endangered species like Nilgiri Tahr (EN). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 102
 Toda tribes are a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group settled in the upper Nilgiris. The pastoral Toda
community’s livelihood depends entirely on the Shola grasslands.
How are invasive species introduced into an ecosystem?
Human activities like transportation primarily spread invasive species. Ships can carry aquatic organisms in
their ballast water and on their propellers. Insects can get into wood that is shipped around the world. Some
ornamental plants can escape into the wild and become invasive.
Sometimes, humans voluntarily introduce an invasive species to control the population of another species.
In addition, changes in rain and snow patterns caused by climate change will enable some invasive plant
species to move into new areas.
Threats to native wildlife from invasive species
The direct threats of invasive species include:
 preying on native species (E.g., African Catfish),
 outcompeting native species for food or other resources,
 causing or carrying disease, and
 preventing native species from reproducing or killing a native species’ progenies.
There are indirect threats of invasive species as well.
 They can change the food web by destroying or replacing native food sources.
 They may provide little to no food value for wildlife.
 Aggressive plant species can quickly replace a diverse ecosystem with a monoculture.
 Additionally, some invasive species can change soil chemistry or the intensity of wildfires.
The list of Invasive Species is included in the chapter ‘Major Species and Species In News’.
Over-Exploitation
When human ‘needs’ turns to ‘greed’, it leads to the over-exploitation of natural resources. In the last 500
years, many species extinctions (Steller’s Sea Cow and Passenger Pigeon) were due to overexploitation by
humans.
Presently, many marine fish populations worldwide are over-harvested, endangering the continued existence
of some commercially important species. Whales for oil, fish for food, trees for wood, plants for medicines
etc., are being removed by humans at higher rates than they can be replaced.
Excessive cutting of trees, overgrazing, collecting firewood, and hunting wild animals for skin and ivory result
in the gradual loss of species. Large mammals such as the tiger, rhinoceros and elephant once faced the
distinct possibility of complete extinction due to rampant hunting and poaching.
Species Extinction
Various processes cause extinction:
1) Deterministic processes that have a cause and effect. E.g., glaciations and human interference such as deforestation.
2) Stochastic processes (chance and random events) affect the survival and reproduction of individuals. E.g.,
unexpected changes in weather patterns decreased food supply, disease, an increase of competitors, predators, parasites, etc., that may act independently or add to deterministic effects. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 103
The impact of these processes will, of course, depend on the size and degree of genetic diversity and resilience of populations. Traits that adversely affect or increase a species’ vulnerability to extinction due to habitat
fragmentation are:
 rarity or low abundance
 poor dispersal ability
 high trophic status — animals occupying a higher trophic level usually have smaller populations than
those at lower levels (carnivores are fewer in number than herbivores and are more vulnerable)
 low adult survival rates
Co-extinctions
When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated with it in an obligatory way also
become extinct. For example, when a host fish species becomes extinct, its unique assemblage of parasites
also meets the same fate. Another example is the case of a coevolved plant-pollinator mutualism where
the extinction of one invariably leads to the extinction of the other.
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO/Transgenic Organisms)
In GMOs, genetic material (DNA) is altered or artificially introduced using genetic engineering techniques
like mutation, insertion, or deletion of genes. Inserted genes usually come from a different organism
(e.g., In Bt cotton, Bt genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis are induced).
Genetic modification is done to induce a desirable new trait that does not occur naturally in the species.
The most common trait engineered into GMO crops is that they generate toxins within the plant cells. These
toxins can be far more potent than expected and can remain in the environment for far too long.
GMO species can become dominant and can overrun the existing species, thereby reducing biodiversity.
Unintended transfer of transgenes through cross-pollination can cause unknown effects on other organisms
(e.g., soil microbes) and lead to biodiversity loss.
Also, most GMO crops are engineered for herbicide resistance, so weedkillers are liberally sprayed. Weeds
are a problem, but diverse plant life protects the soil from erosion and nutrient loss. It supports the pollinators
and other beneficial insects that do so much agricultural labour. While welcoming the weeds is not a practical
solution, neither is wiping out plant life with toxic chemicals.
The Curious Case of Genetically Modified Mosquitoes
In the absence of an effective vaccine for dengue fever, Zika fever, chikungunya and other mosquito-borne
diseases, researchers are exploring genetic strategies to reduce mosquito populations.
A company called Oxitec developed GM male mosquitoes (GM strain of Aedes aegypti). These male
GM mosquitoes are said to have a “self-limiting” gene. When these so-called friendly mosquitoes mate,
their offspring inherit the self-limiting gene, which is supposed to prevent them from surviving into
adulthood. In theory, when these mosquitoes are released in high numbers, a dramatic reduction in the
mosquito population should follow.
With approval from Brazilian authorities, Oxitec released nearly half a million GM mosquitoes every week
into the environment from 2013 to 2015. Studies have since confirmed that some of the offspring of the
GM mosquitoes did not succumb to the self-limiting lethal gene and survived to adulthood. They were
able to breed with native mosquitoes and introduced some of their genes into the wild population. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 104
Thus, like in GM soybean or corn, there is legitimate concern about the propagation of new genetic
material in wild populations with unknown consequences.
Trade in Wildlife
Many species of wildlife are threatened by unsustainable harvest and trade. The unsustainable use of wildlife creates a risk both for biodiversity and local livelihoods.
Illegal wildlife trade contributes to habitat destruction, which removes necessary buffer zones between
humans and wild fauna, making it more likely that animal pathogens come into contact with people.
Specimens traded illegally are also much less likely to be sold or bought where sanitary standards are being
adequately enforced, making the spreading of diseases more likely, thereby reducing local biodiversity.
Pollution and Climate Change
Marine biodiversity is affected by ocean acidification related to levels of carbon in the atmosphere. Terrestrial biodiversity is influenced by climate variability, such as extreme weather events. Longer-term climate
changes affect the health of ecosystems, influencing shifts in the distribution of plants, pathogens, animals,
and even humans.
8.6. Consequences of Loss of Biodiversity
Affects Livelihood
Human health depends on ecosystem products & services (such as the availability of freshwater, food, and
fuel). Changes in ecosystem services affect livelihoods, income, and local migration and, on occasion, may
even cause or exacerbate political conflict.
Loss in biodiversity may limit the discovery of potential treatments for many diseases and health problems.
Food and Nutritional Security Crisis
Biodiversity plays a crucial role in human nutrition through its influence on world food production. It ensures
the sustainable productivity of soils and provides the genetic resources for all crops, livestock, etc.
Nutrition and biodiversity are linked at many levels: the ecosystem, with food production as an ecosystem
service; the species in the ecosystem and the genetic diversity within species.
Intensified food production through irrigation, fertiliser use, plant protection (pesticides), or the introduction
of crop varieties and cropping patterns affects biodiversity and thus impacts global nutritional status. Healthy
local diets, with adequate average nutrient intake, necessitate maintaining high biodiversity levels.
Human-animal Conflict
Human-animal conflict refers to the interaction between wild animals and people and the resultant negative
impact on people or their resources or wild animals or their habitat. It occurs when wildlife needs overlap
with those of human populations, creating costs to residents and wild animals.
Causes
 Human encroachment into forest lands.
 Land use transformation – industrialisation, infrastructure development, commercial farming etc.
 Species habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation due to the above-mentioned reasons.
 Increasing livestock populations and competitive exclusion of wild herbivores.
 The growing interest in ecotourism and increasing access to nature reserves. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 105
 Abundant distribution of prey in the form of livestock on the periphery of forest lands.
 Increasing wildlife population as a result of conservation programmes.
 Climate change-induced habitat destruction.
 Stochastic events (e.g., fire, floods etc.)
Impacts
 Crop and property damage.
 Livestock depredation: Himalayan snow leopard preys on goats in the Himalayan region. Farmers trap and
kill snow leopards to save their livestock.
 Injuries & deaths: Man-eater tigers are reported to have injured and killed villagers on the periphery.
 Injuries to wildlife: leopards and other wild animals are hacked to death by mobs.
Preventive and Mitigation strategies
 Artificial and natural barriers (physical/ biological) – costly.
 Guarding – very expensive.
 Alternative high-cost livestock husbandry practices.
 Relocation: voluntary human population resettlement.
 Waste management systems that restrict wildlife access to refuse.
 Community-based natural resource management schemes (CBNRMS)
Culling – Conservation or Biodiversity loss?
Natural culling
Culling means ‘Selection’. In the wild, it is the process of weeding out the weak. Culling naturally occurs by
starvation, disease and predation. It is nature’s way of controlling the population.
Culling by humans – controlled culling
In the post-conservation era, human intervention became necessary for the management of wildlife populations through controlled hunting, which is now referred to as culling.
Why did controlled culling become necessary?
 Human-animal conflict – too many wild animals compete with humans for resources.
 Threat to life and livelihood (crop, property damage) makes culling necessary.
 Loss of forestland to mines, industry, agriculture, etc., is the primary reason behind the human-animal conflict.
 Crop-raiding by smaller herbivores due to a population boom & animals raiding nutrient-rich crops like wheat
and maize are other major reasons for human-animal conflict.
The practice of Culling worldwide
In the US, some areas require seasonal culling to ease pressure on livestock feed. In parts of Africa, culling
has been used for commercial harvesting. Australia culls feral cats to protect native species. Australia also
culls kangaroos. Recently Australia culled camels to regulate their overpopulation.
In 2022, millions of bees (important pollinators) were exterminated in Australia amid the Varroa Mite outbreak. Varroa mites (parasitic insects that transmit the virus) are known to kill entire colonies of honeybees.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 106
Animal Welfare Activists vs Pro Culling Lobby
Culling lobby: Affected farmers and government administration.
Arguments against culling by activists Arguments by Culling lobby
Ethical grounds: humans do not have the
right.
They support a practical and realistic approach.
They believe every animal is ethically indispensable, even at the cost of putting entire
species at risk.
Conservationists are concerned about the integrity of the ecosystem and the future of the entire
species.
Culling is against animal conservation. * Culling is for conservation. By law, wildlife is protected because they are too few and require protection. But when certain pockets see a population
boom in herbivores, farmers cannot wait for predators to reoccupy such areas.
The absence of lawful intervention often triggers
retaliation by illegal means. In anger, farmers
may indiscriminately target wildlife, including
those that may not be causing any problems.
Culling can increase people’s apathy (lack
of interest or enthusiasm) for conserving
other life forms. (Some people recruited to
cull animals post their act on social media,
glorifying killing an animal).
No concrete evidence to prove that culling increases insensitivity among people.
(But practically, it does. Many people enjoy hunting animals, and others might take inspiration
from culling) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 107
They argue that human-animal conflict can
be controlled through non-invasive means,
including fencing crop fields, planting chilli
around cropland, creating buffer areas between croplands and the forest’s edge, selecting non-edible crops, providing adequate and regular compensation for crop
loss, etc.
Fencing merely shifts conflict to the next accessible cropland. It is expensive, and its maintenance
is not practical.
Even the selection of crops that traditionally repelled animals does not seem to work any longer.
For example, farmers in Sirmour, Himachal Pradesh, now complain that monkeys raid garlic
fields that they avoided until recently.
Other measures are primarily long-term and can
keep a check on conflict only in situations where
crop damage is still reasonable.
Increased Zoonoses due to Habitat Loss
Zoonoses (zoonotic diseases) are diseases transmitted from animals to humans. E.g., Rabies (dogs), Ebola (fruit bats), novel coronavirus Covid-19 (pangolin), etc.
Zoonoses are opportunistic and thrive where there are changes in the environment, changes in animal populations that serve as hosts for specific pathogens, or changes in the pathogen itself.
Zoonotic diseases are closely interlinked with the health of ecosystems. According to the UN Environment
Programme (UNEP), 60% of human infectious diseases are zoonotic. IPBES estimates that zoonoses kill
some 700,000 people yearly (the current COVID-19 is not considered).
How does the change in ecosystems and biodiversity loss help Zoonoses thrive?
Ecosystems are inherently resilient, and by supporting diverse species, they help regulate diseases. The less
biodiverse an ecosystem gets, the easier it is for a pathogen to spread rapidly.
By destroying forests for agriculture, industries, etc., humans fragment and encroach into animal habitats.
This brings wildlife close to human settlements as the natural buffer that generally separate humans from
animals is destroyed. This creates opportunities for pathogens to spill over from wild animals to humans.
Adverse Changes to Biotic Interactions
Even though a species may not have been eliminated from the ecosystem, its niche (the role the species
play in the ecosystems it inhabits) diminishes as its numbers fall. If the niches filled by a single species or
a group of species are critical to the proper ecosystem functioning, a sudden decline in numbers may produce
significant changes in the ecosystem’s structure. For example, clearing trees from a forest eliminates the
shading, temperature and moisture regulation, animal habitat, and nutrient transport services they provide
to the ecosystem.

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Biodiversity Conservation

Biodiversity conservation leads to the conservation of ecological and genetic diversity, preserving the continuity of food chains. It assures sustainable utilisation of resources and a constant flow of ecosystem services and goods.
When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all levels is protected. E.g., we save
the entire forest to save the tiger. This approach is called in-situ (on-site) conservation. However, when an
animal or plant is endangered or threatened and needs urgent measures to save it from extinction, ex-situ
(off-site) conservation is the desirable approach.
9.1. In situ conservation
In-situ conservation is the on-site conservation of genetic resources in natural populations of plant or animal
species. In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich regions are legally conserved on-site as biosphere reserves, national parks, sanctuaries, reserved forests, protected forests and nature reserves,
each accorded a certain degree of protection.
Reserved and Protected Forests
Reserved (reserve) forests and protected forests, declared through a notification by the respective state
governments, are granted protection under the Indian Forest Act of 1927. Typically, reserved forests are
often upgraded to the status of wildlife sanctuaries, which in turn may be upgraded to national parks, with
each category receiving a higher degree of protection and government funding.
The protected forests and reserved forests differ in one single aspect: rights to all activities like hunting,
grazing, etc., in Reserved Forests are banned unless specific orders are issued otherwise (all activities are
prohibited unless permitted). In Protected Forests, such rights are sometimes given to communities
living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood from forest resources or products.
 In terms of protection, National Parks > Wildlife Sanctuary > Reserved forests > Protected forests
Wildlife Sanctuaries or Wildlife Refuges
Wildlife Sanctuaries or wildlife refuges are areas where endangered species are safeguarded from extinction
in their natural habitat (home range). They are safe from hunting, predation, or competition. A sanctuary
can be promoted to a National Park.
Wildlife Sanctuaries, declared through a notification (no need to pass legislation) by the respective state
governments, are granted protection under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. The State Government
appoints an officer as a collector to determine the extent of the rights of any person. The Chief Wildlife
Warden controls, manages and maintains the wildlife sanctuaries.
Certain rights of people living inside the sanctuary could be permitted. Grazing and firewood collection
by tribals is allowed but strictly regulated. Settlements are not allowed (but in some wildlife sanctuaries,
tribal settlements exist. Constant efforts are made to relocate them).
Tiger Reserves WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 109
The protection status of tiger reserves is the same as wildlife sanctuaries. But they are monitored by the
National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA — constituted under the Wild Life Protection Act of 1972. It
is responsible for implementing Project Tiger). The various tiger reserves were created in the country based
on the core buffer strategy.
National Park
National parks, just like wildlife sanctuaries, are declared through a notification by the respective state governments. They are also granted protection under the Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972. The significant
difference between a sanctuary and a national park lies in the vesting of rights of people living inside.
 Unlike a Sanctuary, where certain rights can be allowed, in a National Park, no rights are permitted.
 No livestock grazing shall also be permitted inside a National Park, while in a sanctuary, the Chief
Wildlife Warden may regulate, control, or prohibit it.
 Boundaries of wildlife sanctuaries are not specified, while they are clearly defined (demarcated) in
the case of national parks by the state governments.
The state government has all the rights of lands to be included in the national parks. But only on the recommendation of the National Board of Wildlife the state legislature can make the changes to the boundaries of national parks and other protected areas (sanctuaries, conservation/community reserves).
 The Supreme Court in June 2022 directed that “mining within the national parks and wildlife sanctuaries
shall not be permitted”.
Biosphere Reserve
Biosphere reserves are large areas of protected terrestrial, marine and coastal ecosystems. UNESCO terms
biosphere reserves as ‘learning places for sustainable development’ involving the conservation of wildlife,
plant and animal resources and the traditional life of the tribals. A biosphere reserve in India may have
one or more national parks or wildlife sanctuaries.
Biosphere Reserves are designated (recognised) under UNESCO’s intergovernmental Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme after the national governments nominate them. They are internationally recognised by UNESCO’s MAB but are administered under the sovereign jurisdiction of countries. Designation of a site as a biosphere reserve does not affect the legal status of the land, forests and regulations for
natural resources, and their ownership remains unchanged.
The Indian National Man and Biosphere (IN-MAB) Committee under MoEF identifies and recommends
potential sites for designation as biosphere reserves, following UNESCO’s guidelines and criteria. The State
Government prepares the Management Action Plan which is approved and monitored by In-MAB. The Government of India provides financial assistance in a 90:10 ratio to the North Eastern states and three Himalayan states and a ratio of 60:40 to other states for maintenance, improvement, and development.
UNESCO’s Criteria for designation
 A site must contain an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core area.
 The core area should sustain viable populations representing all trophic levels in the ecosystem.
 A management authority to ensure the cooperation of local (tribal) communities.
Seville Strategy WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 110
In 1995, after an international conference in Seville, Spain, Seville Strategy for biosphere reserves was
adopted. Under the strategy, criteria for biosphere reserves were revised to include the social, cultural, spiritual, and economic needs of society (community-based approach — enhancing the relationship between
people and their environments) alongside scientific research.
Core Buffer Strategy
Core area
It comprises a strictly protected ecosystem for conserving ecosystems, species and genetic variation. In the
core or natural zone, human activity is not allowed. A core zone, primarily a national park or sanctuary, is
regulated mainly under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972.
Buffer zone
Limited human activity is permitted. The zones are used for scientific research, monitoring, training, limited recreation and education.
Transition area
Ecologically sustainable human settlements and economic activities (tourism, agriculture, forestry) are
permitted in the transition area.
[UPSC 2014] The most important strategy for the conservation of biodiversity together with
traditional human life is the establishment of
a) biosphere reserves
b) botanical gardens
c) national parks
d) wildlife sanctuaries WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 111
Explanation:
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries discourage all sorts of human activity.
Answer: a)
Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs)
ESZs are areas notified by the MoEF around national parks & wildlife sanctuaries. The purpose of the ESZ
was to provide more protection to the parks and sanctuaries by acting as a shock absorber or transition
zone to minimise forest depletion and human-animal conflict.
The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002–2016) of MoEF stipulated that state governments should declare
land falling within 10 km of the boundaries of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries as eco-fragile
zones or ESZs under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986.
The width of the ESZ and the type of regulation may vary from protected area to area. The GOI can also
notify areas beyond 10 km as ESZs if they hold larger ecologically important “sensitive corridors”.
The Supreme Court in June 2022 directed that every protected forest, national park, and wildlife sanctuary
across the country should have a mandatory eco-sensitive zone (ESZ) of a minimum of one km starting
from their demarcated boundaries.
ESZ areas are based on the core and buffer model of management. The core area has the legal status of
being a national park. The buffer area, however, does not have the legal status of being a national park
and could be a reserved forest, wildlife sanctuary or tiger reserve.
 Recently, the Bhagirathi Eco-Sensitive Zone (4179.59 sq km) from Gaumukh to Uttarkashi was notified
by MoEF.
Legal Status
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 does not mention the word “Eco–Sensitive Zones”. The act only
states that GOI can restrict areas in which any industries, operations, or processes shall or shall not be
carried out subject to certain safeguards. Besides, the Environment Rules, 1986 also states that GOI can
prohibit or restrict the location of industries. The government has effectively used these two rules to
declare ESZs or EFAs.
Activities Prohibited/Restricted/Allowed in ESZs
Prohibited: commercial mining, setting of sawmills and industries causing pollution, commercial use of
firewood & major hydropower projects are prohibited in ESZ areas. It also bans tourism activities like flying
over protected areas in an aircraft or hot air balloon and discharge of effluents and solid waste in water
bodies or terrestrial areas.
Regulated: felling of trees, drastic change in agriculture systems and commercial use of natural water resources, including groundwater and setting up of hotels and resorts are the activities regulated in the areas.
Permitted: ongoing agriculture and horticulture practices by local communities, rainwater harvesting, organic farming, adoption of green technology and use of renewables.
[UPSC 2014] With reference to ‘Eco-Sensitive Zones’, which of the following statements
is/are correct?
1) Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas that are declared under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 112
2) The purpose of the declaration of Eco-Sensitive Zones is to prohibit all kinds of human activities, in
those zones except agriculture.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Explanation:
Eco-Sensitive Zones areas are based on the core (all kinds of human activity are prohibited) and buffer
(grazing, collection of minor forest produce, subsistence agriculture, etc. are allowed on a sustainable basis) model of management.
Answer: d) Neither
Conservation Reserves
A State Government can declare Conservation Reserves in any area owned by it, particularly those adjacent to National Parks and Sanctuaries and those that link one protected area with another. Such a declaration
should be made after consultations with the local communities.
Community Reserves
The State Government can declare Community Reserves in any private or community land where an
individual or a community has volunteered to conserve wildlife and its habitat. Such land should not be
comprised within a National Park, Sanctuary or Conservation Reserve.
The rights of people living inside a Conservation Reserve and Community Reserve are not affected.
 Protected Area (PA) has been defined in the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. Protected Areas include
National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves.
Sacred Groves
Sacred groves are tracts of forests preserved by ancient societies on religious and cultural grounds. All the
trees and wildlife within were venerated and protected by the communities.
Such sacred groves are found in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, the Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan,
the Western Ghats of Karnataka, and Maharashtra, the Chanda and Bastar areas of Chhattisgarh.
9.2. Ex Situ Conservation
In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken out of their natural habitat and placed in a
unique setting where they can be protected and given special care. Zoological Parks, Botanical Gardens,
Wildlife Safari Parks, and Seed Banks serve this purpose.
Many animals have become extinct in the wild but continue to be maintained in zoological parks. The initial
purpose of zoos was entertainment. Over the decades, zoos have transformed into centres for wildlife conservation (through captive breeding) and environmental education.
In recent years, ex-situ conservation has advanced beyond keeping threatened species. Now gametes of
threatened species can be preserved in viable and fertile conditions for extended periods using cryopreservation techniques. Eggs can be fertilised in vitro, and plants can be propagated using tissue culture. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 113
Seeds of different genetic strains of commercially important plants can be kept for long periods in seed
banks. The National Gene Bank at the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBPGR),
Delhi, is primarily responsible for conserving unique accessions on a long-term basis as base collections for
posterity, predominantly in the form of seeds.
[UPSC 2011-12] Which one of the following is not a site for in-situ method of conservation of
flora?
a) Biosphere Reserves
b) Botanical Garden
c) National Park
d) Wildlife Sanctuary
Explanation:
A botanical garden is a scientifically planned collection of living trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers and other
plants from various parts of the globe. It augments conserving rare and threatened species.
Answer: b) Botanical Garden
9.3. National Initiatives
Wildlife Mitigation Measures – Eco-Bridges
Several underpasses and overpasses (eco-bridges) are being built along NH 44 that cuts through corridors
connecting Kanha, Satpura, Pench, Bandhavgarh and Panna tiger reserves.
Eco-bridges enhance wildlife connectivity in areas disrupted by highways. Usually, these bridges are overlaid with planting to give them a contiguous look with the landscape. Eco-bridges include:
1. canopy bridges (usually for monkeys, squirrels and other arboreal species);
2. concrete underpasses or overpass tunnels or viaducts (usually for larger animals); and
3. amphibian tunnels or culverts.
Quarantine Centres to Check Invasive Species
India has several plant quarantine centres at major airports, seaports, and railway stations. They are under
the control of the Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs, which works in coordination with the
Directorate of Plant Protection and Quarantine Storage (DPPQS).
The import of agricultural products is governed by the Destructive Insects and Pests act, 1914. DPPQS of
Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MAFW) is responsible for the control of invasive
pests/weeds. MAFW has lists of plants whose import is allowed/restricted/banned.
When an agricultural product arrives, customs officials check if it has a phytosanitary certificate. This certificate, showing that the product is without any pest/weed infestation, is issued by the exporting country.
If the product is certified, it is cleared by DPPQS after a sample test. If the product has not been given a
phytosanitary certificate, DPPQS fumigates the product with methyl bromide (gas fumigant for soil-borne
diseases and pests) and issues a phytosanitary certificate.
Issues with the functioning of the quarantine centresWWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 114
 Only half of India’s quarantine centres are functional.
The rest are shut down as the import-export is negligible or because of staff shortage.
 Customs officials often release the cargo without referring it to DPPQS. Nepal, for instance, stopped the
entry of agricultural products from India without a
phytosanitary certificate after the outbreak of acute
encephalitis syndrome in Bihar a year ago.
 Security at India’s quarantine stations is also virtually
non-existent, and items disappear in transit.
Preservation of the Western and Eastern
Ghats
Western and Eastern Ghats play an irreplaceable role
in mediating the monsoon over the country, and the
forests harbour rich biodiversity. Human encroachment, tourism, deforestation, sand mining, iron mining (Goa), etc., pose severe threats to the ecosystem
of the ghats.
Western Ghats
Western Ghats (1,64,280 sq km) runs from Kanyakumari to Gujarat, spanning six states ― Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Gujarat, and
Goa. It exhibits a remarkably high degree of species
endemism. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and
one of the eight “hottest hotspots” of biological diversity in the world.
Eastern Ghats
The Eastern Ghats are spread across ~75,000 sq km
and run from northern Odisha through Andhra Pradesh to Tamil Nadu in the south, passing some parts
of Karnataka and Telangana.
Unlike the Western Ghats, these are discontinuous
hills as they are eroded and cut through by the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers.
Deforestation has made the hills of the Eastern Ghats
barren, and its streams are running dry. Large-scale
plantations of coffee, tea and orchards have been
raised in these hills. Valuable trees like red sanders
(from Seshachalam Hills) are removed illegally.
Madhav Gadgil Committee WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 115
The MoEF constituted the Western Ghats Experts Ecology Panel (WGEEP) in 2010. The Panel submitted its
report in 2011 with a stringent assessment of the condition of the Western Ghats. It was criticised that the
committee failed to balance development and conservation.
The report suggested many radical changes that need to be brought to conserve the Western Ghats. The
recommendations, if implemented, would severely affect the mining mafia, sand mafia and local encroachers.
Recommendations of Gadgil Committee (WGEEP) Report
The report asked for a bottom-to-top approach, i.e., from Gram sabhas to the top. It had recommended
that a massive 64% of the area come under Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA). Within this area, smaller
regions were to be identified as ecologically sensitive zones (ESZ) I, II or III.
 75% would fall under ESZ I or II or already existing protected areas such as natural parks.
 No new dams based on large-scale storage should be permitted in ESZ I.
 No new polluting industries, including thermal power plants, should be allowed in ESZ I and II.
 The existing red and orange category industries should be asked to switch to zero pollution by 2016.
The committee proposed a Western Ghats Ecology Authority with statutory powers to regulate these
activities.
Kasturirangan Committee
Under pressure from various stakeholders, MoEF set up the High-Level Working Group (HLWG) under the
Chairmanship of Dr K. Kasturirangan to study the recommendations of the Gadgil Committee.
The HLWG had diluted many recommendations of WGEEP to satisfy the interests of the various mafia. HLWG
had suggested that 37% (60,000 hectares) of the Western Ghats should be declared as ESA.
Recommendations of the Kasturirangan Committee
 A ban on mining, quarrying and sand mining.
 No new thermal power projects, but hydropower projects are allowed with restrictions.
 A ban on new polluting industries.
 Building and construction projects up to 20,000 sq m were to be allowed, but townships were to be banned.
 Forest diversion could be allowed with extra safeguards.
October 2018 notification
To protect the Western Ghats, the MoEF has notified ~57,000 sq km of the Western Ghats spread along with
six states as ecologically sensitive areas (ESA). The draft notification, if it gets final clearance, will ban
activities such as
 red category industries,
 construction of thermal power plants,
 large scale construction, mining, quarrying, sand mining.
However, hydropower projects, orange category industries and other existing activities will be allowed.
Angry at repeated delays in finalising the Eco-sensitive Zones (ESZ) of the Western Ghats, the NGT has set a
March 2020 deadline for the MoEF. However, the draft notification has not received approval to date.
Historic Citizen Movements
Environmentalist Sundarlal Bahuguna, who led the Chipko and Tehri dam movements, breathed his
last due to COVID-19 in 2021. He is known as the Defender of the Himalayas and Environmental Gandhi. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 116
He protested for the preservation of forests in the Himalayas and led the Chipko Movement in the 1970s
and the Anti- Tehri Dam movement starting in the 1980s. He believed that ‘Ecology is the permanent
economy’.
Chipko Movement
Chipko means ‘To Hug’. It is a social-ecological movement that practised the Gandhian methods of satyagraha and nonviolent resistance through hugging trees to protect them from falling. The first recorded
event occurred in Khejarli Village, Jodhpur, in 1730 AD. 363 Bishnois, led by Amrita Devi, sacrificed their
lives while protecting Khejri trees (the state tree of Rajasthan), considered sacred by the Bishnoi community.
The first Chipko movement in independent India took place in April 1973 in Upper Alakanada valley
(Garhwal Region in Uttarakhand (back then, it was in UP)) when the government had allotted land inside
forest territory to a manufacturer. By the 1980s, the movement had spread throughout India and led to the
formulation of people-sensitive forest policies, which stopped the open felling of trees in regions as farreaching as the Western Ghats.
Role of Sunderlal Bhaguna
Sunderlal Bhaguna travelled 5000 km on foot from village to village, gathering support for the movement.
He had a meeting with Indira Gandhi and that resulted in 15 years ban on cutting green trees in 1980.
Role of Women in the Movement
A woman named Gaura Devi noticed that local loggers are cutting trees in Reni Village. She mobilised
many other women in Reni village and confronted and challenged them to shoot her instead of cutting
trees. Therefore, the Chipko Movement is aptly called as Women’s Movement.
Appiko Movement
Appiko is a local term for Hugging in Kannada. It was inspired by the massive success of the Chipko
Movement in North India. It first started in Karnataka in 1983. It gave birth to a new awareness all over
southern India.
Anti-Tehri Dam Protest
Sunderlal Bahuguna was instrumental in protests against the construction of Teri Dam (Garhwal region,
Uttarakhand). The dam and the floods cause massive damage to downstream public life.
 Tehri Dam is a 2,400-megawatt multipurpose dam on the Bhagirathi River (a tributary of the Ganga in
Uttarakhand). It is India’s tallest dam. It lies in the Himalayas Seismic Gap, a Major fault zone (prone to
landslides and earthquakes).
9.4. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
The UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a legally binding multilateral treaty. It was opened
for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and entered into force in 1993. All UN member
states — except the United States — have ratified the treaty.
With a focus on sustainable development, the convention has three main goals:
1) conservation of biological diversity,
2) sustainable utilisation of its benefits/components, and
3) fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 117
Parties to the Convention: 196 (195 countries and the European Union). (States that have agreed to be bound
by the convention are known as Parties)
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international
agreement adopted in 2000. It entered into force in 2003 and covers the field of biotechnology. It currently
has 173 parties. India has ratified CBD and its Catanga Protocol (signed in Cartagena, Colombia).
Cartagena Protocol aims to ensure the safe handling, transport, and use of living modified organisms
(LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology. It addresses technology development and transfer, benefitsharing and biosafety issues.
Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing
At the 10th Conference of Parties (COP10 2010) to the Convention on Biological Diversity in Nagoya, Japan,
the Nagoya Protocol was adopted. It is the second Protocol (supplementary agreement) to the CBD. It
entered into force in 2014. It presently has 137 parties, including India.
Nagoya Protocol is about “Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits
Arising from their Utilization”, one of the three objectives of the CBD.
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA)
PGRFA is popularly known as the International Seed Treaty. It is an international agreement in harmony
with CBD. It aims at guaranteeing food security through the conservation, exchange, and sustainable use
of the world’s plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, as well as the fair and equitable benefit
sharing arising from its use.
[UPSC 2016] Consider the following pairs:
Terms sometimes in the news Their origin
1) Annex-I Countries Cartagena Protocol
2) Certified Emissions Reductions Nagoya Protocol
3) Clean Development Mechanism Kyoto Protocol
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation:
Annex-I Countries, Clean Development Mechanism, Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) or carbon
credits  Kyoto Protocol.
Answer: c) 3 only
[UPSC 2014] Consider the following international agreements:
1) The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
2) The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
3) The World Heritage Convention WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 118
Which of the above has/have a bearing on the biodiversity?
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only,
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2. and 3
Answer: d) all
Aichi Biodiversity Targets
At CBD COP 12 (2014), parties discussed the implementation of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-
2020 & its Aichi Biodiversity Targets — to be achieved before 2020:
1. Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss.
2. Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use.
3. Goal C: Safeguard ecosystems, species & genetic diversity.
4. Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services.
5. Goal E: Enhance participatory management.
None of the 20 ‘Aichi Biodiversity Targets’ agreed on by national governments through theCBD has been
met, according to CBD’s Global Biodiversity Outlook 5 report.
Sharm El Sheikh Declaration – New Deal for Nature
COP 14 of CBD adopted this declaration in Sharm El city (also called the city of peace) in Egypt. It focuses on
integrating biodiversity into legislative & policy frameworks.
It aims to develop a Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework (after failed Aichi Biodiversity Targets) to
achieve the 2050 vision for biodiversity known as New Deal for Nature — catalyse action from all stakeholders in support of biodiversity conservation.
COP-15 of the UN CBD
CBD COP15 serves as the 10th Meeting of the Parties to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and the 4th
Meeting of the Parties to the Nagoya Protocol on Benefit-sharing.
CBD COP15 was initially scheduled to take place in October 2020 in Kunming, China. It was rescheduled to
December 2022 & moved to Montreal. China & Canada co-hosted it.
CBD COP15 adopted the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework). It sets out four global goals to achieve by 2050, as well as 23 global targets by 2030.
A new Global Biodiversity Framework Fund will be established under the Global Environment Facility. It
targets at least USD 200 billion annually by 2030.
India’s Demands at COP 15
India called for an urgent need to create a new and dedicated fund to help developing countries. So far, the
Global Environment Facility, which caters to multiple conventions, including the UNFCCC and UNCCD,
remains the only funding source for biodiversity conservation.
India also said that biodiversity conservation must be based on ‘Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities’ (CBDR) as climate change also impacts nature.
Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework
4 Global Goals by 2050 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 119
1. Reducing the extinction rate and risk of all species tenfold (by 2050).
2. Biodiversity is sustainably used for achieving sustainable development.
3. Substantially increase fair and equitable benefit-sharing from utilising genetic resources.
4. Adequate finance and technology to implement the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework,
progressively closing the biodiversity finance gap of 700 billion $ annually.
23 Global Targets By 2030
The targets are divided into three broad categories:
1) Reducing threats to biodiversity (by 2030) – 8 Targets
1. Bring biodiversity loss in areas of high biodiversity close to zero.
2. 30×30 Pledge: Restore at least 30% of areas of degraded ecosystems (terrestrial, inland water, coastal,
marine).
3. Conserve at least 30% of ecosystems (terrestrial, coastal, marine), especially areas of high biodiversity.
4. Halt human-induced extinction of known threatened species and significantly reduce extinction risk.
5. Ensure that the harvesting/trade of wild species is sustainable and safe (reducing pathogen spill-over).
6. Reduce invasive alien species by at least 50%.
7. Reduce pollution risks, by 2030, to levels that are not harmful to biodiversity and reduce the nutrients
lost and overall risk from pesticides and hazardous chemicals by 50%.
8. Minimize the impact of climate change and ocean acidification on biodiversity.
2) Meeting people’s needs through sustainable use and benefit-sharing (by 2030) – 5 Targets
1. Sustainable use of wild species.
2. Ensure that areas under agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries, and forestry are managed sustainably.
3. Enhance ecosystem functions and services —pollination, disaster protection, etc.
4. Sustainable urbanisation by increasing green and blue spaces (trees and water bodies).
5. Ensure fair and equitable benefit-sharing for utilising genetic resources and information.
3) Tools and solutions for implementation and mainstreaming (by 2030) – 10 Targets
1. Ensure the full integration of biodiversity into policies, planning, national accounting, etc.
2. Take measures to encourage corporations to reduce negative impacts on biodiversity.
3. Ensure sustainable consumption choices and reduce overconsumption, food waste, etc.
4. Strengthen the handling of biotechnology and biosafety measures in CBD.
5. Phase out subsidies harmful to biodiversity and reduce them by at least USD 500 billion annually.
6. Increase finance by 2030 by mobilising at least 200 billion $ per year. Wealthier countries should contribute at least 20 billion $ of this annually by 2025 and at least 30 billion $ annually by 2030.
7. Ensure the transfer of technology and scientific cooperation.
8. Ensure the best available data, information, and knowledge for decision-makers.
9. Ensure social and gender-responsive representation and participation in decision-making.
10. Ensure gender equality in the implementation of the framework.
9.5. Other International Efforts
Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration (GPFLR) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 120
GPFLR is a global network initiated by IUCN to unite governments, organizations, communities, etc. working
towards a common goal: to restore the world’s lost and degraded forests and their surrounding landscapes.
Specifically, the GPFLR responds directly to the Bonn Challenge to restore 150 million hectares of deforested and degraded land by 2020 and 350 million hectares by 2030.
Bonn Challenge
The Bonn Challenge, launched in 2011 by the Government of Germany and IUCN, aimed to restore 150
million hectares of deforested and degraded land by 2020.
In 2014, at the UN Climate Summit, countries extended this target to 350 mha by 2030 under the New York
Declaration on Forests — a voluntary and non-binding international declaration to take action to halt
global deforestation.
At the UNFCCC 2015 in Paris, India joined the voluntary Bonn Challenge. It pledged to restore 13 million
hectares of degraded and deforested land by 2020 and an additional 8 mha by 2030 (21 mha in total
by 2030). This was raised to a target of 26 mha by 2030 during the UNCCD 2019 conference held in Delhi.
[UPSC 2021] With reference to the ‘New York Declaration on Forests,’ which of the following
statements are correct?
1) It was first endorsed at the United Nations Climate Summit in 2014.
2) It endorses a global timeline to end the loss of forests.
3) It is a legally binding international declaration.
4) It is endorsed by governments, big companies and indigenous communities.
5) India was one of the signatories at its inception.
Select the Correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1, 2 and 4
b) 1, 3 and 5
c) 3 and 4
d) 2 and 5
Explanation:
The New York Declaration on Forests (NYDF) is a political declaration calling for global action to
protect and restore forests. It was adopted in 2014 at UN Secretary-General’s Climate Summit. It offers
a common, multi-stakeholder framework for forest action. India did not sign the declaration citing that
the trade is being interlinked with climate change and forest issues by NYDF.
NYDF’s ten goals include halting natural forest loss by 2030, restoring 350 million hectares of degraded landscapes and forestlands, improving governance, increasing forest finance, and reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation as part of a post-2020 global climate agreement.
Answer: a) 1, 2 and 4 only
Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR)
IUCN and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) coined the term FLR in 2000. FLR is a planned process
that aims to regain ecological integrity and enhance human well-being in deforested and degraded
landscapes. FLR is not site-based but is applied across large areas. FLR has received global attention since
2011, after the launching of the Bonn Challenge. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 121
The seven guiding principles of FLR are:
1. Maintain natural ecosystems.
2. Focus on entire landscapes rather than individual sites.
3. Enhances the conservation, recovery, and sustainable management of forests.
4. Actively engages all stakeholders.
5. Adopts traditional and indigenous knowledge.
6. Restore multiple ecological, social, & economic functions.
7. Manage adaptively for long-term resilience.
Mains Practice: What do you understand by Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR)? While identifying the principles of FLR enumerate the initiatives taken by the Government to restore India’s Forest and Tree Cover..
Briefly define Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) approach and its underlying principles.
Concisely explain how FLR is different from conventional forest conversation methods.
Integrated Landscape Management: Inclusive approach (engaging all stakeholders) → Collaborative community-linked plans → Integrated resource management (Resource Optimization) → Sustainable development.
Enumerate the efforts taken by the government: National Afforestation Programme (NAP), National
Mission for a Green India (Green India Mission – NAPCC), National Forest Policy 1988, Joint Forest
Management (JFM), Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority
(CAMPA), Green Highway Policy 2015, Policy for enhancement of Urban Greens, Bonn Challenge,
National Agroforestry Policy, and Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF), etc.
World Forestry Congress and Seoul Declaration
XV (15th) World Forestry Congress (WFC) was hosted in Seoul by the Korea Forest Service and FAO. It was
the second World Forestry Congress held in Asia, with Indonesia hosting the first congress in Asia in 1978.
Theme: Building a Green, Healthy and Resilient Future with Forests.
WFC is the largest gathering of the world’s forestry sector. It has been held every six years since 1926 under
the auspices of FAO and organised by the government of the host country. It is a forum for the sharing of
knowledge and experience.
The Seoul Declaration stressed the transition towards a circular bioeconomy (basic building blocks for
materials, chemicals, and energy are derived from renewable biological resources) and achieving climate
neutrality.
Prelims Practice: “Seoul Declaration”, which was in the news recently, is related to?
a) Universal Declaration of Human Rights
b) WTO agreement on reducing subsidies
c) World Forestry Congress
d) Freedom of the Press
Explanation: WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 122
Seoul Declaration was adopted at the XV World Forestry Congress, held in Seoul, South Korea. Its
theme was Building a Green, Healthy and Resilient Future with Forests. Hence option (c) is the correct answer.
Prelims Practice: Recently AFFIRM and SAFE initiatives were in news. They are related to?
a) Forest management
b) Wildlife protection
c) Human trafficking
d) Wetlands
Explanation:
Assuring the Future of Forests with Integrated Risk Management (AFFIRM) Mechanism and Sustaining an Abundance of Forest Ecosystems (SAFE) Initiative were among important initiatives undertaken
during the XV World Forestry Congress, held in Seoul, South Korea. Hence option (a) is the correct
answer.
Initiatives By The UN
United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests 2017–2030
The Strategic Plan, forged at UN Forum on Forests held in 2017 and adopted by the UN General Assembly,
features six Global Forest Goals and 26 associated targets to be reached by 2030, which are voluntary and
universal. It includes a target to increase forest area by 3% worldwide by 2030, signifying an increase of
120 million hectares.
Decade on Ecosystem Restoration
The United Nations General Assembly has proclaimed 2021–2030 as the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. UNEP, FAO and many partners across the planet will work towards 2021-2030 ecosystem restoration.
The Work planned for 2021–2030 will contribute to achieving targets set by international conventions and
agreements, such as:
 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,
 Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2020, Aichi Targets,
 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change,
 Paris Agreement,
 UN Convention to Combat Desertification and Land Degradation Neutrality LND,
 Ramsar Convention,
 Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration,
 Global Restoration Council and the UN Strategic Plan for Forests 2017– 2030.
Biodiversity Finance Initiative (BIOFIN)
BIOFIN was launched by UNDP in 2012. It aims to fill the biodiversity finance gap at the national level. It
helps in implementing the National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP) and making progress towards achieving the National Biodiversity Targets (NBTs).
BIOFIN in India is hosted by the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA – MoEF), working with relevant State
Biodiversity Boards, with technical assistance from Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and the National Institute of Public Finance and Policy (NIPFP). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 123
UNESCO World Heritage Sites
UNESCO adopted World Heritage Convention, an international treaty, in 1972. It provides a framework for
international cooperation in preserving and protecting cultural treasures and natural areas (including
those of exceptional biodiversity).
The convention defines the kind of sites which can be considered for inscription to the World Heritage list.
It sets out the duties of the State Parties in identifying potential sites and their role in protecting them.
World Heritage Sites means “Sites any of various areas or objects inscribed on the United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage List”. The sites are designated as having outstanding universal value concerning the Protection of the World Cultural (ancient monuments, museums) and Natural Heritage (biodiversity, geological heritage).
UNESCO has a set of ten criteria. Nominated sites (both cultural and natural) must be of “outstanding universal value” and must meet at least one of the ten criteria.
Natural heritage sites are restricted to those natural areas that
1) furnish outstanding examples of the earth’s record of life or its geologic processes.
2) provide excellent examples of ongoing ecological and biological evolutionary processes.
3) contain natural phenomena that are rare, unique, superlative, or of outstanding beauty.
4) furnish habitats or rare endangered animals or plants or are sites of exceptional biodiversity.

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Wildlife Conservation

Conservation generally means judicious use of biotic and abiotic resources. It involves the prevention of
wasteful and/or harmful utilisation of resources. Wildlife conservation refers to protecting wild species and
their habitats to keep the natural ecosystems healthy.
10.1. Regulating Trade in Wildlife
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES)
CITES, also known as the Washington Convention, is an international agreement (multilateral treaty) between governments to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not
threaten their survival. It was drafted due to a resolution adopted by members of IUCN in 1963. It entered
into force in 1975.
Parties to CITES
CITES is legally binding on the Parties (184 (including EU)). However, it does not take the place of national laws. It only provides a framework to be respected by each Party. The parties need to adopt their
own domestic legislation to ensure that CITES is implemented at the national level.
[UPSC 2015] With reference to the IUCN and the CITES, which of the following statements
is/are correct?
1) IUCN is an organ of the United Nations and CITES is an international agreement between governments.
2) IUCN runs thousands of field projects around the world to better manage natural environments.
3) CITES is legally binding on the States that have joined it, but this convention does not take the place of
national laws.
Select the correct using the code given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation:
IUCN is an NGO. CITES is an international agreement between governments (multilateral treaty).
Answer: b) 2 and 3 only
Conference of Parties to CITES (CoP)
The CITES CoP (World Wildlife Conference) is where parties convene every two to three years to review
and decide on regulating trade in endangered species. The CoP will decide on proposals to list, remove, or
change species listing on the CITES appendices.
Functioning of CITES
CITES works by subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species to specific controls. All
import and export of species covered by CITES must be authorised through a licensing system. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 125
Each Party designates one or more Management Authorities for administering the licensing system and
one or more Scientific Authorities to advise them on the effects of trade on the status of the species.
 Management Authority in India: Director of Wildlife Preservation, MoEFCC.
 Management Authorities competent to grant permits: Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB).
 Scientific Authorities: Zoological Survey of India, Botanical Survey of India, Wildlife Institute of India, etc.
The protection offered to species by CITES
The species covered by CITES are listed in three Appendices according to the required degree of protection:
1. Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction. Trade in specimens of these species is permitted
only in exceptional circumstances — like for captive breeding. (Legal international trade of the species
does not take for commercial purposes)
2. Appendix II includes species not necessarily threatened with extinction but in which trade must be controlled to avoid utilisation incompatible with their survival.
3. Appendix III contains species protected in at least one country which has asked other CITES Parties for
assistance in controlling the trade.
At each regular meeting of the CoP, Parties submit proposals to amend Appendices I and II. Those amendment proposals are discussed and then submitted for a vote.
The 18th Conference of the Parties to CITES (CoP18)
In CoP18, held in Geneva, Switzerland, in 2019, India submitted proposals
 to move Smooth-Coated Otter (VU), Small-Clawed Otter (VU), Indian Star Tortoise (VU), Tokay Gecko (LC)
and Wedgefish (CR) from Appendix II to Appendix I.
 to remove Indian Rosewood (VU) from Appendix II.
In 2019, Star tortoise (VU), Asian Small-Clawed (VU) and Smooth-Coated Otters (VU) were moved to
Appendix I. A complete ban was enforced on their trade.
19th Conference of the Parties to CITES (CoP19)
CoP19 was held in Panama in November 2022. 52 proposals have been put forward that would affect the
regulations on international trade for sharks, reptiles, elephants, turtles, etc.
Operation Turtshield, India’s efforts to curb turtle wildlife crime was acknowledged at CoP19.
First World Wildlife Trade Report was released at the COP19. It gave insights into the international trade
in animals and plants regulated under the CITES treaty. According to the report, majority of CITES-regulated
trade involved artificially propagated (for plants) or captive-produced (for animals bred or born in captivity) species. Only 18% of all trade involved wild-sourced species (which are dominated by plants).
India’s Proposals
India proposed moving the Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle (Batagur kachuga – CR) and Leith’s softshell
turtle (Nilssonia leithii – CR) from Appendix II to I.
India’s proposal to include the Jeypore Ground (Indian) Gecko (EN) in Appendix II was adopted by the
members of the CITES Working Group.
Jeypore Ground (Indian) Gecko (EN)
The wild reptile species is endemic to the Eastern Ghats and is known to be present in a handful of locations
in southern Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh. The species resides below rock boulders in high forested
hills at an altitude of 1,100-1,400 metres. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 126
Threats: international pet trade, habitat loss and degradation, forest fires, tourism, quarrying, mining, etc.
IUCN Red List: EN | CITES: NA | WPA: NA
North Indian Rosewood/Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo)
Shisham (LC) is found in abundance in India. However, it is included in CITES Appendix II because of the
challenges in distinguishing different species of genus Dalbergia in their finished forms.
As of now, every shisham consignment of weight above 10 kg requires a CITES permit. Due to this restriction, exports of furniture and handicrafts made of shisham from India have continuously fallen.
On India’s initiative at CoP19, it was agreed that any number of shisham timber-based items of weight
less than 10kg could be exported as a single consignment without CITES permits. Further, it was agreed
that for the net weight of each item, only shisham timber used would be considered.
 India has two species of Dalbergia — D. latifolia or Indian rosewood (VU), and D. sissoo or North
Indian rosewood/Shisham (LC). (Both are in CITES: App. II | WPA: NA)
D. latifolia/Indian Rosewood (VU) D. sissoo/North Indian Rosewood/Shisham (LC)
Large evergreen tree native to low-elevation monsoon forests of south India. Its drier subpopulations are deciduous.
Fast-growing, hardy, medium to large deciduous
tree native to the foothills of the Himalayas.
The tree produces a hard, durable, heavy wood that
is durable and resistant to rot and insects.
Its timber is less valuable because of its abundance.
Other Proposals
Thelenota (Sea Cucumbers) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 127
The EU proposed three species under genus Thelenota (sea cucumbers) to be included in Appendix II.
CoP19 accepted the proposal. Sea cucumbers were one of the most frequently trafficked marine species from
coastal India.
Ivory Trade
The ivory trade was banned globally in 1989 when all African elephant populations were put in CITES Appendix I. However, the African elephants of South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe were later transferred to Appendix II to allow one-time sales of ivory accumulated from deaths and poacher seizures. The
endangered Asian elephant was included in CITES Appendix I in 1975, which banned the export of ivory from
the Asian range countries.
In CoP18, Zambia floated a proposal to downlist its elephants from Appendix I to Appendix II, which in
effect, would have meant resuming the sale of its ivory stockpile. CoP rejected the proposal. India had
abstained from voting against a similar proposal at CoP19.
CITES Tiger Enforcement Task Force
CoP19 has proposed a tentative budget of $150,000 for the Big Cat Task Force. The objective of the task
force is to curb illegal trade in big cats like lions, tigers, leopards, cheetahs, etc, in their range.
Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE)
MIKE is an international collaboration that measures the trends and causes of elephant mortality. It was
established by a CITES Resolution adopted in 1997. One of the core mandates is to build capacity in elephant range States.
MIKE’s information base is used to support international decision-making related to the conservation of
elephants in Asia and Africa. The information and analyses are also presented at annual CITES meetings.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 128
There are currently 28 sites participating in the MIKE programme in Asia, distributed across 13 countries.
India has 10 MIKE sites, followed by two sites each in Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar
and Thailand, and one site each in Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Vietnam.
In 2017, IUCN was engaged by CITES to implement the MIKE Asia programme in two sub-regions:
 South Asia – Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal & Sri Lanka
 Southeast Asia – Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam.
MIKE is entirely dependent on donor support. The EEU has been the most important donor for the MIKE
programme in Africa since 2001 and in Asia since 2017.
The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC)
TRAFFIC is an NGO (CITES, on the other hand, is a multilateral treaty) founded in 1976 as a joint programme of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and IUCN. Its headquarters is in Cambridge, UK.
TRAFFIC is complementary to CITES. Its mission is to ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is not a
threat to the conservation of nature. It investigates wildlife trade trends, patterns, impacts and drivers to
provide the leading knowledge base on trade in wild animals and plants.
[UPSC 2017] Consider the following statements in respect of TRAFFIC:
1. TRAFFIC is a bureau under United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
2. The mission of TRAFFIC is to ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat to the conservation of nature.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: b)
Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT)
CAWT is a coalition that promises to collaborate in the fight against illegal trade in wildlife and wildlife
parts. It is a US-led Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT) launched in 2005. India is a member.
CAWT’s initial partners include:
 Conservation International
 Save the Tiger Fund
 Smithsonian Institution
 TRAFFIC International
10.2. Policies/Laws Concerning CITES in India
International trade in all wild fauna and flora is regulated jointly through the provisions of the
 Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972,
 Foreign Trade (Development Regulation) Act 1992,
 Foreign Trade Policy of Government of India and
 Customs Act, 1962. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 129
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
Harming endangered species listed in Schedule I of the Act is prohibited throughout India.
Hunting species that require special protection (Schedule II), big game (Schedule III), and small game
(Schedule IV) is regulated through licensing.
A few species classified as vermin (Schedule V) may be hunted without restrictions.
The act prohibits the trade and cultivation in specified plants (Schedule VI) from an area specified by
notification by GOI. A license is a must to cultivate such plants.
Schedule VI lists all the six plants of Indian origin included in CITES appendices — beddomes’ cycad,
blue vanda, red vanda, kuth, slipper orchids and pitcher plant.
Trade in Scheduled animals (Schedule I and Part II of Schedule II) are prohibited under the act.
The act disallows trade in all kinds of imported ivory. In 1986, India banned domestic sales of ivory.
After the ivory trade was banned globally, India again amended the act to ban the import of African ivory.
The act has been amended in 2006, for establishing the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) &
the Wild Life Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) with statutory backing.
Policies Regulating Foreign Trade
Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act 1992
No export or import should be made except in accordance with the provisions of this act. The act empowers
GOI to make provisions for prohibiting/regulating the import or export of any class of goods, which includes
wildlife specimen and their products.
Foreign Trade Policy (2009-2014)
Foreign Trade Policy announced periodically by the Ministry of Commerce contains information regarding
the wildlife and wildlife products which are prohibited/permitted for the purpose of import or export.
The policy is decided in consultation with the Management Authority for CITES in India as far as matter
relating to wild fauna and flora are concerned and is enforced through the Customs Act, 1962.
EXIM Policy
Export/import of wild animals and plants, their parts and products is allowed for the purpose of research
and exchange between Zoos, subject to licensing by the Director-General of Foreign Trade (DGFT). The
current policy does not permit the commercial import of African ivory in view of the ban imposed by CITES.
Import of other derivatives of wildlife is restricted and can be made only with the prior permission of DGFT.
The import of wild animals as pets is also subject to the provisions of CITES.
Enforcement: Wildlife Crime Control Bureau
Considering the seriousness of Wildlife Crime and the illegal trade of wildlife parts and products, the Wildlife
Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) was created in 2007 under the provisions of the Wildlife Protection Act
1972. It is the designated nodal agency for CITES related enforcement.
WCCB is a statutory body under the MoEFCC. It has its five regional offices at Delhi (headquarters), Kolkata,
Mumbai, Chennai and Jabalpur; and five border units at Ramanathapuram, Gorakhpur, Motihari, Nathula and
Moreh.
Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 mandates WCCB is to WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 130
 collect and collate intelligence related to organized wildlife crime; disseminate the same to State and
other enforcement agencies;
 to establish a centralized wildlife crime data bank;
 coordinate actions by various agencies in connection with the enforcement of the provisions of the act;
 assist international organizations and foreign authorities to facilitate wildlife crime control;
 capacity building of the wildlife crime enforcement agencie

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

India State of Forest Report 2021

Every two years, the Forest Survey of India assesses the country’s forest resources. The results are presented
as the ‘India State of Forest Report (ISFR – biennial report)’. Since 1987, 16 such assessments have been
completed, and the 2021 assessment is the 17th in the series.
Sustainable Development Goals and Forests
11.1. Forest Survey of India (FSI)
Forest Survey of India (FSI) is a national organisation under MoEF. It was established in 1981 at Dehradun.
It is responsible for the assessment and monitoring of the forest resources of the country.
Objectives of FSI
To prepare State of Forest Report biennially.
To conduct inventory assessments in forest and non-forest areas and develop a database on forest resources.
To function as a nodal agency for collecting and disseminating spatial databases on forest resources.
To conduct training of forestry personnel in the application of remote sensing, GIS, etc.
To support State/UT Forest Departments (SFD) in forest resources survey, mapping, and inventory.
The Major Activities of FSI
1. Remote sensing based nationwide forest cover mapping in a biennial cycle,
2. National forest inventory,
3. Forest fire monitoring,
4. Forest carbon assessment,
5. Forest type mapping and projects on emerging issues.
FSI undertakes National Forest Inventory to assess the growing stock in Forests and Trees Outside Forests (TOF), bamboo resources, carbon stock and other parameters.
11.2. Major Terms/Definitions in ISFR
Recorded Forest Area (RFA)  any lands notified as forest under any Government Act or Rules. (A RFA
may or may not have a forest!)
Tree Cover  all patches of trees less than 1 ha outside RFA. (Canopy density does not matter) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 180
Tress Outside Forests (TOF)  all trees outside RFA irrespective of patch size. (Tree Cover is a subset
of TOF)
Forest Cover  all patches of land with a tree canopy density of more than 10% (OF, MDF and VDF)
and more than 1 ha in area, irrespective of land use (agroforestry, compensatory forestry), ownership
(public or private), and species of trees (it can even be a plantation!).
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 181
 Recorded Forest Area (RFA)  Any land that the government calls a forest area
 Tree Cover  less than 1 ha + outside RFA
 Trees Outside Forests (TOF)  Any tree outside RFA
 Forest cover  more than 1 ha + tree canopy density ≥10%
In RFAs, there are areas with a density of less than 10% and some even without trees. On the other hand,
there are areas outside the RFA with tree stands of more than 10% canopy density and size 1 ha or
more, such areas also constitute forest cover. Therefore, the change in the forest cover is not necessarily
due to changes within the RFA but also outside RFA.
11.3. Status of India’s Forest Resources in 2021 (ISFR 2021)
[UPSC 2020] Examine the status of forest resources of India and its resultant impact on climate change. (250words)
Forest and Tree Cover of India
Class
(GA: Geographical Area)
ISFR 2019 ISFR 2021
Area
(km2
)
% of GA Area
(km2
)
% of GA
Very Dense Forest (VDF – tree canopy density ≥ 70%)
Moderately Dense Forest (MDF – tree canopy density ≥
40% but < 70%)
Open Forest (OF – tree canopy density ≥ 10% but < 40%)
99278
3,08,472
3,04,499
3.02
9.38
9.26
99,779
3,06,890
3,07,120
3.04 (↑)
9.33 (↓)
9.34 (↑)
Total Forest Cover (Mangroves + VDF + MDF + OF) 7,12,249 21.67 7,13,789 21.71 (↑)
Tree Cover 95,027 2.89 95,748 2.91 (↑)
Total Forest and Tree Cover 8,07,276 24.56 8,09,537 24.62 (↑)
Scrub (forest with canopy density < 10%) 46,297 1.41 46,539 1.42 (↑)
Non-Forest (Tree Cover + Water Bodies + Land not under
Forest Cover)
25,28,923 76.92 25,27,141 76.87 (↓)
Total Geographic Area 32,87,269 100 32,87,469 100
VDF and MDF constitute 57 per cent of the total Forest Cover. (VDF + MDF > OF)
Forest Cover
State/UT
GA: Geographical Area; Area is in sq
km
2021 Forest Cover in sq km Total % of
GA
%
Change
w.r.t
2019
VDF MDF OF
1 Madhya Pradesh 6,665 34,209 36,619 77,493 25 (20) 11
2 Arunachal Pradesh 21,058 30,176 15,197 66,431 79 (4) -257
3 Chhattisgarh 7,068 32,279 16,370 55,717 41 (13) 106
4 Odisha 7,213 20,995 23,948 52,156 34 (17) 537
5 Maharashtra 8,734 20,589 21,475 50,798 17 (27) 20
6 Karnataka 4,533 20,985 13,212 38,730 20 (22) 155 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 182
7 Andhra Pradesh 1,994 13,929 13,861 29,784 18 (26) 647
8 Assam 3,017 9,991 15,304 28,312 36 (16) -15
9 Tamil Nadu 3,593 11,034 11,792 26,419 20 (21) 55
10 Uttarakhand 5,055 12,768 6,482 24,305 45 (12) 2
11
12
13
Jharkhand 2,601 9,689 11,431 23,721 30 (18) 110
Jammu and Kashmir 4,155 8,117 9,115 21,387 39 (14) 29
Kerala 1,944 9,472 9,837 21,253 55 (10) 109
14 Telangana 1,624 9,119 10,471 21,214 19 (25) 632
15 Mizoram 157 5,715 11,948 17,820 85 (2) -186
16 Meghalaya 560 9,160 7,326 17,046 76 (5) -73
17 West Bengal 3,037 4,208 9,587 16,832 19 (24) -70
18 Rajasthan 78 4,369 12,208 16,655 5 (33) 25
19 Manipur 905 6,228 9,465 16,598 74 (6) -249
20 Himachal Pradesh 3,163 7,100 5,180 15,443 28 (19) 9
21 Gujarat 378 5,032 9,516 14,926 8 (31) 69
22 Uttar Pradesh 2,627 4,029 8,162 14,818 6 (32) 12
23 Nagaland 1,272 4,449 6,530 12,251 74 (7) -235
24 Tripura 647 5,212 1,863 7,722 74 (8) -4
25 Bihar 333 3,286 3,762 7,381 8 (30) 75
26 A and N Islands 5,678 683 383 6,744 82 (3) 1
27 Sikkim 1,102 1,551 688 3,341 47 (11) -1
28 Ladakh 2 512 1,758 2,272 1 (36) 18
29 Goa 538 576 1,130 2,244 61 (9) 7
30 Punjab 11 793 1,043 1,847 4 (34) -2
31 Haryana 28 445 1,130 1,603 4 (35) 1
32 Dadra-NH and Daman-Diu 1 86 141 228 38 (15) 0
33 Delhi 7 57 132 195 13 (28) 0
34 Puducherry 0 18 36 53 11 (29) 1
35 Lakshadweep 0 16 11 27 90 (1) 0
36 Chandigarh 1 14 8 23 20 (23) 1
Total in 2019 99,278 3,08,472 3,04,499 7,12,249 21.67 0.56
Total in 2021 99,779
(↑)
306,890
(↓)
307,120
(↑)
7,13,789
(↑)
21.71
(↑) 0.22 (↓)
 FC as a percentage of GA: Lakshadweep (90%), Mizoram (85%), A&N Islands (82%), Arunachal Pradesh
(79%), Meghalaya (76%), Manipur (74%), Nagaland (74%), Tripura (74%), Goa (61%), Kerala (55%), etc.
 FC as a percentage of GA among NE States: Mizoram (85%), Arunachal Pradesh (79%), Meghalaya
(76%), Manipur (74%), Nagaland (74%), Tripura (74%), Sikkim (47%) and Assam (36%).
 FC as a % of GA among non-NE States: Goa (61%), Kerala (55%), Uttarakhand (45%), Chhattisgarh (41%),
Assam (36%), Odisha (34%), Jharkhand (30%), HP (28%), MP (25%), TN (20%), Karnataka (20%), Chandigarh WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 183
(20%), WB (19%), Telangana (19%), AP (18%), Maharashtra (17%), Bihar (8%), Gujarat (8%), UP (6%), Rajasthan (5%), Punjab (4%) and Haryana (4%).
 FC as a percentage of GA among non-NE and non-Himalayan States: Goa (61%), Kerala (55%),
Chhattisgarh (41%), Odisha (34%), Jharkhand (30%), Madhya Pradesh (25%), etc.
 Sates with a positive change in FC: Andhra Pradesh (647 sq km), Telangana, Odisha, Karnataka and Jharkhand (110 sq km).
 States with a negative change in FC: Arunachal Pradesh (257 sq km), Manipur, Nagaland, Mizoram &
Meghalaya (73 sq km).
Forest cover in the NE region is 1,69,521 sq. km (64.66% of the GA), a decrease of 1,020 sq. km.
Forest cover in the 140 hill districts is 2,83,104 sq. km( 40.17% of the GA), a decrease of 902 sq. km.
Forest cover in the tribal districts is 4,22,296 sq. km (37.53% of the GA), a decrease of 655 sq. km of forest
cover inside the RFA in the tribal districts and an increase of 600 sq. km outside.
Forest Cover in the seven major cities is 509.72 sq km which is 10.21% of the total geographical area of the
cities. Delhi has the largest Forest Cover (194 sq km), followed by Mumbai (111 sq km), Bengaluru (89 sq
km), Hyderabad (82 sq km), Chennai (23 sq km), Ahmedabad (9.4 sq km) and Kolkata (1.7 sq km).
Maximum gain in Forest Cover is seen in Hyderabad (48.66 sq km) followed by Delhi (19.91 sq km). At the
same time, Ahmedabad and Bengaluru have lost Forest Cover of 8.55 sq km and 4.98 sq km, respectively.
Q. Consider the following states :
1. Chhattisgarh
2. Madhya Pradesh
3. Maharashtra
4. Odisha
With reference to the states mentioned above, in terms of percentage of forest cover to the
total area of State, which one of the following is the correct ascending order?
a) 2-3-1-4
b) 2-3-4-1
c) 3-2-4-1
d) 3-2-1-4
Answer: c) 3-2-4-1
Recorded Forest Area (RFA)
RFA (extent of forest in terms of legal status) primarily consists of Reserved Forests (RF) and Protected
Forests (PF), which have been constituted under the provisions of the Indian Forest Act 1927 or its counterpart State Acts.
The term RFA is used for all lands (irrespective of tree cover or canopy density) which have been notified
as forest under any Government Act or Rules or recorded as ‘forest’ in the Government records (RFs,
PFs, lands classified as forest in revenue records). That is, a RFA may or may not have forest cover!
Forest Cover and Recorded Forest Area overlap, but they are not coterminous. FSI obtains boundaries of
recorded forest areas from the State Forest Departments (SFD), as the SFDs are the custodians of the
RFAs. The Forest Advisory Committee (FAC), the apex body of the Centre that deliberates on granting WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 184
permission to industry to fell forests, said, “… States, having well-established Forest Departments should
frame criteria for their forests… criteria so finalised by a State need not be subject to approval by the MoEF”.
Deemed Forests
The freedom to define which tracts of forest qualify as RFA has been the prerogative of States since 1996.
Deemed forests, which comprise about 1% of India’s forest land, are a controversial subject as they
refer to land tracts that appear to be a forest but have not been notified so by the state government.
Recorded Forest Areas (RFAs) in States and UTs
S.No. State/ UT RFA (in different categories) Total RFA
(2021)
% of GA
RF PF Unclassed
1. Madhya Pradesh 61886 (1) 31098 (1) 1705 94689 30.72
2. Maharashtra 50865 (2) 6433 4654 61952 20.13
3. Odisha 36049 (3) 25133 (3) 22 61204 39.31
4. Chhattisgarh 25897 24036 9883 (3) 59816 44.25 (9)
5. Arunachal Pradesh 12371 11857 27312 (1) 51540 61.55 (6)
6. Karnataka 28690 3931 5663 38284 19.96
7. Uttarakhand 26547 9885 1568 38000 71.05 (4)
8. Himachal Pradesh 1883 28887 (2) 7178 37948 68.16 (5)
9. Andhra Pradesh 31959 5069 230 37258 22.86
10. Rajasthan 12176 18543 2144 32863 9.6
11. Telangana 25800 1592 296 27688 24.7
12. Assam 17864 0 8972 26836 34.21
13. Jharkhand 4500 18922 1696 25118 31.51
14. Tamil Nadu 20523 1053 1612 23188 17.83
15. Gujarat 14574 2898 4398 21870 11.14
16. J&K 17648 2551 0 20199 36.98
17. Manipur 984 3254 13180 (2) 17418 78.01 (3)
18. Uttar Pradesh 11560 296 5528 17384 7.22
19. West Bengal 7054 3772 1053 11879 13.38
20. Kerala 11522 0 0 11522 29.66
21. Meghalaya 1113 12 8371 9496 42.34 (10)
22. Nagaland 234 0 8389 8623 52.01 (8)
23. Mizoram 4499 1823 1157 7479 35.48
24. Bihar 693 6183 566 7442 7.9
25. Andaman and Nicobar
Is.
5613 1558 0 7171 86.93 (1)
26. Tripura 3588 2 2704 6294 60.02 (7)
27. Sikkim 5452 389 0 5841 82.31 (2)
28. Punjab 44 1137 1903 3084 6.12
29. Haryana 249 1158 152 1559 3.53 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 185
30. Goa 119 755 397 1271 34.33
31. Dadra-NH and DamanDiu
203 5 6 214 35.55
32. Delhi 78 25 0 103 6.95
33. Chandigarh 32 0 3 35 30.7
34. Puducherry 0 2 11 13 2.65
35. Ladakh 7 0 0 7 0
36. Lakshadweep 0 0 0 0 0
Total in 2019 434,853 218,924 113,642 767,419 23.34
Total in 2021 4,42,276 (↑) 2,12,259 (↓) 1,20,753 (↑) 7,75,288 (↑) 23.58 (↑)
 RFA as a % of GA: A&N (87%), Sikkim (82%), Manipur (78%), Uttarakhand (71%), HP (68%), Arunachal
Pradesh (62%), etc.
 RFA as a percentage of GA among NE States: Sikkim (82%), Manipur (78%), Arunachal Pradesh (62%),
Tripura (60%), Nagaland (52%), Meghalaya (42%), Mizoram (35) and Assam (34%).
 RFA as a percentage of GA among non-NE States: Uttarakhand (71%), HP (68%), Chhattisgarh (44%),
Odisha (39%), etc.
 RFA as a percentage of GA among non-NE and non-Himalayan States: Chhattisgarh (44%), Odisha
(39%), etc.
Tree Cover
Tree cover includes all patches of trees occurring outside RFA which are of size less than 1 ha. Forest
cover and tree cover together are called Forest and Tree Cover. It is the parameter for monitoring progress
against the National Forest Policy goal of 33% of the country’s geographical area under forests.
The total tree cover of the country has been estimated at 95,748 sq km (a slight increase since 2019).
States/UTs having maximum tree cover are Maharashtra (12,108 sq km), Rajasthan (8,733 sq km), and
Madhya Pradesh.
Considering the percentage of the geographical area of States/UTs, the UT of Chandigarh shows the highest
percentage of tree cover (13.16%) followed by Delhi (9.91%) and Kerala (7.26%).
Tress Outside Forests (TOF)
TOF refers to all trees outside RFA irrespective of patch size, which could also be larger than 1 ha. Thus,
tree cover is a subset of TOF. Maharashtra (26,866 sq km) has the largest extent of TOF, followed by Odisha.
In terms of the percentage of GA, the UT of Lakshadweep (90%) has the highest percentage of TOF, followed
by Kerala (37%).
Fire Proneness
More than 36% of India’s forest cover is prone to frequent forest fires, nearly 4% is extremely prone, and
6% is very high fire-prone.
The MoEF formulated the National Action Plan on Forest Fires (NAPFF) in 2018 to minimise forest fires by
empowering forest fringe communities and incentivising them to work in tandem with the State Forest Departments (SFDs). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 186
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 187
Mangrove Cover
GA: Geographic area in sq km; VDM: Very Dense Mangrove; MDM: Moderately Dense Mangrove; OM: Open
Mangrove
 South 24 Parganas district of West Bengal alone accounts for 47.74 %Mangrove cover of the country.
 The mangrove cover in the country has increased by 364 sq. km. in 2021 as compared to 2013.
Criticism of FSI’s approach and ISFR
State/UT VDM MDM OM GA
1 West Bengal 994 (1) 692 428 2114 (↑)
2 Gujarat 0 169 1006 1175 (↓)
3 A&N Islands 399 (2) 168 49 616
4 Andhra Pradesh 0 213 192 405 (↑)
5 Maharashtra 0 90 234 324 (↑)
6 Odisha 81 (3) 94 84 259 (↑)
7 Tamil Nadu 1 27 17 45
8 Goa 0 21 6 27 (↑)
9 Karnataka 0 2 11 13 (↑)
10 Kerala 0 5 4 9
11 D&NH and D&D 0 0 3 3
12 Puducherry 0 0 2 2
Total in 2019 1,476 1,479 2,020 4,975
Total in 2021 1,475 (↓) 1,481 (↑) 2,036 (↑) 4,992 (↑)
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 188
Criticism of the definition of ‘Forest Cover’
Under the current definition of ‘forest cover’ a rubber plantation or any other planantion of 1 ha or more
can be considered as a forest. This gives a false impression of the state of forests as the ecological importance of plantations is well below that of a natural forest.
Unlike the roots of trees in a natural forest, the roots of plantation crops don’t run deep. Hence, they
cannot hold the soil tight which means replacing natural forests with plantation tress like rubber, palm, etc.
can increase the frequency and scale of landslides (slope failure).
Massive landslides occurring in Western Ghats in recent times are said to be due to replacement of natural
forest by plantation agriculture. (Remember the landslides in Kerala in 2018? Plantation crops!)
Plantations cannot retain moisture or supporting wildlife the way natural forests do. Also, the carbon stock
in plantations is far below than that of a natural forest.
Positives are exaggerated and negatives are suppressed
 The claims of increase in forest cover doesn’t reflect the ground reality as the land acquired for compensatory afforestation is included in the quantitative accounting of forests without taking into consideration the loss or diversion of forest land for mining and other projects.
Not enough tree cover but still a forest! Forest on paper!
 ISFR data doesn’t explain why 30% of the RFA (2,15,000 sq. km) has no forest cover! Such data is crucial
to evaluate the effect of policies on forest loss and degradation.
Anything green is a forest?
 The ISFR methodology relies primarily on remote-sensing techniques that can pick anything that is green
and of a certain scale on its radar. This is used to generate data on the extent of ‘green cover’.
 For years, foresters and ecologists have said that this report does not distinguish between natural forests,
commercial plantations, orchards, and bamboo groves while enumerating forests.
 According to them, areas with ‘tree stands’ of over 10% canopy cover are counted as forests, irrespective
of whether they function ecologically as forests or not.
11.4. National Forest Inventory
The UNFCCC guidelines for implementation of REDD+ require that every country should have a satellitebased National Forest Monitoring System (NFMS) and a National Forest Inventory. The primary objective
is to assess the growing stock of trees (volume of all living trees), the number of trees, bamboo, soil carbon,
non-timber forest products (NTFP), invasive species, etc.
Growing Stock
Growing stock is an indicator of forest productivity. The growing stock is estimated at 56.60 cum per ha.
Among states, Kerala, Uttarakhand and Goa have the highest per ha growing stock in a forest.
Among the UTs, the highest per ha growing stock in a forest is in Ladakh, followed by J&K and A&N Islands.
In respect of the total volume of growing stock, Arunachal Pradesh has the maximum growing stock (419
m cum) in forests, followed by Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh and MP.
In TOF, Maharashtra has the maximum growing stock (188 m cum), followed by Karnataka. Sal, teak and
pine trees have the highest growing stocks in forests and TOF. Mango and neem have the highest growing
stocks in TOF. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 189
Bamboo Resources of the Country
Bamboos are one of the fastest-growing perennial grass plants. They can thrive in an extreme range of
climatic and edaphic (soil) conditions. They are found in the tropical, sub-tropical and mildly temperate
regions of the world.
Bamboo culms grow from the dense root rhizome system. The monopodial rhizome grows horizontally,
and the buds develop either upward, generating a culm, or horizontally, with a new tract of the rhizome. The
sympodial rhizomes are short and thick, and the culms, which are above the ground, are close together in
a compact clump, which expands evenly around its circumference.
The clump-forming species are naturally found in tropical regions, and they are not invasive. Some bamboos are non-clump forming and can be invasive. They are generally found in temperate regions.
Distribution
Bamboo distribution is uneven and largely depends on climatic factors, altitude, and soil. They are naturally
abundant in East and SE Asia and the Islands of the Pacific and Indian oceans. Large tracts of natural
bamboo forest are found in Asian countries between 15° and 25° N latitudes.
In India, bamboo grows naturally everywhere except in the Kashmir region. They are abundant in the deciduous and semi-evergreen forests of the North-Eastern region and the tropical moist deciduous forests of Northern and Southern India.
The North-Eastern states and West Bengal account for more than 50% of India’s bamboo resources.
Other bamboo-rich areas of the country are the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh, and the Western Ghats.
Bamboo Bearing Area
The total bamboo-bearing area of the country has been estimated to be 15.0 million ha. Madhya Pradesh
has a maximum bamboo-bearing area of 1.84 m ha, followed by Arunachal Pradesh (1.57 million ha), Maharashtra (1.35 million ha) and Odisha (1.12 million ha).
As compared to the estimates of ISFR 2019, the total bamboo-bearing area in the country has decreased by
1.06 million ha. Mizoram has shown the highest increase, followed by Arunachal Pradesh. Similarly, Madhya
Pradesh has shown the highest decrease, followed by Maharashtra.
Importance of Bamboo
 Bamboo is an essential component of the subsistence economy in providing livelihood to the tribals. It is,
therefore, called green gold, poor man’s timber, cradle-to-coffin timber, etc. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 190
 Young bamboo shoots are used as vegetables in many cuisines. Stems can be split up as pipes in channelling
water. Raw leaves of many species are a source of fodder for cattle. Large stems are used as planks for houses
and rafts, while large and small stems are latched together to form the scaffoldings at construction sites.
 Bamboo is an essential non-wood forest product used in making normal and fine-quality paper, furniture,
flooring, handicrafts, walking sticks, fishing poles etc.
 Bamboo plays an important role in carbon sequestration, biodiversity, and soil moisture conservation.
Forest Fringe Villages
As per the Census 2011, there are about 6,50,000 villages in the country, out of which nearly 1,70,000
villages are located in the proximity of forest areas, they are often termed Forest Fringe Villages.
The population in these villages is dependent on the forests for meeting the needs of fuelwood, fodder,
small timber, bamboo and NTFPs. States with the highest dependence on forests for
 Fuelwood: Maharashtra > Odisha > Rajashtan > MP
 Fodder: MP > Maharashtra > Gujarat > Rajashtan
 Bamboo: MP > Chhattisgarh > Gujarat > Maharashtra
 Small Timber: MP > Gujarat > Maharashtra
Initiatives to Promote Bamboo in India
According to the National Bamboo Mission, India has the highest area (15 million ha) under bamboo and
is the second richest country after China in bamboo diversity, with 136 species. However, China exports
68% of the world’s bamboo and rattan products.
The Indian Forest Act 1927 was amended in 2017 to remove bamboo from the category of trees. As a
result, anyone can undertake cultivation and business in bamboo and its products. Hence bamboo
grown outside forests no longer needs felling and transit permissions.
National Bamboo Mission (NBM)
The restructured NBM was launched in 2018. It envisages promoting holistic growth of the bamboo sector
by adopting an area-based, regionally differentiated strategy & increasing the area under bamboo cultivation & marketing.
It will focus on the development of bamboo only in the significant bamboo-growing states with a social,
commercial, and economic advantage, particularly in the North-eastern region and states, including Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Karnataka, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, etc.
The bamboo plantations will be promoted predominantly in farmers’ fields, homesteads, community lands,
arable wastelands, and along irrigation canals, water bodies, etc. Primary processing centres are being set up
close to the plantations, which will enable the cost of transportation of whole bamboo to be reduced.
To address forward integration, it will strengthen the marketing of bamboo products and handicraft items.
The Sector Skill Councils established under National Skill Development Agency will impart skills and
Recognition of Prior Learning to traditional artisans.
Project Bold
The project named “Bamboo Oasis on Lands in Drought” (BOLD) was launched to create bamboo-based
green patches in arid and semi-arid land zones.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 191
BOLD is a scientific exercise initiated by the Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC). It serves the
combined objectives of reducing desertification and providing livelihood and multi-disciplinary rural
industry support.
11.5. Forest Types of India
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 192
H.G. Champion first enunciated a classification system for forests of undivided India in 1935. S.K. Seth subsequently joined Champion in refining the earlier work in 1968. Subsequently, their system became the standard in forest-type classification in the country.
Champion and Seth’s system is based on the premise that a forest type could be treated as a distinct
ecosystem; many preceding classification systems are based on climate, soil or vegetation alone. It is a
three-tier system of classification: six climate-based major groups sub-divided into 16 precipitation &
temperature range-based groups.
Forest Type Area in sq km % of Total Carbon stock in mt
1 Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests 2,80,547 39.30 2176.8
2 Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests 1,31,805 18.47 1302.7
3 Plantation/TOF 75,221 10.54 529.5
4 Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests 69,195 9.69 686.0
5 Subtropical Broadleaved Hill Forests 31,015 4.35 432.6
6 Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests 28,727 4.02 646.7
7 Montane Wet Temperate Forests 20,185 2.83 342.5
8 Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests 19,572 2.74 345.6
9 Subtropical Pine Forests 17,801 2.49 239.4
10 Tropical Thorn Forests 13,259 1.86 49.6
11 Sub-Alpine Forests 12,672 1.78 232.4
12 Littoral and Swamp Forests 5,478 0.77 72.6
13 Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests 4,255 0.60 103.9
14 Dry Alpine Scrub 2,396 0.34 27.5
15 Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests 835 0.12 7.7
16 Moist Alpine Scrub 652 0.09 5.6
17 Subtropical Dry Evergreen Forest 173 0.02 2.7
Total 7,13,789 100 7,203.8
Maximum tree diversity has been found in tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of Western Ghats (TN, Kerala and Karnataka), followed by North Eastern states. Low tree diversity has been noticed in the subtropical dry evergreen forests of Jammu and Kashmir and forest deficit States like Punjab,
Haryana and Rajasthan.
Karnataka has the maximum species richness for trees, Arunachal Pradesh for shrubs and J&K for herbs.
Arunachal Pradesh has the maximum richness of species when all three types of plants are considered,
followed by TN and Karnataka.
Carbon Stock in India’s Forests
World’s Forest Carbon Stocks
The world’s forests and forest soils currently store more than one trillion tons (1000 Gt) of carbon
which is nearly 1.3 times larger than the carbon stored in fossil fuel reserves (estimated at 800 Gt) and
more than the carbon added to the atmosphere because of human activities since 1870 (about 600 Gt). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 193
It has been estimated that since 1750, forests have been responsible for about half of the carbon emissions naturally sequestered from the atmosphere; the oceans have absorbed the rest.
Forests store an estimated 296 Gt of carbon above and below the ground biomass, which contains almost
half of the total carbon stored in forest areas, the other half being the soil organic carbon.
Globally, over the last 25 years, the carbon stock in forest biomass has decreased by almost 17.4 Gt,
equivalent to a reduction of 697 million tonnes per year or about 2.5 Gt of carbon dioxide equivalent.
The carbon stock for 2021 has been estimated at 7,204 million tonnes (mt), a slight increase (79.4 mt)
since 2019. This translates into carbon emissions sequestrated through forest and tree cover to be 30.1
billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent.
The maximum carbon stock has been stored in:
 Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest (2,177 mt), Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest (1,303 mt) & Tropical SemiEvergreen Forest (686 mt).
 Arunachal Pradesh (1,023.84 mt), Madhya Pradesh (609.25 mt), Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra.
The least carbon stock has been stored in Subtropical Dry Evergreen Forest, Moist Alpine Scrub and
Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests.
The maximum per hectare C stock has been stored in:
 Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests (244.19 tonnes/ha), Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests, Sub-Alpine
Forests and Equatorial Wet Evergreen Forests.
 Jammu and Kashmir (173.41 tonnes/ha), Himachal Pradesh (167.10 tonnes/ha), Sikkim and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands (162.86 tonnes/ha).
The least per hectare carbon stock has been stored in Tropical Thorn Forests & Tropical Dry Deciduous
Forests.
Soil organic carbon is the largest pool of forest carbon accounting for (56%) followed by AGB (32%), BGB
(10%), Litter (1.5%) and dead wood (0.7%). In all the NE states, it is observed that SOC is almost double the
carbon in AGB.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 194
Pools Description
Living
Biomass
Above Ground biomass (AGB) All living biomass above the soil.
Below Ground biomass (BGB) All living biomass of live roots.
Dead
Organic Matter
Dead Wood Includes all non-living woody biomass not contained
in the litter.
Litter Includes all non-living biomass with a diameter less
than the minimum diameter chosen by the country,
lying dead, in various states of decomposition.
Soil Soil organic matter Includes organic carbon in mineral and organic
soils (including peat) to a specific depth.
Meeting NDC Target
According to the forestry target under Paris Agreement (2015) Nationally Determined Contributions
(NDC), India has committed to creating an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3.0 billion tonnes of CO2
equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030. The projection for 2030 shows a shortfall of
0.25 billion tonnes and 0.75 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent.
The shortfall can be bridged through the restoration of open forests, which is the most cost-effective
strategy — above 70% of forest cover in India falls in tropical semi-evergreen, tropical moist deciduous
and tropical dry deciduous forest types, and more than 30% of these areas fall in the category of open
forest.
11.6. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020
Global Forest Resource Assessment (FRA) done by FAO once in five years provides information about the
forest resources of almost all countries.
FAO has released the latest report of GFRA in the year 2020. The Top 3 countries that recorded the maximum average annual net gains in forest area during 2010-20 are:
1. China (1.9 mha)
2. Australia (0.44 mha)
3. India (0.26 mha)
Tropical > Boreal > Temperate > Subtropical WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 195
Forest Area of Top 5 Countries In 2020
M ha: Million hectares; 100 ha = 1 sq km
Country Forest area (M ha)
(2015)
Forest area (M ha)
2020
% of the country’s
area
% global forest
area
1. Russia 814 815 (↑) 49.8 20
2. Brazil 493 497 (↑) 59.4 12
3. Canada 347 347 38.7 9
4. USA 310 310 34 8
5. China 208 220 (↑) 23.3 5
Russia > Brazil > Canada > US > China > Australia > Democratic Republic of Congo > Indonesia >
Peru > India (10th)
 Brazil saw an increase in forest area despite the unprecedented destruction of Amazon forests!
 India accounts for 2% of the total global forest area.
 Brazil, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Peru have more than half of their GA under forests.
 In terms of growing stock Brazil > Russia > Canada > USA
GFRA and India
The FRA 2020 has credited India’s Joint Forest Management programme for the significant increase in the
community–managed forest areas in the Asian continent.
The forest area managed by local, tribal and indigenous communities in India increased from zero in 1990
to about 25 million ha in 2015.
India reported the maximum employment (nearly 50%) in the forestry sector in the world. Globally, 12.5
million people were employed in the forestry sector.
11.7. National Forest Policy 1988
India has had a forest policy since 1894. The policy was revised in 1952 and again in 1988. The principal aim
of the 1988 policy was to ensure environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance, including atmospheric equilibrium. The derivation of direct economic benefit must be subordinated to this principal aim. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 196
For the first time, the policy considered forest land or land with tree cover as a national asset. The diversion of forest land for any non-forest purpose should be subject to the most careful examination. It mandates
that 33% (1/3rd) of the GA of India should be under forest or tree cover.
Other Aims and Objectives
 Conservation of natural heritage and checking soil erosion and denudation in catchment areas.
 Checking extension of sand dunes in desert areas of Rajasthan and along coastal tracts.
 Substantially increasing forest/tree cover through massive afforestation and social forestry programmes.
 Ensuring the symbiotic relationship between tribal people and forests and including tribal people
closely in the protection, regeneration and development of forests.
 Taking steps to meet requirements of fuel, wood, fodder, minor forest produce, soil and timber of rural and
tribal populations.
 Taking steps to create massive people’s movement with the involvement of women to achieve the objectives and minimise pressure on existing forests.
 Greater impetus for Forestry Education and Research.
Draft National Forest Policy 2018
India’s forests are currently governed by the National Forest Policy of 1988, an update to which has been
in the offing for nearly five years now.
Aims and Objectives of 2018 Policy
 Reverse the degradation of forests and contribute towards achieving forestry-related Nationally Determined Contribution Targets (NDCs).
 Maintenance of the health of forest vegetation and forest soils for augmenting water supplies through recharge of underground aquifers & regulation of surface water.
 Manage protected and other wildlife-rich areas with the primary objective of biodiversity conservation and
enriching other ecosystem services.
 Factor green accounting, valuation of ecosystem services and climate change concerns adequately into
the planning and managing of all forests, protected areas, etc.
 Integrate climate change mitigation/adaptation measures in forest management through the mechanism of
REDD+ so that the impacts of climate change are minimised.
 Sustainable use of Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP) such as medicinal and aromatic plants, oil seeds,
resins, wild edibles, fibre, bamboo, grass etc.
 Managing and expanding green spaces in urban and peri-urban areas to enhance citizens’ wellbeing.
 Credible certification process to enhance the value of forest products harvested sustainably.
 Greater emphasis on protecting forests of the North-East.
 Establishing a National Board of Forestry (Headed by the Environment Minister) and State Boards of
Forestry (Headed by the State Environment Minister) to ensure convergence, and conflict resolution.
 Integration and assimilation of international multilateral agreements and commitments.
 Private intervention for maintaining the forest quality.
11.8. Afforestation Programmes WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 197
The MoEF is implementing afforestation schemes in the forest areas with a participatory approach. The
plantation species are selected by the members of Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMC) based
on their needs, ecological conditions and other factors. Native forest species with multiple uses are encouraged.
The ministry is implementing three significant schemes for the development of forest areas:
1. National Afforestation Programme (NAP) scheme for the afforestation of degraded forest lands.
2. National Mission for a Green India (GIM) (Green India Mission) to improve the quality of forests
and increase forest cover.
3. Forest Fire Prevention and Management Scheme (FFPM) takes care of forest fire prevention and
management measures.
For scientific management of forests, the states prepare a Working Plan which highlights various activities
to be undertaken in a forest division for effective management of forest, which MoEF approves. The funds
collected under Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA), as
compensatory levies from states inter-alia, are used in plantation activity.
National Afforestation Programme (NAP)
NAP aims at the restoration of degraded forests and developing the forests with peoples’ participation.
It is a centrally sponsored scheme implemented with the fund sharing pattern of 60:40 between Centre
and States, wherein the sharing pattern for NE & hilly States is 90:10.
A three-tier institutional setup implements NAP:
1. State Forest Development Agency (SFDA) at state level,
2. Forest Development Agency (FDA) at forest division level,
3. Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs – registered societies) at the village level.
Joint Forest Management (JFM)
GOI introduced the concept of JFM through the National Forest Policy, 1988. JFM is a forest management
partnership involving the forest departments and local communities. The communities are required to organise Forest Protection Committee (FPC), village forest committees, etc.
Each body has an executive committee that manages its day-to-day affairs. The woman sub-committee in
the Joint Forest Management Committee (JFMC) ensures gender balance. In return for their services to
the forests, the communities benefit from using minor non-timber forest produce.
Examples of Joint Forest Management (JFM)
 Controlled grazing of cattle by the Gaddi and Gujjar tribes in the Himalayan states prevents the widespread growth of wild grass, thus contributing towards the conservation of biodiversity.
 Bishnoi community of Rajasthan and Punjab play a significant role in conserving Blackbuck (LC).
 Maldharis, living in the vicinity of Gir National Park, have contributed to the improvement of the lion population.
Issues with Joint Forest Management (JFM)
 Implementation of JFM afforestation programmes is expensive (Rs 20,000 per ha).
 Inadequate remuneration for local communities from JFM activities.
 Lack of legal status and financial and executive powers for the Forest Protection Committee (FPC).
 Forest Departments in certain States are vested with arbitrary powers to dissolve FPCs. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 198
 Absence of participation by women despite their formal representation in management committees.
 Inter-intra-community conflicts hamper FPC functioning.
 Denial of rights on disposal over valuable Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to local communities.
Social forestry
The National Commission on Agriculture, GOI, first used the term ‘social forestry’ in 1976. Social forestry is
the management and protection of forests and afforestation of barren and deforested lands with the help
of local communities.
Social forestry was meant to take the pressure off the forests and use unused and fallow land. With the
introduction of this scheme, the government formally recognised the local communities’ rights to forest
resources.
Components of Social Forestry
Farm forestry: commercial and non-commercial farm forestry is being promoted where individual farmers
were encouraged to plant trees on their farmland.
Community forestry: raising of trees on community land by communities for the benefit of the entire community. The government has the responsibility of providing seedlings and fertiliser.
Extension forestry: Planting trees on the sides of roads, canals and railways and planting on wastelands is
known as ‘extension’ forestry. Under this project, there has been the creation of wood lots in the common
village lands, government wastelands and panchayat lands.
Agroforestry: Planting trees on and around agricultural boundaries, and on marginal, private lands, in combination with crops, is known as agroforestry.
Social forestry suffers from similar issues as those faced by Joint Forest Management.
Compensatory Afforestation (CA)
Under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, whenever forest land is diverted for non-forestry purposes, an
equal area of non-forest land (revenue land) or twice the area of degraded forest land has to be planted
over as CA.
The process starts with the project proponent identifying land for CA and proposing the same to the state
forest department. If the department approves the proposal, the project proponent pays for the land (Net
Present Value), which is transferred to the state forest department. The state forest department then undertakes plantation work on that land.
Till 2019, afforestation was allowed on degraded forest land only if revenue land was unavailable. MoEF
brought in a notification, allowing compensatory afforestation in forestland where crown density is less
than 40%.
Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF) Act, 2016
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) is a National Advisory
Council under the chairmanship of the Union Minister of Environment. CAMPA and State CAMPA were set
up on a ad hoc basis in 2006 after the intervention of the Supreme Court.
CAMPA at the national and state level CAMPAs are meant to promote afforestation and regeneration activities as a way of compensating for forest land diverted to non-forest uses. The CAMPA National Advisory
Council makes recommendations to State CAMPA. The State CAMPA receives funds collected from user
agencies towards CA. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 199
CAF Act was enacted in 2016 to manage the funds collected for compensatory afforestation by CAMPA. The
law established the National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of India, and
a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of each state. These Funds will receive
payments for: (i) compensatory afforestation, (ii) net present value of forest (NPV), and (iii) other project
specific payments. The National Fund will receive 10% of these funds, and the State Funds will receive
the remaining 90%.
Q. Consider the following statements: (2019)
1. As per law, the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority exists at both National and State levels.
2. People’s participation is mandatory in the compensatory afforestation programmes carried out under the
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Explanation:
The act stresses on the participation of people and social audit. However, they are not mandatory. So the
answer is a) 1 only
Issues with the present system of CA
Industries find it hard to acquire appropriate non-forest land, which has to be contiguous to an existing
forest.
Funds are diverted
The Centre had collected nearly ₹50,000 crores over decades, but the funds were lying unspent because
states were not spending the money on regrowing forests.
After the SC’s intervention, a new law came about with rules for how funds would be administered. About
₹47,000 crores had been disbursed to states, but it has barely led to any rejuvenation of forests.
Only a few species are used in CA schemes
Protecting and regenerating natural forests should comprise a diverse mix of native tree species that are
more reliable in the long term than raising monoculture or species-poor plantations.
Currently, over half of the compensatory afforestation plantations use five species or less, which is way lower
than in natural forests and inadequate. This is neither good for biodiversity nor the stability of carbon capture.
Grasslands help in carbon capture themselves, and planting few species of trees there can cause more
harm.
 Carbon storage is highest in species-rich evergreen forests. Eucalyptus plantations had comparatively
lower carbon storage, while teak plantations stored nearly as much carbon as deciduous forests.
Green Credit Scheme WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 200
The Forest Advisory Committee (FAC), an apex body under MoEF that adjudicates requests to raze forest land for commercial ends, has approved the Green Credit Scheme that could allow forests to be
traded as a commodity.
FAC has recommended that private players be allowed to raise plantations to be later used towards CA.
If implemented, it allows the Forest Department to outsource its responsibilities of reforesting to nongovernment participating agencies — private companies, village forest communities, etc.
After three years, the plantations would be eligible to be considered as compensatory forest land if they
met the Forest Department’s criteria
The participating agency can trade its plantation in parcels with project proponents who need forest land.
And the forest land would then be transferred to the Forest Department and be recorded as forest land (RFA).
FAC’s Take
FAC recommended that such plantations be accepted in the non-forest area. It believes that such a scheme
will encourage plantation by individuals outside the traditional forest area and help meet international commitments such as SDGs and NDCs.
The Green India Mission aims to sequester 2.523 billion tonnes of carbon by 2020-30, and this involves
adding 30 million hectares in addition to an existing forest. Green Credit Scheme could be of help here.
Criticism of the Green Credit Scheme
 The scheme would lead to the privatisation of forests and give impetus to their destruction. It does not
solve the core problems of compensatory afforestation.
 Forests are treated as mere commodities without any social or ecological character.
 If the economic value of these plantations becomes lucrative, it can pose a severe threat to agricultural
land, which could be diverted for plantations.
 The plantations will be ready to be traded after three years. So, a private company would want to grow
species like eucalyptus (invasive species) which will mature quickly within three years.
Aerial Seeding for Reforestation
The Delhi High Court asked forest authorities whether “planting of seeds could be done by throwing dart
shots containing them from helicopters into forest areas”. The Forest Department has concluded that such
technology need not be employed for places that are easily accessible.
Aerial seeding
Aerial seeding (aerial reforestation) is a reforestation technique wherein seeds, or seed balls (seed bombs
made up of compost, clay and seeds) are sprayed using aerial devices like helicopters, drones, etc. Seeds
planted through this procedure have a success rate of 50%.
Aerial seeding can spread grasses and plants to large areas after wildfires. It is adopted because it is quicker
and more effective than planting manually. It also allows access to areas where the terrain is rocky or at high
elevation. It has been used with varying degrees of success around the world.
Dart seeding
Dart seeding is used with the same broad objective as aerial seeding. The process involves throwing darts
containing seeds onto open ground.
In aerial seeding, many seeds fail to germinate. If dart plantation is done from a low-flying helicopter, seeds
have a relatively better chance of survival as they reach deeper into the ground. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 201
Plantation with both aerial and dart plantations is carried out close to the onset of monsoon.
- - - - End of Chapter - - - - -

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Functions of an Ecosystem – Trophic Levels

A trophic level (trophe means nourishment) represents energy flow in an ecosystem. The trophic level of
an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain. Energy flows through the trophic levels from producers to subsequent trophic levels is unidirectional.
Energy level decreases from the first trophic level upwards due to loss of energy in the form of heat at
each trophic level. This energy loss at each trophic level is quite significant. Hence there are usually not more
than four-five trophic levels (beyond this, the energy available is negligible to support an organism).
Trophic Levels
Autotrophs Green plants (Producers)
Heterotrophs Herbivores (Primary consumers)
Heterotrophs Carnivores (Secondary consumers)
Heterotrophs Top Carnivore (Tertiary and Quaternary consumers)
The trophic level interaction involves three concepts, namely:
1) Food Chain
2) Food Web
3) Ecological Pyramids
4.1. Food Chain
Transfer of energy from producers through a series of organisms at each tropic level with repeated eating
and being eaten link is called a food chain. E.g., Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Eagle. The two
types of food chains: 1) Grazing food chain and 2) Detritus food chain
Grazing food chain WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 25
The consumers which start the food chain, utilising the plant/plant part as their food, constitute the grazing
food chain. For example, in a terrestrial ecosystem, the grass is eaten by a caterpillar, which is eaten by a
lizard and the lizard is eaten by a snake. In an aquatic ecosystem, phytoplankton (primary producers) are
eaten by zooplankton, which fishes eat, and pelicans (birds) eat fishes.
Detritus food chain
Detritus food chain starts from organic matter of dead and decaying animal and plant bodies from the
grazing food chain. Dead organic matter or detritus-feeding organisms are called detrivores or decomposers. Predators eat the detrivores.
In an aquatic ecosystem, the grazing food chain is the major conduit for energy flow. As against this, in a
terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy flows through the detritus food chain than through
the grazing food chain.
[UPSC 2013] With reference to the food chains in ecosystems, which of the following kinds of
organism(s) is/are known as decomposer organism(s)?
1) Virus
2) Fungi
3) Bacteria
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 26
Explanation:
Fungi and Bacteria are decomposers. They break down organic matter into simple inorganic substances.
Virus represents dormant life. They are metabolically inactive if they are outside a host body. They are
not decomposers. They invade host cells and use their nucleus (DNA machinery) to carry out their life
processes.
 Protists are unicellular organisms. Some protists, such as paramecium and euglena, are not decomposers. While the other protists, like slime moulds, typically grow on dead animals, rotting logs and compost.
Humus
Bacterial and fungal enzymes decompose detritus into simpler inorganic substances. This process is
called catabolism. Humification and mineralisation occur during decomposition in the soil. Humification leads to the accumulation of a dark-coloured amorphous (formless) substance called humus that is
highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition at a very slow rate. Some microbes
further degrade the humus, and the release of inorganic nutrients occurs through the process of mineralisation. Being colloidal in nature, the humus serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
Warm and moist environment favour decomposition, whereas low temperatures & anaerobiosis (lack of
oxygen) inhibit decomposition resulting in a buildup of organic matter, and soils become acidic (taiga
climate).
Answer: b) 2 and 3 only
[UPSC 2021] Which of the following are detritivores?
1) Earthworms
2) Jellyfish
3) Millipedes
4) Seahorses
5) Woodlice
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1, 2 and 4 Only
b) 2, 3, 4 and 5 Only
c) 1, 3 and 5 Only
d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Explanation:
The easiest of the option: 1) Earthworms (detrivores), 2) Jellyfish (marine animals of phylum cnidaria)
and Seahorses (small marine fishes) —Biology NCERT.
Answer: c) 1, 3 and 5 only
4.2. Food Web
Multiple interlinked food chains make a food web. A food web represents all the possible energy flow
pathways in an ecosystem. If any of the intermediate food chains are removed, the succeeding links of the
chain will be affected. A food web provides more than one alternative for food to most organisms in an
ecosystem and therefore increases their chance of survival. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 27
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 28
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 29
Types of Biotic Interactions in a Food Web
‘0’ → no effect ‘–’ → is detrimental ‘+’ → beneficial
Interactions Species
Effect Comments
1 2
Negative Interactions
Amensalism – 0 One species is
inhibited, while
the other species is unaffected.
The bread mould fungi Penicillium produces penicillin —
an antibiotic substance — which inhibits the growth of a
variety of bacteria.
A large tree shades a small plant and retarding the
growth of the small plant. The small plant has no effect on
the large tree.
Predation + – One species
(predator) benefits, while the
second species
(prey) is harmed.
Predators like leopards, tigers and cheetahs use speed,
teeth, and claws to hunt and kill their prey.
Predators help maintain species diversity in a community
by reducing the intensity of competition among competing
prey species.
Parasitism + – Beneficial to one
species (parasite)
and harmful to
the other species
(host).
Parasitism involves a parasite living in or on another living
species called the host. The parasite gets its nourishment
and often shelter from its host.
Tap worms, roundworms, malarial parasites, many bacteria,
fungi, and viruses are common parasites of humans.
 The female mosquito is not considered a parasite, although it needs our blood for reproduction. Why? Because it
does not live on the host.
Competition – – Adversely affects
both species.
Competition occurs when two populations or species need
a common vital resource that is in short supply.
Positive Interactions
Commensalism
+ 0 One species (the
commensal)
benefits, while
the other species (the host) is
neither harmed
nor inhibited.
Suckerfish often attaches to a shark. This helps the
suckerfish get protection, a free ride as well as a meal from
the leftover of the shark’s meal. The shark does not, however, get any benefit, nor is it adversely affected by this
association.
Another example of commensalisms is the relationship between trees and epiphytic plants.
Mutualism + + Interaction is favourable to both
species.
Sea anemone gets attached to the shell of hermit
crabs for the benefit of transport and obtaining new food.
The anemone provides camouflage and protection to the
hermit crab by utilising its stinging cells. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 30
Some mutualisms are so intimate that the interacting species can no longer live without each other as they depend
totally on each other to survive. Such close associations
are called symbiosis (symbiosis is intense mutualism – E.g.,
coral and zooxanthellae).
Neutral Interactions
Neutralism 0 0 Neither species
affects the other
True neutralism is extremely unlikely.
[UPSC 2014] Which one of the following is the correct sequence of a food chain?
a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings
b) Crustaceans-Diatoms-Herrings
c) Diatoms-Herrings-Crustaceans
d) Crustaceans-Herrings-Diatoms
Explanation:
The food chain starts with a producer and ends with a top consumer.
Phytoplankton are the primary producers in the oceans. They include:
 diatoms (unicellular algae),
 coccolithophores (unicellular, eukaryotic protist),
 Cyanobacteria (Bluegreen algae) – Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus, Nostoc, spirogyra, etc., and
 Dinoflagellates (flagellated protists).
Crustaceans form a large group of arthropods which includes crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, etc.
Herrings are fish, and they eat crustaceans.
Answer: (a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings (NCERT)
[2021] Consider the following kinds of organisms:
1) Copepods
2) Cyanobacteria
3) Diatoms
4) Foraminifera
Which of the above are primary producers in the food chains of oceans?
a) 1 and 2
b) 2 and 3
c) 3 and 4
d) 1 and 4
Explanation:
Copepods are a group of small aquatic crustaceans, and foraminifera are amoeboid protists.
Answer: b) 2 and 3 only
[UPSC 2013] With reference to food chains in ecosystems, consider the following statements:
1) A food chain illustrates the order in which a chain of organisms feed upon each other.
2) Food chains are found within the populations of a species. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 31
3) A food chain illustrates the numbers of each organism which are eaten by others.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None
Explanation:
Statement 1 is True.
Statement 2 is False — In a food chain, a species occupies a specific trophic level.
A food chain illustrates the numbers of each organism which are eaten by others (false – the food web
illustrates the number, not the food chain).
Answer: a) 1 only
[2021] Which of the following have species that can establish symbiotic relationship with
other organisms?
1) Cnidarians
2) Fungi
3) Protozoa
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
a) 1 and 2 Only
b) 2 and 3 Only
c) 1 and 3 Only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation:
Corals and sea anemones belong to phylum cnidaria.
Lichen are plant-like organisms that consist of a symbiotic association of algae (usually green) or cyanobacteria and fungi.
Protozoans are mostly predators and parasites.
4.3. Ecological Pyramids
The pyramidal representation of trophic levels of different organisms based on their ecological position
(producer to final consumer) is called as an ecological pyramid. The pyramid consists of several horizontal
bars depicting specific trophic levels. The length of each bar represents the total number of individuals
or biomass or energy at each trophic level in an ecosystem. The producers forms the base of the pyramid,
and the top carnivore forms the tip. Other consumer trophic levels are in between.
The ecological pyramids are of three categories:
1) Pyramid of numbers,
2) Pyramid of biomass, and
3) Pyramid of energy or productivity.
Pyramid of Numbers WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 32
Pyramid of numbers represents the total number of individuals (population) of different species at each
trophic level. Depending upon the size, the pyramid of numbers may not always be upright and may even
be completely inverted. It is very difficult to count all the organisms in a pyramid of numbers, so the pyramid of numbers does not completely define the trophic structure of an ecosystem.
Pyramid of Numbers – Upright
In this pyramid, the number of individuals decreases with each higher trophic level. This type of pyramid
can be seen in the grassland ecosystem and pond ecosystem.
Pyramid of Numbers – Inverted
In this pyramid, the number of individuals increases with each higher trophic level.. E.g., Tree ecosystem. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 33
Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting all organisms occupying each trophic level separately
and measuring their dry weight.
This overcomes the size difference problem because all kinds of organisms at a trophic level are weighed.
Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called the standing crop.
The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area.
Pyramid of Biomass – Upright
For most terrestrial ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass has a large base of primary producers with a smaller
trophic level perched on top. The biomass of the base trophic level, i.e., producers (autotrophs), is at the
maximum. The highest trophic level has the least amount of biomass. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 34
Pyramid of Biomass – Inverted
In contrast to terrestrial ecosystems, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may assume an
inverted form. (In contrast, a pyramid of numbers for the aquatic ecosystem is upright). This is because
the producers are tiny phytoplankton that grows and reproduces rapidly. Here, the pyramid of biomass has
a small base, with the consumer biomass at any instant exceeding the producer biomass and the pyramid
assumes an inverted shape. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 35
Pyramid of Energy
Energy pyramid is most suitable for comparing the functional roles of the trophic levels in an ecosystem.
An energy pyramid represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and loss of energy at each
transfer to another trophic level. Hence the pyramid is always upward, with a large energy base at the
bottom.
Ecological Efficiency
Ecological efficiency describes the efficiency with which energy is transferred from one trophic level to the
next. The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted as the transfer of energy follows
the 10 per cent law — only 10 per cent of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower
trophic level.
The energy decreases at each subsequent trophic level due to two reasons:
 At each trophic, a part of the available energy is lost in respiration or used up in metabolism.
 A part of the energy is lost at each transformation.
Explanation
Suppose an ecosystem receives 1000 calories of light energy on a particular day; some of it is reflected back
to space. Of the energy absorbed, only a small portion is utilised by green plants, out of which the plant uses
up some for respiration; therefore, only 100 calories are stored as energy-rich materials.
When a deer eats a plant containing 100 calories of food energy, it uses some of it for its metabolism and
stores only 10 calories as food energy. A lion that eats the deer gets an even smaller amount of energy. Thus,
usable energy decreases from sunlight to producer to herbivore to carnivore. Therefore, the energy pyramid
will always be upright.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 36
The energy pyramid explains the phenomenon of biological magnification — the tendency for toxic substances
to increase in concentration progressively with higher trophic levels.
Limitations of Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramids do not consider the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels. It assumes a simple food chain, which seldom exists in nature; it does not accommodate a food web. Moreover,
saprophytes (plant, fungus, or microorganism that lives on decaying matter) are not given any place in
ecological pyramids even though they play a vital role in the ecosystem.
Biomagnification – Pollutants and Trophic Level
Pollutants move through the various trophic levels in an ecosystem. Non-degradable pollutants (persistent
pollutants), which detrivores cannot break down, not only move through the various trophic levels but
also remain in that tropic level for a very long duration.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (Perfluoro Chlorides) are the most damaging non-degradable pollutants that
are long-lasting. The movement of these pollutants involves:
1) Bioaccumulation
2) Biomagnification
Bioaccumulation WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 37
Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of pollutants, chemicals (chronic poisoning) or other substances in an organism. It occurs when the rate of loss of the substance from the body of the organism
through catabolism (breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms) or excretion is lower than the
rate of accumulation of the substance.
As persistent organic pollutants like DDT are long-lasting, the risk of bioaccumulation is high even if the
environmental levels of the pollutant are not high.
Biomagnification
Biomagnification refers to progressive bioaccumulation (increase in concentration) at each tropical level
with the passage of time. For biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must have a long biological halflife (long-lived) and must not be soluble in water but be soluble in fats. E.g., DDT. If the pollutant is
soluble in water, it will be excreted by the organism. Pollutants that dissolve in fats are retained for a long
time. Hence it is traditional to measure the amount of pollutants in fatty tissues of organisms such as fish.
In mammals, milk produced by females is tested for pollutants since the milk has a lot of fat in.
- - - - End of Chapter - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Functions of an Ecosystem – Biogeo Chemical Cycling

Energy flow and nutrient circulation are the major functions of the ecosystem. Energy is lost as heat forever
in terms of the system’s usefulness. On the other hand, nutrients of food matter never get used up. They
can be recycled again and again indefinitely.
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus as elements and compounds make up 97% of the
mass of our bodies and are more than 95% of the mass of all living organisms. In addition to these, about 15
to 25 other elements are needed in some form for the survival and good health of plants and animals.
The required elements or mineral nutrients are always in circulation, moving from non-living to living and
back to the non-living components of the ecosystem in a circular fashion. This circular fashion is known
as biogeochemical/nutrient cycling (bio for living; geo for atmosphere).
Among the most important nutrient cycles are the carbon nutrient cycle and the nitrogen nutrient cycle.
Many other nutrient cycles are important in ecology, including many trace mineral nutrient cycles.
5.1. Types of Nutrient Cycles
Based on the replacement period, a nutrient cycle is referred to as the perfect or imperfect cycle. A perfect
nutrient cycle is one in which nutrients are replaced as fast as they are utilised.
Most gaseous cycles are generally considered perfect cycles. In contrast, sedimentary cycles are considered relatively imperfect, as some nutrients are lost from the cycle and are locked in the sediments, and
so become unavailable for immediate cycling.
Based on the nature of the reservoir, a nutrient cycle is referred to as the Gaseous or Sedimentary cycle:
1. Gaseous Cycle: the reservoir is the atmosphere or the hydrosphere — water cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen
cycle, methane (compound) cycle, etc. and
2. Sedimentary Cycle: the reservoir is the soluble elements in the earth’s crust — phosphorous cycle, sulphur cycle, calcium cycle, magnesium cycle etc.
5.2. Carbon Cycle (Gaseous Cycle) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 39
Carbon is a minor constituent of the atmosphere as compared to oxygen and nitrogen. However, without
carbon dioxide, life could not exist because it is vital for the production of carbohydrates (photosynthesis)
by plants and phytoplankton. It is the element that anchors all organic substances from coal and oil to
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid: the compound that carries genetic information).
Steps in Carbon Cycle
The carbon cycle involves a continuous exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and organisms. Carbon
is present in the atmosphere, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon from the atmosphere
moves to green plants and phytoplankton through photosynthesis and then to animals. Through the process of respiration and decomposition of dead organic matter, it returns to the atmosphere. This is usually
a short-term cycle.
 The decomposition of decaying organic matter produces nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Organic matter
includes biomolecules (carbohydrates, proteins, etc.) which are made up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and
nitrogen.
Some carbon enters a long-term cycle. It accumulates as un-decomposed organic matter in the peaty
layers of marshy soil or as insoluble carbonates in bottom sediments of aquatic systems, which take a
long time to be released. In deep oceans, such carbon can remain buried for millions of years till geological
movements lift these rocks above sea level. These rocks may be exposed to erosion, releasing their carbon
dioxide, carbonates and bicarbonates into streams and rivers.
Fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas are organic compounds that were buried before they could be
decomposed and were subsequently transformed by time and geological processes into fossil fuels. When
they are burned, the carbon stored in them is released back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
[UPSC 2011] Consider the following:
1) Photosynthesis
2) Respiration
3) Decay of organic matter
4) Volcanic action WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 40
Which of the above adds carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle on earth?
a) 1 and 4 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 2,3 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Explanation:
Photosynthesis takes out CO2 from the carbon cycle. Rest all add CO2.
Decomposition of organic matter releases carbon dioxide, whereas undecomposed organic matter
adds carbon to the soil in the form of insoluble carbonates and hence contributes to the carbon cycle.
Answer: c) 2,3 and 4 only
[UPSC 2014] Which one of the following is the process involved in photosynthesis?
a) Potential energy is released to form free energy
b) Free energy is converted into potential energy
c) Food is oxidised to release carbon dioxide and water
d) Oxygen is taken, and carbon dioxide and water vapour are given out
Explanation:
“Potential energy is released to form free energy”  false – sun’s free energy is converted into potential
energy in photosynthesis.
“Food is oxidised to release carbon dioxide and water”  false – oxygen is released and not carbon dioxide.
“Oxygen is taken, and CO2 and water vapour are given out”  false – CO2 is taken, and oxygen is given
out.
 Photosynthesis: Sunlight (free energy) is converted into carbohydrates (potential energy) using water and
carbon dioxide. Oxygen is released in the process.
Answer: b)
5.3. Nitrogen Cycle (Gaseous Cycle)
Apart from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, nitrogen is the most prevalent element in living organisms. It is
a constituent of amino acids, proteins, hormones, chlorophylls, and many vitamins.
In the atmosphere, nitrogen exists as two nitrogen atoms (N2) joined by a strong triple covalent bond (N
≡ N). In nature, lightning and ultraviolet radiation provide enough energy to convert nitrogen (N2) to
nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2, N2O). Industrial combustions, forest fires, automobile exhausts and thermal
power-generating stations are also sources of atmospheric nitrogen oxides.
Nitrogen Fixing – N2 to Ammonia (NH3)
There is an inexhaustible supply of nitrogen (N2) in the atmosphere, but most living organisms cannot use
the elemental form directly. Nitrogen must be ‘fixed’ — converted to ammonia, nitrites, or nitrates —
before plants can take it up. Nitrogen fixation on earth is accomplished in three different ways:
1) By N-fixing microbes (bacteria and blue-green algae),
2) By industrial processes (fertiliser factories) and
3) To a limited extent by lighting.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 41

WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 42
N2-fixers
* Nitrogenase (nitrogen reduction enzyme), is present exclusively in prokaryotes. Such microbes are
called N2-fixers. They can fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ions (NH4
+).
They include:
 Free-living (non-symbiotic) nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria. E.g., aerobic Azotobacter and Beijemickia; anaerobic Clostridium and Rhodospirillum.
 Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which live in symbiotic association with leguminous plants and nonleguminous root nodule plants. E.g., Rhizobium.
 Some cyanobacteria (blue-green algae – source of N-fixation in oceans). E.g., Nostoc, Anabaena, Spirulina, etc.
 Ammonia (NH3) is a molecule consisting of nitrogen and hydrogen, while ammonium (NH4
+) is an ammonia ion formed by accepting a hydrogen ion.
 Leguminous: denoting plants of the pea family (Leguminosae), typically with seeds in pods, distinctive flowers, and root nodules containing N-fixing bacteria.
 The amount of nitrogen fixed by humans through the industrial process has far exceeded the amount
fixed by the Natural Cycle. As a result, nitrogen fixed by humans has become a pollutant which can disrupt
the balance of nitrogen. It may lead to acid rain, eutrophication and harmful algal blooms.
Nitrification – Ammonia to Nitrites and Nitrates
* Ammonium ions can be directly taken up as a source of nitrogen by some plants. Others absorb nitrites
(NO2
–
) or nitrates (NO3
–
) obtained by nitrification (oxidisation) of ammonia and ammonium ions by two
groups of specialised nitrifying bacteria (chemoautotrophs).
1. Ammonium ions are first oxidised to nitrite by the bacteria Nitrosomonas and/or Nitrococcus.
2. The nitrite is further oxidised to nitrate with the help of the bacterium Nitrobacter.
 Chemoautotrophs use inorganic chemical energy to synthesise organic compounds from carbon dioxide.
* The nitrate thus formed is absorbed by plants and transported to the leaves. In leaves, it is reduced to
ammonia, forming amino acids (building blocks of proteins). These then go through higher trophic levels
of the ecosystem.
Importance of Nitrification
* Nitrification is essential in agriculture, where fertiliser is often applied as ammonia. Conversion of this
ammonia to nitrate (NO3
–
) increases nitrogen leaching because nitrate is more water-soluble than ammonia.
* Nitrification also plays an essential role in removing nitrogen from municipal wastewater. The conventional removal is nitrification, followed by denitrification.
Ammonification – Urea, Uric Acid to NH3 to Nitrite
* Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste products such as urea and uric acid (organic nitrogen).
These waste products, as well as dead remains of organisms, are converted back into inorganic ammonia
and ammonium ions by the bacteria. This process is called ammonification. Most of it is converted into nitrate by soil bacteria. The remaining NH3 volatilises and re-enters the atmosphere. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 43
Denitrification – Nitrate to Nitrogen
* Nitrate present in the soil is reduced to nitrogen by the process of denitrification. In the soil and oceans,
special denitrifying bacteria (pseudomonas and thiobacillus) convert the nitrates/nitrites to elemental nitrogen. This nitrogen escapes into the atmosphere, thus completing the cycle.
Nitrogen Cycle Summary
Step 1: N2 Fixing  Nitrogen → → Ammonia (NH3)/Ammonium Ions (NH4
+)
Step 2: Nitrification  Ammonia/Ammonium Ions → → Nitrite (NO2
–
) → → Nitrate (NO3
–
)
Step 3: Ammonification  Dead Matter, Animal Waste (Urea, Uric Acid) → → Ammonia/Ammonium
Ions → → Nitrate
 Most of the ammonia escapes into the atmosphere.
 Rest is nitrified (Step 2) to nitrates.
 Some of the nitrates are available for plants. Rest is Denitrified (Step 4).
Step 4: Denitrification ==> Nitrate (NO3
–
) → → Nitrogen
 Nitrogen Cycle ==> Nitrogen → (N2 Fixing/Ammonification) → Ammonia/Ammonium Ions → (Nitrification) → Nitrite → → Nitrate → (Denitrification) → Nitrogen
[UPSC 2013] Which of the following adds/add nitrogen to the soil?
1) Excretion of urea by animals
2) Burning of coal by man
3) Death of vegetation
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation:
* All the above add nitrogen to the nitrogen cycle. But the question asks, “Which of the following adds/add
nitrogen to the soil?” There a few processes in the nitrogen cycle that add nitrogen to the soil directly.
Excretion of urea and Dead Biomass
* Animal waste like urea, uric acid, dead vegetation & organisms add nitrogen as nitrates directly into
the soil.
Burning of coal
* Burning coal releases CO, CO2, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Oxides of nitrogen fall on earth as
smog and acid rain. Acidic rain is a complex mixture of nitrous, nitric, sulphurous, and sulfuric acids.
Thus, the burning of coal by man adds nitrogen to the soil, but indirectly through acid rain.
Answer: c) 1 & 3 only
[UPSC 2015] What can be the impact of excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers in agriculture?
1) Proliferation of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms in soil can occur. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 44
2) Increase in the acidity of soil can take place.
3) Leaching of nitrate to the groundwater can occur.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1 and 3 only
b) 2 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Excessive Fertilization Suppresses N2 Fixers
* The legume-rhizobium symbiosis is an example of mutualism — rhizobia supply ammonia/amino
acids to the plant and, in return, receives organic acids as carbon/energy source. So, excessive/inappropriate use of nitrogenous fertilisers can make the plants independent of both symbiotic and freeliving nitrogen fixers. Fixers do not get food from plants due to the broken relationship. So, their population decreases.
Excessive Fertilization and Nitrogen Leaching
* In agriculture, fertiliser is often applied as ammonia. Nitrification of this ammonia to nitrate increases
nitrogen leaching because nitrate is more water-soluble.
Excessive Fertilization Contributes to Acid Rain
* Agricultural fertilisation and nitrogen-fixing plants also contribute to atmospheric NOx by promoting
nitrogen fixation by microorganisms. Excess NOx leads to acid rain. Acid rain lowers the pH of the soil
(increase in acidity of the soil).
Answer: c) 2 and 3 only
5.4. Methane Cycle (Gaseous Cycle)
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 45
* Methane is a more potent GHG than CO2. However, its lifetime in the atmosphere is much shorter (shortlived) than carbon dioxide. It contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone, a dangerous air pollutant.
Natural Sources of Methane Emissions
* Methane is naturally emitted from decomposing a biological matter. include wetlands and oceans and
the digestive processes of termites (small detrivores insects).
Wetlands
* Methanogens are microorganisms that produce methane as a metabolic by-product during the decomposition of organic matter in hypoxic (low oxygen) conditions. They are prokaryotic archaea (archaebacteria — less developed than bacteria).
* Wetlands provide a habitat favourable (hypoxic) to methanogens and contribute to about 80% of the global
CH4 emissions from natural sources.
Termites
* Microbes in the guts of termites produce methane through anaerobic (lack of oxygen) fermentation as
part of their normal digestive process.
Oceans
* The source of methane from oceans is not entirely clear. Two identified sources include the anaerobic digestion in marine zooplankton and fish and from methane produced in sediments/drainage areas in
coastal regions.
Methane Hydrates
* Methane hydrates or clathrates are formed when hydrogen-bonded water and methane gas come into
contact at high pressures (due to depth) and low temperatures in oceans. They are in the form of crystalline
ice that consists of a methane molecule surrounded by a cage of interlocking water molecules. Methane
hydrates are also trapped in permafrost (permanently frozen soil). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 46
* Methane hydrates cannot be brought to the surface as the reduced pressure and increase in temperature will
cause the ice to melt and the methane to escape.
* Ocean acidification, climate change, or any other anthropogenic disturbance can destabilise the clathrates (a lot in the ocean) and lead to the release of an immense amount of methane — can lead to mass
extinction.
Permian–Triassic Extinction (Third Mass Extinction)
* The Permian–Triassic (P-T) extinction event is also known as the Great Dying. It occurred about 252 million
years ago. It is the most severe extinction event, with up to 96% of all marine species and 70% of
terrestrial vertebrate species becoming extinct. It is the only known mass extinction of insects.
* Suggested causes include large meteor impact events, massive volcanism such as that of the Siberian
Traps, and runaway greenhouse effect triggered by the sudden release of methane from the seafloor
due to methane-producing microbes known as methanogens.
Human Sources of Methane Emissions
* Globally, 50-65% of total CH4 emissions come from human activities.
* More than 50% of global methane emissions stem from human activities in 3 sectors:
1. Agriculture (40%)
2. Fossil Fuels (35%)
3. Waste (20%)
* According to UNEP, human-caused methane emissions must be reduced by 45% by 2030. It has recommended different targets and areas for different countries. For India, it has recommended emission reduction in the waste sector (by improving sewage disposal).
Landfills
* Methane is generated in landfills as waste decomposes under anaerobic (lack of oxygen) conditions. The
amount of methane created depends on the quantity and moisture content of the waste.
Wastewater Treatment
* Wastewater from sewage is treated to remove soluble organic matter, pathogens, etc. These treatment processes can produce methane emissions if organic ingredients are treated without oxygen (anaerobic conditions).
Fossil Fuels
* Fossil fuels are formed by natural processes such as the anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. Methane is the primary component of natural gas. It is released during the production, storage and
transmission of natural gas. Methane trapped in coal deposits (Coalbed Methane) is released during normal mining operations.
Livestock
* Domesticated livestock, such as cattle, buffalo, etc., produce large methane as part of their digestive processes.
* In the stomach, microbial fermentation converts feed into products that can be digested. This process produces methane as a by-product, which is exhaled by the animal.
Rice Cultivation WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 47
* Methane is produced during flooded rice cultivation by decomposing organic matter in the soil. Flooded
soils are ideal for methane production because of their high organic levels, oxygen-poor conditions, and
moisture.
Biomass Burning
* Incomplete burning of both living and dead organic matter results in methane emission.
 Human source > Natural Source
 Natural Source  Wetlands > Termites > Oceans > Methane Hydrates
 Human Source  Agriculture > Fossil Fuels > Waste
Methane Sink
* Any process that consumes methane from the atmosphere can be considered a methane sink.
* Soils act as a major sink for atmospheric methane through the methanotrophic bacteria that reside within
them. These bacteria use methane as an energy source in a process called Methane Oxidation.
Reaction with the hydroxyl radical
* Methane is removed from the troposphere by the oxidation of methane by the hydroxyl radical (OH).
After reacting with OH, atmospheric methane is converted to CO2 and water vapour by a long series of
chemical reactions. Some of the methane in the troposphere passes into the stratosphere, where the same
process scrubs the methane there.
 A hydroxyl radical (OH – a neutral form of the hydroxide ion (OH−)) is a negatively charged oxygen atom
bonded with the hydrogen atom.
 Hydroxyl radicals are a form of sink because they scrub the atmosphere clean of pollutant molecules
and break them down. For this reason, hydroxyl radical (OH) is known as the cleanser of the atmosphere.
Methane Hydrates
* Clathrate deposits were once sinks where methane was isolated. However, as the planet warms, some of
these deep, cold sediments are melting, sending methane bubbling to the surface.
5.5. Phosphorus Cycle (Sedimentary cycle)
* Unlike carbon and nitrogen, which come primarily from the atmosphere, phosphorus occurs in large amounts
as a mineral in phosphate rocks. Due to weathering, erosion, and mining, phosphates enter rivers, and,
finally, oceans.
* In the ocean, they accumulate on continental shelves as insoluble deposits. After millions of years, the crustal
plates rise from the seafloor and bring the phosphates to the crust, and the cycle’s geochemical phase repeats.
 Phosphorus plays a central role in aquatic ecosystems and water quality. It is the main cause of excessive
growth of rooted and free-floating microscopic plants (phytoplankton bloom) in lakes (which leads to
eutrophication).
5.6. Sulphur Cycle (Mostly Sedimentary Cycle)
* Sulphur is locked in organic (coal, oil, peat) and inorganic (pyrite rock, sulphur rock) soil deposits in the
form of sulphates, sulphides, and organic sulphur. It is released by weathering of rocks, erosional runoff WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 48
and decomposition of organic matter and is carried to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in the salt solution.
Steps in Sulphur Cycle
* Sulphur enters the atmosphere as sulphur dioxide from sources like volcanic eruptions, combustion of
fossil fuels (coal, diesel, etc.), from the surface of the ocean (Dimethyl Sulfide (DMS)) and gases released by decomposition. Atmospheric hydrogen sulphide also gets oxidised into sulphur dioxide.
 Dimethyl Sulfide (DMS) is an organosulfur (sulphur compound derived from some marine algae, plants,
and animals). DMS is the primary source of marine sulphate aerosols and an essential nutrient for many
organisms.
* Atmospheric sulphur dioxide is carried back to the earth as weak sulphuric acid (acid rain).
* Whatever the source, sulphur in the form of sulphates is taken up by plants and incorporated through a
series of metabolic processes into sulphur-bearing amino acids, which are incorporated in the proteins of
autotroph tissues. It then passes through the grazing food chain.
* Sulphur bound in living organisms is carried back to the soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes and seas
through excretion and decomposition of dead organic material.
[UPSC 2022] Among the following crops, which one is the most important anthropogenic
source of both methane and nitrous oxide?
a) Cotton
b) Rice WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 49
c) Sugarcane
d) Wheat
Explanation:
* Methanogens are most active in hypoxic conditions created by excessive irrigation.
* Agriculture sector (nitrogenous fertilisers) is one of the biggest emitters of nitrous oxide (N2O – GHG)
Answer: b) Rice (excessive irrigation and overuse of fertilisers)
[UPSC 2019] Which of the following statements are correct about the deposits of methane
hydrate?
1. Global warming might trigger the release of methane gas from these deposits
2. Large deposits of ‘methane hydrate’ are found in Arctic Tundra and under the seafloor.
3. Methane in the atmosphere oxidizes to carbon dioxide after a decade or two.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: d) all
[UPSC 2018] With reference to agricultural soils, consider the following statements:
1) A high content of organic matter in soil drastically reduces its water-holding capacity.
2) Soil does not play any role in the Sulphur cycle.
3) Irrigation over a period of time can contribute to the salinization of some agricultural lands.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation:
* A high content of organic matter (humus) in the soil increases its water-holding capacity.
* The sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary except for its two compounds, hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and
sulphur dioxide (SO2).
* In canal-irrigated areas, the groundwater level rises, and saline and alkaline efflorescences consisting
of salts of sodium, calcium and magnesium appear on the surface as a layer of white salt through capillary
action. Vast tracts of canal-irrigated areas in Uttar Pradesh. Punjab and Haryana, arid regions of Rajasthan,
semi-arid areas of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Karnataka etc., are facing this
problem.
Answer: b) 3 only
[UPSC 2021] In case of which one of the following biogeochemical cycles, the weathering of
rocks is the main source of release of nutrient to enter the cycle?
a) Carbon Cycle
b) Nitrogen Cycle WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 50
c) Phosphorus Cycle
d) Sulphur Cycle
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 51

- - - - End of Chapter -

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

India State of Forest Report 2021

Every two years, the Forest Survey of India assesses the country’s forest resources. The results are presented
as the ‘India State of Forest Report (ISFR – biennial report)’. Since 1987, 16 such assessments have been
completed, and the 2021 assessment is the 17th in the series.
Sustainable Development Goals and Forests
11.1. Forest Survey of India (FSI)
Forest Survey of India (FSI) is a national organisation under MoEF. It was established in 1981 at Dehradun.
It is responsible for the assessment and monitoring of the forest resources of the country.
Objectives of FSI
To prepare State of Forest Report biennially.
To conduct inventory assessments in forest and non-forest areas and develop a database on forest resources.
To function as a nodal agency for collecting and disseminating spatial databases on forest resources.
To conduct training of forestry personnel in the application of remote sensing, GIS, etc.
To support State/UT Forest Departments (SFD) in forest resources survey, mapping, and inventory.
The Major Activities of FSI
1. Remote sensing based nationwide forest cover mapping in a biennial cycle,
2. National forest inventory,
3. Forest fire monitoring,
4. Forest carbon assessment,
5. Forest type mapping and projects on emerging issues.
FSI undertakes National Forest Inventory to assess the growing stock in Forests and Trees Outside Forests (TOF), bamboo resources, carbon stock and other parameters.
11.2. Major Terms/Definitions in ISFR
Recorded Forest Area (RFA)  any lands notified as forest under any Government Act or Rules. (A RFA
may or may not have a forest!)
Tree Cover  all patches of trees less than 1 ha outside RFA. (Canopy density does not matter) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 180
Tress Outside Forests (TOF)  all trees outside RFA irrespective of patch size. (Tree Cover is a subset
of TOF)
Forest Cover  all patches of land with a tree canopy density of more than 10% (OF, MDF and VDF)
and more than 1 ha in area, irrespective of land use (agroforestry, compensatory forestry), ownership
(public or private), and species of trees (it can even be a plantation!).
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 181
 Recorded Forest Area (RFA)  Any land that the government calls a forest area
 Tree Cover  less than 1 ha + outside RFA
 Trees Outside Forests (TOF)  Any tree outside RFA
 Forest cover  more than 1 ha + tree canopy density ≥10%
In RFAs, there are areas with a density of less than 10% and some even without trees. On the other hand,
there are areas outside the RFA with tree stands of more than 10% canopy density and size 1 ha or
more, such areas also constitute forest cover. Therefore, the change in the forest cover is not necessarily
due to changes within the RFA but also outside RFA.
11.3. Status of India’s Forest Resources in 2021 (ISFR 2021)
[UPSC 2020] Examine the status of forest resources of India and its resultant impact on climate change. (250words)
Forest and Tree Cover of India
Class
(GA: Geographical Area)
ISFR 2019 ISFR 2021
Area
(km2
)
% of GA Area
(km2
)
% of GA
Very Dense Forest (VDF – tree canopy density ≥ 70%)
Moderately Dense Forest (MDF – tree canopy density ≥
40% but < 70%)
Open Forest (OF – tree canopy density ≥ 10% but < 40%)
99278
3,08,472
3,04,499
3.02
9.38
9.26
99,779
3,06,890
3,07,120
3.04 (↑)
9.33 (↓)
9.34 (↑)
Total Forest Cover (Mangroves + VDF + MDF + OF) 7,12,249 21.67 7,13,789 21.71 (↑)
Tree Cover 95,027 2.89 95,748 2.91 (↑)
Total Forest and Tree Cover 8,07,276 24.56 8,09,537 24.62 (↑)
Scrub (forest with canopy density < 10%) 46,297 1.41 46,539 1.42 (↑)
Non-Forest (Tree Cover + Water Bodies + Land not under
Forest Cover)
25,28,923 76.92 25,27,141 76.87 (↓)
Total Geographic Area 32,87,269 100 32,87,469 100
VDF and MDF constitute 57 per cent of the total Forest Cover. (VDF + MDF > OF)
Forest Cover
State/UT
GA: Geographical Area; Area is in sq
km
2021 Forest Cover in sq km Total % of
GA
%
Change
w.r.t
2019
VDF MDF OF
1 Madhya Pradesh 6,665 34,209 36,619 77,493 25 (20) 11
2 Arunachal Pradesh 21,058 30,176 15,197 66,431 79 (4) -257
3 Chhattisgarh 7,068 32,279 16,370 55,717 41 (13) 106
4 Odisha 7,213 20,995 23,948 52,156 34 (17) 537
5 Maharashtra 8,734 20,589 21,475 50,798 17 (27) 20
6 Karnataka 4,533 20,985 13,212 38,730 20 (22) 155 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 182
7 Andhra Pradesh 1,994 13,929 13,861 29,784 18 (26) 647
8 Assam 3,017 9,991 15,304 28,312 36 (16) -15
9 Tamil Nadu 3,593 11,034 11,792 26,419 20 (21) 55
10 Uttarakhand 5,055 12,768 6,482 24,305 45 (12) 2
11
12
13
Jharkhand 2,601 9,689 11,431 23,721 30 (18) 110
Jammu and Kashmir 4,155 8,117 9,115 21,387 39 (14) 29
Kerala 1,944 9,472 9,837 21,253 55 (10) 109
14 Telangana 1,624 9,119 10,471 21,214 19 (25) 632
15 Mizoram 157 5,715 11,948 17,820 85 (2) -186
16 Meghalaya 560 9,160 7,326 17,046 76 (5) -73
17 West Bengal 3,037 4,208 9,587 16,832 19 (24) -70
18 Rajasthan 78 4,369 12,208 16,655 5 (33) 25
19 Manipur 905 6,228 9,465 16,598 74 (6) -249
20 Himachal Pradesh 3,163 7,100 5,180 15,443 28 (19) 9
21 Gujarat 378 5,032 9,516 14,926 8 (31) 69
22 Uttar Pradesh 2,627 4,029 8,162 14,818 6 (32) 12
23 Nagaland 1,272 4,449 6,530 12,251 74 (7) -235
24 Tripura 647 5,212 1,863 7,722 74 (8) -4
25 Bihar 333 3,286 3,762 7,381 8 (30) 75
26 A and N Islands 5,678 683 383 6,744 82 (3) 1
27 Sikkim 1,102 1,551 688 3,341 47 (11) -1
28 Ladakh 2 512 1,758 2,272 1 (36) 18
29 Goa 538 576 1,130 2,244 61 (9) 7
30 Punjab 11 793 1,043 1,847 4 (34) -2
31 Haryana 28 445 1,130 1,603 4 (35) 1
32 Dadra-NH and Daman-Diu 1 86 141 228 38 (15) 0
33 Delhi 7 57 132 195 13 (28) 0
34 Puducherry 0 18 36 53 11 (29) 1
35 Lakshadweep 0 16 11 27 90 (1) 0
36 Chandigarh 1 14 8 23 20 (23) 1
Total in 2019 99,278 3,08,472 3,04,499 7,12,249 21.67 0.56
Total in 2021 99,779
(↑)
306,890
(↓)
307,120
(↑)
7,13,789
(↑)
21.71
(↑) 0.22 (↓)
 FC as a percentage of GA: Lakshadweep (90%), Mizoram (85%), A&N Islands (82%), Arunachal Pradesh
(79%), Meghalaya (76%), Manipur (74%), Nagaland (74%), Tripura (74%), Goa (61%), Kerala (55%), etc.
 FC as a percentage of GA among NE States: Mizoram (85%), Arunachal Pradesh (79%), Meghalaya
(76%), Manipur (74%), Nagaland (74%), Tripura (74%), Sikkim (47%) and Assam (36%).
 FC as a % of GA among non-NE States: Goa (61%), Kerala (55%), Uttarakhand (45%), Chhattisgarh (41%),
Assam (36%), Odisha (34%), Jharkhand (30%), HP (28%), MP (25%), TN (20%), Karnataka (20%), Chandigarh WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 183
(20%), WB (19%), Telangana (19%), AP (18%), Maharashtra (17%), Bihar (8%), Gujarat (8%), UP (6%), Rajasthan (5%), Punjab (4%) and Haryana (4%).
 FC as a percentage of GA among non-NE and non-Himalayan States: Goa (61%), Kerala (55%),
Chhattisgarh (41%), Odisha (34%), Jharkhand (30%), Madhya Pradesh (25%), etc.
 Sates with a positive change in FC: Andhra Pradesh (647 sq km), Telangana, Odisha, Karnataka and Jharkhand (110 sq km).
 States with a negative change in FC: Arunachal Pradesh (257 sq km), Manipur, Nagaland, Mizoram &
Meghalaya (73 sq km).
Forest cover in the NE region is 1,69,521 sq. km (64.66% of the GA), a decrease of 1,020 sq. km.
Forest cover in the 140 hill districts is 2,83,104 sq. km( 40.17% of the GA), a decrease of 902 sq. km.
Forest cover in the tribal districts is 4,22,296 sq. km (37.53% of the GA), a decrease of 655 sq. km of forest
cover inside the RFA in the tribal districts and an increase of 600 sq. km outside.
Forest Cover in the seven major cities is 509.72 sq km which is 10.21% of the total geographical area of the
cities. Delhi has the largest Forest Cover (194 sq km), followed by Mumbai (111 sq km), Bengaluru (89 sq
km), Hyderabad (82 sq km), Chennai (23 sq km), Ahmedabad (9.4 sq km) and Kolkata (1.7 sq km).
Maximum gain in Forest Cover is seen in Hyderabad (48.66 sq km) followed by Delhi (19.91 sq km). At the
same time, Ahmedabad and Bengaluru have lost Forest Cover of 8.55 sq km and 4.98 sq km, respectively.
Q. Consider the following states :
1. Chhattisgarh
2. Madhya Pradesh
3. Maharashtra
4. Odisha
With reference to the states mentioned above, in terms of percentage of forest cover to the
total area of State, which one of the following is the correct ascending order?
a) 2-3-1-4
b) 2-3-4-1
c) 3-2-4-1
d) 3-2-1-4
Answer: c) 3-2-4-1
Recorded Forest Area (RFA)
RFA (extent of forest in terms of legal status) primarily consists of Reserved Forests (RF) and Protected
Forests (PF), which have been constituted under the provisions of the Indian Forest Act 1927 or its counterpart State Acts.
The term RFA is used for all lands (irrespective of tree cover or canopy density) which have been notified
as forest under any Government Act or Rules or recorded as ‘forest’ in the Government records (RFs,
PFs, lands classified as forest in revenue records). That is, a RFA may or may not have forest cover!
Forest Cover and Recorded Forest Area overlap, but they are not coterminous. FSI obtains boundaries of
recorded forest areas from the State Forest Departments (SFD), as the SFDs are the custodians of the
RFAs. The Forest Advisory Committee (FAC), the apex body of the Centre that deliberates on granting WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 184
permission to industry to fell forests, said, “… States, having well-established Forest Departments should
frame criteria for their forests… criteria so finalised by a State need not be subject to approval by the MoEF”.
Deemed Forests
The freedom to define which tracts of forest qualify as RFA has been the prerogative of States since 1996.
Deemed forests, which comprise about 1% of India’s forest land, are a controversial subject as they
refer to land tracts that appear to be a forest but have not been notified so by the state government.
Recorded Forest Areas (RFAs) in States and UTs
S.No. State/ UT RFA (in different categories) Total RFA
(2021)
% of GA
RF PF Unclassed
1. Madhya Pradesh 61886 (1) 31098 (1) 1705 94689 30.72
2. Maharashtra 50865 (2) 6433 4654 61952 20.13
3. Odisha 36049 (3) 25133 (3) 22 61204 39.31
4. Chhattisgarh 25897 24036 9883 (3) 59816 44.25 (9)
5. Arunachal Pradesh 12371 11857 27312 (1) 51540 61.55 (6)
6. Karnataka 28690 3931 5663 38284 19.96
7. Uttarakhand 26547 9885 1568 38000 71.05 (4)
8. Himachal Pradesh 1883 28887 (2) 7178 37948 68.16 (5)
9. Andhra Pradesh 31959 5069 230 37258 22.86
10. Rajasthan 12176 18543 2144 32863 9.6
11. Telangana 25800 1592 296 27688 24.7
12. Assam 17864 0 8972 26836 34.21
13. Jharkhand 4500 18922 1696 25118 31.51
14. Tamil Nadu 20523 1053 1612 23188 17.83
15. Gujarat 14574 2898 4398 21870 11.14
16. J&K 17648 2551 0 20199 36.98
17. Manipur 984 3254 13180 (2) 17418 78.01 (3)
18. Uttar Pradesh 11560 296 5528 17384 7.22
19. West Bengal 7054 3772 1053 11879 13.38
20. Kerala 11522 0 0 11522 29.66
21. Meghalaya 1113 12 8371 9496 42.34 (10)
22. Nagaland 234 0 8389 8623 52.01 (8)
23. Mizoram 4499 1823 1157 7479 35.48
24. Bihar 693 6183 566 7442 7.9
25. Andaman and Nicobar
Is.
5613 1558 0 7171 86.93 (1)
26. Tripura 3588 2 2704 6294 60.02 (7)
27. Sikkim 5452 389 0 5841 82.31 (2)
28. Punjab 44 1137 1903 3084 6.12
29. Haryana 249 1158 152 1559 3.53 WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 185
30. Goa 119 755 397 1271 34.33
31. Dadra-NH and DamanDiu
203 5 6 214 35.55
32. Delhi 78 25 0 103 6.95
33. Chandigarh 32 0 3 35 30.7
34. Puducherry 0 2 11 13 2.65
35. Ladakh 7 0 0 7 0
36. Lakshadweep 0 0 0 0 0
Total in 2019 434,853 218,924 113,642 767,419 23.34
Total in 2021 4,42,276 (↑) 2,12,259 (↓) 1,20,753 (↑) 7,75,288 (↑) 23.58 (↑)
 RFA as a % of GA: A&N (87%), Sikkim (82%), Manipur (78%), Uttarakhand (71%), HP (68%), Arunachal
Pradesh (62%), etc.
 RFA as a percentage of GA among NE States: Sikkim (82%), Manipur (78%), Arunachal Pradesh (62%),
Tripura (60%), Nagaland (52%), Meghalaya (42%), Mizoram (35) and Assam (34%).
 RFA as a percentage of GA among non-NE States: Uttarakhand (71%), HP (68%), Chhattisgarh (44%),
Odisha (39%), etc.
 RFA as a percentage of GA among non-NE and non-Himalayan States: Chhattisgarh (44%), Odisha
(39%), etc.
Tree Cover
Tree cover includes all patches of trees occurring outside RFA which are of size less than 1 ha. Forest
cover and tree cover together are called Forest and Tree Cover. It is the parameter for monitoring progress
against the National Forest Policy goal of 33% of the country’s geographical area under forests.
The total tree cover of the country has been estimated at 95,748 sq km (a slight increase since 2019).
States/UTs having maximum tree cover are Maharashtra (12,108 sq km), Rajasthan (8,733 sq km), and
Madhya Pradesh.
Considering the percentage of the geographical area of States/UTs, the UT of Chandigarh shows the highest
percentage of tree cover (13.16%) followed by Delhi (9.91%) and Kerala (7.26%).
Tress Outside Forests (TOF)
TOF refers to all trees outside RFA irrespective of patch size, which could also be larger than 1 ha. Thus,
tree cover is a subset of TOF. Maharashtra (26,866 sq km) has the largest extent of TOF, followed by Odisha.
In terms of the percentage of GA, the UT of Lakshadweep (90%) has the highest percentage of TOF, followed
by Kerala (37%).
Fire Proneness
More than 36% of India’s forest cover is prone to frequent forest fires, nearly 4% is extremely prone, and
6% is very high fire-prone.
The MoEF formulated the National Action Plan on Forest Fires (NAPFF) in 2018 to minimise forest fires by
empowering forest fringe communities and incentivising them to work in tandem with the State Forest Departments (SFDs). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 186
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 187
Mangrove Cover
GA: Geographic area in sq km; VDM: Very Dense Mangrove; MDM: Moderately Dense Mangrove; OM: Open
Mangrove
 South 24 Parganas district of West Bengal alone accounts for 47.74 %Mangrove cover of the country.
 The mangrove cover in the country has increased by 364 sq. km. in 2021 as compared to 2013.
Criticism of FSI’s approach and ISFR
State/UT VDM MDM OM GA
1 West Bengal 994 (1) 692 428 2114 (↑)
2 Gujarat 0 169 1006 1175 (↓)
3 A&N Islands 399 (2) 168 49 616
4 Andhra Pradesh 0 213 192 405 (↑)
5 Maharashtra 0 90 234 324 (↑)
6 Odisha 81 (3) 94 84 259 (↑)
7 Tamil Nadu 1 27 17 45
8 Goa 0 21 6 27 (↑)
9 Karnataka 0 2 11 13 (↑)
10 Kerala 0 5 4 9
11 D&NH and D&D 0 0 3 3
12 Puducherry 0 0 2 2
Total in 2019 1,476 1,479 2,020 4,975
Total in 2021 1,475 (↓) 1,481 (↑) 2,036 (↑) 4,992 (↑)
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 188
Criticism of the definition of ‘Forest Cover’
Under the current definition of ‘forest cover’ a rubber plantation or any other planantion of 1 ha or more
can be considered as a forest. This gives a false impression of the state of forests as the ecological importance of plantations is well below that of a natural forest.
Unlike the roots of trees in a natural forest, the roots of plantation crops don’t run deep. Hence, they
cannot hold the soil tight which means replacing natural forests with plantation tress like rubber, palm, etc.
can increase the frequency and scale of landslides (slope failure).
Massive landslides occurring in Western Ghats in recent times are said to be due to replacement of natural
forest by plantation agriculture. (Remember the landslides in Kerala in 2018? Plantation crops!)
Plantations cannot retain moisture or supporting wildlife the way natural forests do. Also, the carbon stock
in plantations is far below than that of a natural forest.
Positives are exaggerated and negatives are suppressed
 The claims of increase in forest cover doesn’t reflect the ground reality as the land acquired for compensatory afforestation is included in the quantitative accounting of forests without taking into consideration the loss or diversion of forest land for mining and other projects.
Not enough tree cover but still a forest! Forest on paper!
 ISFR data doesn’t explain why 30% of the RFA (2,15,000 sq. km) has no forest cover! Such data is crucial
to evaluate the effect of policies on forest loss and degradation.
Anything green is a forest?
 The ISFR methodology relies primarily on remote-sensing techniques that can pick anything that is green
and of a certain scale on its radar. This is used to generate data on the extent of ‘green cover’.
 For years, foresters and ecologists have said that this report does not distinguish between natural forests,
commercial plantations, orchards, and bamboo groves while enumerating forests.
 According to them, areas with ‘tree stands’ of over 10% canopy cover are counted as forests, irrespective
of whether they function ecologically as forests or not.
11.4. National Forest Inventory
The UNFCCC guidelines for implementation of REDD+ require that every country should have a satellitebased National Forest Monitoring System (NFMS) and a National Forest Inventory. The primary objective
is to assess the growing stock of trees (volume of all living trees), the number of trees, bamboo, soil carbon,
non-timber forest products (NTFP), invasive species, etc.
Growing Stock
Growing stock is an indicator of forest productivity. The growing stock is estimated at 56.60 cum per ha.
Among states, Kerala, Uttarakhand and Goa have the highest per ha growing stock in a forest.
Among the UTs, the highest per ha growing stock in a forest is in Ladakh, followed by J&K and A&N Islands.
In respect of the total volume of growing stock, Arunachal Pradesh has the maximum growing stock (419
m cum) in forests, followed by Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh and MP.
In TOF, Maharashtra has the maximum growing stock (188 m cum), followed by Karnataka. Sal, teak and
pine trees have the highest growing stocks in forests and TOF. Mango and neem have the highest growing
stocks in TOF. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 189
Bamboo Resources of the Country
Bamboos are one of the fastest-growing perennial grass plants. They can thrive in an extreme range of
climatic and edaphic (soil) conditions. They are found in the tropical, sub-tropical and mildly temperate
regions of the world.
Bamboo culms grow from the dense root rhizome system. The monopodial rhizome grows horizontally,
and the buds develop either upward, generating a culm, or horizontally, with a new tract of the rhizome. The
sympodial rhizomes are short and thick, and the culms, which are above the ground, are close together in
a compact clump, which expands evenly around its circumference.
The clump-forming species are naturally found in tropical regions, and they are not invasive. Some bamboos are non-clump forming and can be invasive. They are generally found in temperate regions.
Distribution
Bamboo distribution is uneven and largely depends on climatic factors, altitude, and soil. They are naturally
abundant in East and SE Asia and the Islands of the Pacific and Indian oceans. Large tracts of natural
bamboo forest are found in Asian countries between 15° and 25° N latitudes.
In India, bamboo grows naturally everywhere except in the Kashmir region. They are abundant in the deciduous and semi-evergreen forests of the North-Eastern region and the tropical moist deciduous forests of Northern and Southern India.
The North-Eastern states and West Bengal account for more than 50% of India’s bamboo resources.
Other bamboo-rich areas of the country are the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh, and the Western Ghats.
Bamboo Bearing Area
The total bamboo-bearing area of the country has been estimated to be 15.0 million ha. Madhya Pradesh
has a maximum bamboo-bearing area of 1.84 m ha, followed by Arunachal Pradesh (1.57 million ha), Maharashtra (1.35 million ha) and Odisha (1.12 million ha).
As compared to the estimates of ISFR 2019, the total bamboo-bearing area in the country has decreased by
1.06 million ha. Mizoram has shown the highest increase, followed by Arunachal Pradesh. Similarly, Madhya
Pradesh has shown the highest decrease, followed by Maharashtra.
Importance of Bamboo
 Bamboo is an essential component of the subsistence economy in providing livelihood to the tribals. It is,
therefore, called green gold, poor man’s timber, cradle-to-coffin timber, etc. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 190
 Young bamboo shoots are used as vegetables in many cuisines. Stems can be split up as pipes in channelling
water. Raw leaves of many species are a source of fodder for cattle. Large stems are used as planks for houses
and rafts, while large and small stems are latched together to form the scaffoldings at construction sites.
 Bamboo is an essential non-wood forest product used in making normal and fine-quality paper, furniture,
flooring, handicrafts, walking sticks, fishing poles etc.
 Bamboo plays an important role in carbon sequestration, biodiversity, and soil moisture conservation.
Forest Fringe Villages
As per the Census 2011, there are about 6,50,000 villages in the country, out of which nearly 1,70,000
villages are located in the proximity of forest areas, they are often termed Forest Fringe Villages.
The population in these villages is dependent on the forests for meeting the needs of fuelwood, fodder,
small timber, bamboo and NTFPs. States with the highest dependence on forests for
 Fuelwood: Maharashtra > Odisha > Rajashtan > MP
 Fodder: MP > Maharashtra > Gujarat > Rajashtan
 Bamboo: MP > Chhattisgarh > Gujarat > Maharashtra
 Small Timber: MP > Gujarat > Maharashtra
Initiatives to Promote Bamboo in India
According to the National Bamboo Mission, India has the highest area (15 million ha) under bamboo and
is the second richest country after China in bamboo diversity, with 136 species. However, China exports
68% of the world’s bamboo and rattan products.
The Indian Forest Act 1927 was amended in 2017 to remove bamboo from the category of trees. As a
result, anyone can undertake cultivation and business in bamboo and its products. Hence bamboo
grown outside forests no longer needs felling and transit permissions.
National Bamboo Mission (NBM)
The restructured NBM was launched in 2018. It envisages promoting holistic growth of the bamboo sector
by adopting an area-based, regionally differentiated strategy & increasing the area under bamboo cultivation & marketing.
It will focus on the development of bamboo only in the significant bamboo-growing states with a social,
commercial, and economic advantage, particularly in the North-eastern region and states, including Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Karnataka, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, etc.
The bamboo plantations will be promoted predominantly in farmers’ fields, homesteads, community lands,
arable wastelands, and along irrigation canals, water bodies, etc. Primary processing centres are being set up
close to the plantations, which will enable the cost of transportation of whole bamboo to be reduced.
To address forward integration, it will strengthen the marketing of bamboo products and handicraft items.
The Sector Skill Councils established under National Skill Development Agency will impart skills and
Recognition of Prior Learning to traditional artisans.
Project Bold
The project named “Bamboo Oasis on Lands in Drought” (BOLD) was launched to create bamboo-based
green patches in arid and semi-arid land zones.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 191
BOLD is a scientific exercise initiated by the Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC). It serves the
combined objectives of reducing desertification and providing livelihood and multi-disciplinary rural
industry support.
11.5. Forest Types of India
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 192
H.G. Champion first enunciated a classification system for forests of undivided India in 1935. S.K. Seth subsequently joined Champion in refining the earlier work in 1968. Subsequently, their system became the standard in forest-type classification in the country.
Champion and Seth’s system is based on the premise that a forest type could be treated as a distinct
ecosystem; many preceding classification systems are based on climate, soil or vegetation alone. It is a
three-tier system of classification: six climate-based major groups sub-divided into 16 precipitation &
temperature range-based groups.
Forest Type Area in sq km % of Total Carbon stock in mt
1 Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests 2,80,547 39.30 2176.8
2 Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests 1,31,805 18.47 1302.7
3 Plantation/TOF 75,221 10.54 529.5
4 Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests 69,195 9.69 686.0
5 Subtropical Broadleaved Hill Forests 31,015 4.35 432.6
6 Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests 28,727 4.02 646.7
7 Montane Wet Temperate Forests 20,185 2.83 342.5
8 Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests 19,572 2.74 345.6
9 Subtropical Pine Forests 17,801 2.49 239.4
10 Tropical Thorn Forests 13,259 1.86 49.6
11 Sub-Alpine Forests 12,672 1.78 232.4
12 Littoral and Swamp Forests 5,478 0.77 72.6
13 Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests 4,255 0.60 103.9
14 Dry Alpine Scrub 2,396 0.34 27.5
15 Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests 835 0.12 7.7
16 Moist Alpine Scrub 652 0.09 5.6
17 Subtropical Dry Evergreen Forest 173 0.02 2.7
Total 7,13,789 100 7,203.8
Maximum tree diversity has been found in tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of Western Ghats (TN, Kerala and Karnataka), followed by North Eastern states. Low tree diversity has been noticed in the subtropical dry evergreen forests of Jammu and Kashmir and forest deficit States like Punjab,
Haryana and Rajasthan.
Karnataka has the maximum species richness for trees, Arunachal Pradesh for shrubs and J&K for herbs.
Arunachal Pradesh has the maximum richness of species when all three types of plants are considered,
followed by TN and Karnataka.
Carbon Stock in India’s Forests
World’s Forest Carbon Stocks
The world’s forests and forest soils currently store more than one trillion tons (1000 Gt) of carbon
which is nearly 1.3 times larger than the carbon stored in fossil fuel reserves (estimated at 800 Gt) and
more than the carbon added to the atmosphere because of human activities since 1870 (about 600 Gt). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 193
It has been estimated that since 1750, forests have been responsible for about half of the carbon emissions naturally sequestered from the atmosphere; the oceans have absorbed the rest.
Forests store an estimated 296 Gt of carbon above and below the ground biomass, which contains almost
half of the total carbon stored in forest areas, the other half being the soil organic carbon.
Globally, over the last 25 years, the carbon stock in forest biomass has decreased by almost 17.4 Gt,
equivalent to a reduction of 697 million tonnes per year or about 2.5 Gt of carbon dioxide equivalent.
The carbon stock for 2021 has been estimated at 7,204 million tonnes (mt), a slight increase (79.4 mt)
since 2019. This translates into carbon emissions sequestrated through forest and tree cover to be 30.1
billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent.
The maximum carbon stock has been stored in:
 Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest (2,177 mt), Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest (1,303 mt) & Tropical SemiEvergreen Forest (686 mt).
 Arunachal Pradesh (1,023.84 mt), Madhya Pradesh (609.25 mt), Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra.
The least carbon stock has been stored in Subtropical Dry Evergreen Forest, Moist Alpine Scrub and
Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests.
The maximum per hectare C stock has been stored in:
 Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests (244.19 tonnes/ha), Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests, Sub-Alpine
Forests and Equatorial Wet Evergreen Forests.
 Jammu and Kashmir (173.41 tonnes/ha), Himachal Pradesh (167.10 tonnes/ha), Sikkim and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands (162.86 tonnes/ha).
The least per hectare carbon stock has been stored in Tropical Thorn Forests & Tropical Dry Deciduous
Forests.
Soil organic carbon is the largest pool of forest carbon accounting for (56%) followed by AGB (32%), BGB
(10%), Litter (1.5%) and dead wood (0.7%). In all the NE states, it is observed that SOC is almost double the
carbon in AGB.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 194
Pools Description
Living
Biomass
Above Ground biomass (AGB) All living biomass above the soil.
Below Ground biomass (BGB) All living biomass of live roots.
Dead
Organic Matter
Dead Wood Includes all non-living woody biomass not contained
in the litter.
Litter Includes all non-living biomass with a diameter less
than the minimum diameter chosen by the country,
lying dead, in various states of decomposition.
Soil Soil organic matter Includes organic carbon in mineral and organic
soils (including peat) to a specific depth.
Meeting NDC Target
According to the forestry target under Paris Agreement (2015) Nationally Determined Contributions
(NDC), India has committed to creating an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3.0 billion tonnes of CO2
equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030. The projection for 2030 shows a shortfall of
0.25 billion tonnes and 0.75 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent.
The shortfall can be bridged through the restoration of open forests, which is the most cost-effective
strategy — above 70% of forest cover in India falls in tropical semi-evergreen, tropical moist deciduous
and tropical dry deciduous forest types, and more than 30% of these areas fall in the category of open
forest.
11.6. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020
Global Forest Resource Assessment (FRA) done by FAO once in five years provides information about the
forest resources of almost all countries.
FAO has released the latest report of GFRA in the year 2020. The Top 3 countries that recorded the maximum average annual net gains in forest area during 2010-20 are:
1. China (1.9 mha)
2. Australia (0.44 mha)
3. India (0.26 mha)
Tropical > Boreal > Temperate > Subtropical WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 195
Forest Area of Top 5 Countries In 2020
M ha: Million hectares; 100 ha = 1 sq km
Country Forest area (M ha)
(2015)
Forest area (M ha)
2020
% of the country’s
area
% global forest
area
1. Russia 814 815 (↑) 49.8 20
2. Brazil 493 497 (↑) 59.4 12
3. Canada 347 347 38.7 9
4. USA 310 310 34 8
5. China 208 220 (↑) 23.3 5
Russia > Brazil > Canada > US > China > Australia > Democratic Republic of Congo > Indonesia >
Peru > India (10th)
 Brazil saw an increase in forest area despite the unprecedented destruction of Amazon forests!
 India accounts for 2% of the total global forest area.
 Brazil, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Peru have more than half of their GA under forests.
 In terms of growing stock Brazil > Russia > Canada > USA
GFRA and India
The FRA 2020 has credited India’s Joint Forest Management programme for the significant increase in the
community–managed forest areas in the Asian continent.
The forest area managed by local, tribal and indigenous communities in India increased from zero in 1990
to about 25 million ha in 2015.
India reported the maximum employment (nearly 50%) in the forestry sector in the world. Globally, 12.5
million people were employed in the forestry sector.
11.7. National Forest Policy 1988
India has had a forest policy since 1894. The policy was revised in 1952 and again in 1988. The principal aim
of the 1988 policy was to ensure environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance, including atmospheric equilibrium. The derivation of direct economic benefit must be subordinated to this principal aim. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 196
For the first time, the policy considered forest land or land with tree cover as a national asset. The diversion of forest land for any non-forest purpose should be subject to the most careful examination. It mandates
that 33% (1/3rd) of the GA of India should be under forest or tree cover.
Other Aims and Objectives
 Conservation of natural heritage and checking soil erosion and denudation in catchment areas.
 Checking extension of sand dunes in desert areas of Rajasthan and along coastal tracts.
 Substantially increasing forest/tree cover through massive afforestation and social forestry programmes.
 Ensuring the symbiotic relationship between tribal people and forests and including tribal people
closely in the protection, regeneration and development of forests.
 Taking steps to meet requirements of fuel, wood, fodder, minor forest produce, soil and timber of rural and
tribal populations.
 Taking steps to create massive people’s movement with the involvement of women to achieve the objectives and minimise pressure on existing forests.
 Greater impetus for Forestry Education and Research.
Draft National Forest Policy 2018
India’s forests are currently governed by the National Forest Policy of 1988, an update to which has been
in the offing for nearly five years now.
Aims and Objectives of 2018 Policy
 Reverse the degradation of forests and contribute towards achieving forestry-related Nationally Determined Contribution Targets (NDCs).
 Maintenance of the health of forest vegetation and forest soils for augmenting water supplies through recharge of underground aquifers & regulation of surface water.
 Manage protected and other wildlife-rich areas with the primary objective of biodiversity conservation and
enriching other ecosystem services.
 Factor green accounting, valuation of ecosystem services and climate change concerns adequately into
the planning and managing of all forests, protected areas, etc.
 Integrate climate change mitigation/adaptation measures in forest management through the mechanism of
REDD+ so that the impacts of climate change are minimised.
 Sustainable use of Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP) such as medicinal and aromatic plants, oil seeds,
resins, wild edibles, fibre, bamboo, grass etc.
 Managing and expanding green spaces in urban and peri-urban areas to enhance citizens’ wellbeing.
 Credible certification process to enhance the value of forest products harvested sustainably.
 Greater emphasis on protecting forests of the North-East.
 Establishing a National Board of Forestry (Headed by the Environment Minister) and State Boards of
Forestry (Headed by the State Environment Minister) to ensure convergence, and conflict resolution.
 Integration and assimilation of international multilateral agreements and commitments.
 Private intervention for maintaining the forest quality.
11.8. Afforestation Programmes WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 197
The MoEF is implementing afforestation schemes in the forest areas with a participatory approach. The
plantation species are selected by the members of Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMC) based
on their needs, ecological conditions and other factors. Native forest species with multiple uses are encouraged.
The ministry is implementing three significant schemes for the development of forest areas:
1. National Afforestation Programme (NAP) scheme for the afforestation of degraded forest lands.
2. National Mission for a Green India (GIM) (Green India Mission) to improve the quality of forests
and increase forest cover.
3. Forest Fire Prevention and Management Scheme (FFPM) takes care of forest fire prevention and
management measures.
For scientific management of forests, the states prepare a Working Plan which highlights various activities
to be undertaken in a forest division for effective management of forest, which MoEF approves. The funds
collected under Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA), as
compensatory levies from states inter-alia, are used in plantation activity.
National Afforestation Programme (NAP)
NAP aims at the restoration of degraded forests and developing the forests with peoples’ participation.
It is a centrally sponsored scheme implemented with the fund sharing pattern of 60:40 between Centre
and States, wherein the sharing pattern for NE & hilly States is 90:10.
A three-tier institutional setup implements NAP:
1. State Forest Development Agency (SFDA) at state level,
2. Forest Development Agency (FDA) at forest division level,
3. Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs – registered societies) at the village level.
Joint Forest Management (JFM)
GOI introduced the concept of JFM through the National Forest Policy, 1988. JFM is a forest management
partnership involving the forest departments and local communities. The communities are required to organise Forest Protection Committee (FPC), village forest committees, etc.
Each body has an executive committee that manages its day-to-day affairs. The woman sub-committee in
the Joint Forest Management Committee (JFMC) ensures gender balance. In return for their services to
the forests, the communities benefit from using minor non-timber forest produce.
Examples of Joint Forest Management (JFM)
 Controlled grazing of cattle by the Gaddi and Gujjar tribes in the Himalayan states prevents the widespread growth of wild grass, thus contributing towards the conservation of biodiversity.
 Bishnoi community of Rajasthan and Punjab play a significant role in conserving Blackbuck (LC).
 Maldharis, living in the vicinity of Gir National Park, have contributed to the improvement of the lion population.
Issues with Joint Forest Management (JFM)
 Implementation of JFM afforestation programmes is expensive (Rs 20,000 per ha).
 Inadequate remuneration for local communities from JFM activities.
 Lack of legal status and financial and executive powers for the Forest Protection Committee (FPC).
 Forest Departments in certain States are vested with arbitrary powers to dissolve FPCs. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 198
 Absence of participation by women despite their formal representation in management committees.
 Inter-intra-community conflicts hamper FPC functioning.
 Denial of rights on disposal over valuable Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to local communities.
Social forestry
The National Commission on Agriculture, GOI, first used the term ‘social forestry’ in 1976. Social forestry is
the management and protection of forests and afforestation of barren and deforested lands with the help
of local communities.
Social forestry was meant to take the pressure off the forests and use unused and fallow land. With the
introduction of this scheme, the government formally recognised the local communities’ rights to forest
resources.
Components of Social Forestry
Farm forestry: commercial and non-commercial farm forestry is being promoted where individual farmers
were encouraged to plant trees on their farmland.
Community forestry: raising of trees on community land by communities for the benefit of the entire community. The government has the responsibility of providing seedlings and fertiliser.
Extension forestry: Planting trees on the sides of roads, canals and railways and planting on wastelands is
known as ‘extension’ forestry. Under this project, there has been the creation of wood lots in the common
village lands, government wastelands and panchayat lands.
Agroforestry: Planting trees on and around agricultural boundaries, and on marginal, private lands, in combination with crops, is known as agroforestry.
Social forestry suffers from similar issues as those faced by Joint Forest Management.
Compensatory Afforestation (CA)
Under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, whenever forest land is diverted for non-forestry purposes, an
equal area of non-forest land (revenue land) or twice the area of degraded forest land has to be planted
over as CA.
The process starts with the project proponent identifying land for CA and proposing the same to the state
forest department. If the department approves the proposal, the project proponent pays for the land (Net
Present Value), which is transferred to the state forest department. The state forest department then undertakes plantation work on that land.
Till 2019, afforestation was allowed on degraded forest land only if revenue land was unavailable. MoEF
brought in a notification, allowing compensatory afforestation in forestland where crown density is less
than 40%.
Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF) Act, 2016
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) is a National Advisory
Council under the chairmanship of the Union Minister of Environment. CAMPA and State CAMPA were set
up on a ad hoc basis in 2006 after the intervention of the Supreme Court.
CAMPA at the national and state level CAMPAs are meant to promote afforestation and regeneration activities as a way of compensating for forest land diverted to non-forest uses. The CAMPA National Advisory
Council makes recommendations to State CAMPA. The State CAMPA receives funds collected from user
agencies towards CA. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 199
CAF Act was enacted in 2016 to manage the funds collected for compensatory afforestation by CAMPA. The
law established the National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of India, and
a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of each state. These Funds will receive
payments for: (i) compensatory afforestation, (ii) net present value of forest (NPV), and (iii) other project
specific payments. The National Fund will receive 10% of these funds, and the State Funds will receive
the remaining 90%.
Q. Consider the following statements: (2019)
1. As per law, the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority exists at both National and State levels.
2. People’s participation is mandatory in the compensatory afforestation programmes carried out under the
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Explanation:
The act stresses on the participation of people and social audit. However, they are not mandatory. So the
answer is a) 1 only
Issues with the present system of CA
Industries find it hard to acquire appropriate non-forest land, which has to be contiguous to an existing
forest.
Funds are diverted
The Centre had collected nearly ₹50,000 crores over decades, but the funds were lying unspent because
states were not spending the money on regrowing forests.
After the SC’s intervention, a new law came about with rules for how funds would be administered. About
₹47,000 crores had been disbursed to states, but it has barely led to any rejuvenation of forests.
Only a few species are used in CA schemes
Protecting and regenerating natural forests should comprise a diverse mix of native tree species that are
more reliable in the long term than raising monoculture or species-poor plantations.
Currently, over half of the compensatory afforestation plantations use five species or less, which is way lower
than in natural forests and inadequate. This is neither good for biodiversity nor the stability of carbon capture.
Grasslands help in carbon capture themselves, and planting few species of trees there can cause more
harm.
 Carbon storage is highest in species-rich evergreen forests. Eucalyptus plantations had comparatively
lower carbon storage, while teak plantations stored nearly as much carbon as deciduous forests.
Green Credit Scheme WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 200
The Forest Advisory Committee (FAC), an apex body under MoEF that adjudicates requests to raze forest land for commercial ends, has approved the Green Credit Scheme that could allow forests to be
traded as a commodity.
FAC has recommended that private players be allowed to raise plantations to be later used towards CA.
If implemented, it allows the Forest Department to outsource its responsibilities of reforesting to nongovernment participating agencies — private companies, village forest communities, etc.
After three years, the plantations would be eligible to be considered as compensatory forest land if they
met the Forest Department’s criteria
The participating agency can trade its plantation in parcels with project proponents who need forest land.
And the forest land would then be transferred to the Forest Department and be recorded as forest land (RFA).
FAC’s Take
FAC recommended that such plantations be accepted in the non-forest area. It believes that such a scheme
will encourage plantation by individuals outside the traditional forest area and help meet international commitments such as SDGs and NDCs.
The Green India Mission aims to sequester 2.523 billion tonnes of carbon by 2020-30, and this involves
adding 30 million hectares in addition to an existing forest. Green Credit Scheme could be of help here.
Criticism of the Green Credit Scheme
 The scheme would lead to the privatisation of forests and give impetus to their destruction. It does not
solve the core problems of compensatory afforestation.
 Forests are treated as mere commodities without any social or ecological character.
 If the economic value of these plantations becomes lucrative, it can pose a severe threat to agricultural
land, which could be diverted for plantations.
 The plantations will be ready to be traded after three years. So, a private company would want to grow
species like eucalyptus (invasive species) which will mature quickly within three years.
Aerial Seeding for Reforestation
The Delhi High Court asked forest authorities whether “planting of seeds could be done by throwing dart
shots containing them from helicopters into forest areas”. The Forest Department has concluded that such
technology need not be employed for places that are easily accessible.
Aerial seeding
Aerial seeding (aerial reforestation) is a reforestation technique wherein seeds, or seed balls (seed bombs
made up of compost, clay and seeds) are sprayed using aerial devices like helicopters, drones, etc. Seeds
planted through this procedure have a success rate of 50%.
Aerial seeding can spread grasses and plants to large areas after wildfires. It is adopted because it is quicker
and more effective than planting manually. It also allows access to areas where the terrain is rocky or at high
elevation. It has been used with varying degrees of success around the world.
Dart seeding
Dart seeding is used with the same broad objective as aerial seeding. The process involves throwing darts
containing seeds onto open ground.
In aerial seeding, many seeds fail to germinate. If dart plantation is done from a low-flying helicopter, seeds
have a relatively better chance of survival as they reach deeper into the ground. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 201
Plantation with both aerial and dart plantations is carried out close to the onset of monsoon.
- - - - End of Chapter - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Air Pollution: Causes and Air Pollutants

Environmental Issues and Environmental Degradation
* Environmental degradation makes the environment unfit or less suitable for the survival of different
life forms, thereby causing immense ecological damage. Population explosion, urbanisation and the
associated increase in human needs and comforts have resulted in rapid industrialisation. Rapid industrialisation, in turn, has led to the overexploitation of natural resources. The consequences of such exploitation are evident in major environmental issues such as climate change, ocean acidification, soil
erosion, desertification, loss of biodiversity, pollution, etc.
12.1. Pollution
* Pollution may be defined as the addition/release of undesirable physical, chemical or biological agents
(substances/pollutants) into the environment due to human (anthropogenic) activities. The agents which
cause pollution are called pollutants. They are directly or indirectly harmful to humans and other living
organisms. Pollution may be of the following types: Air pollution, Noise pollution, Water pollution, Soil
pollution, Thermal pollution, Radiation pollution, etc.
Air Pollution
* Air pollution may be defined as the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substances, including noise and radioactive radiation, in the atmosphere in such concentration that may be directly and/or
indirectly injurious to humans or other living organisms, property or interferes with the normal environmental processes. The ever-increasing use of fossil fuels in power plants, industries, transportation, mining,
construction of buildings, and stone quarries has led to air pollution.
* Fossil fuels contain small amounts of nitrogen and sulphur. Burning fossil fuels like coal (thermal power
plants) and petroleum release different oxides of nitrogen (nitrogen oxides) and sulphur into the atmosphere. These gases react with the water vapour present in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid and nitric
acid. The acids drop down with rain, making the rain acidic. This is called acid rain.
 Acid rain corrodes the marble monuments like the Taj Mahal. This phenomenon is called Marble cancer.
* Other kinds of pollutants are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are used in refrigerators and air conditioners and as pressurising agents in aerosol sprays. CFCs damage the ozone layer of the atmosphere.
* The combustion of fossil fuels also increases the number of suspended particles in the air. These suspended
particles could be unburnt carbon particles or substances called hydrocarbons. The presence of high levels
of all these pollutants causes visibility to be lowered, especially in cold weather when water also condenses
out of the air. This is known as smog and is an indication of air pollution.
Major Causes of Air Pollution
Vehicular and Industrial Emissions
* Carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of Nitrogen (NOX), and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds
(NMVOCs — benzene, ethanol, formaldehyde, cyclohexane, 1,1,1-trichloroethane or acetone) are the
major pollutants (>80%) from vehicular emissions. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 203
* Other trace emissions include methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxides of sulphur (SOx), and total
suspended particles (TSPs).
* Critical industries such as iron and steel, sugar, paper, cement, fertiliser, copper, and aluminium contribute to
suspended particulate matter (SPM), SOX, NOX, and CO2.
Improper Use of Pyrolysis
* Pyrolysis is a technique of breaking down synthetic material at high temperatures (300-400 °C) for an hour
without oxygen. While pyrolysis is a safer technique than burning, pyrolysis leaves fine carbon matter,
pyro gas and oil as residue. Many tyre pyrolysis and other industrial pyrolysis units employ sub-optimum
pyrolysis technologies.
Applications of Pyrolysis
 Used in the chemical industry to produce methanol, activated carbon, charcoal, etc., from wood.
 Synthetic gas from pyrolysis can be used in gas turbines to produce electricity.
 Mixture of soil, stone, ceramics, and glass obtained from pyrolytic waste can be used in building materials.
 Pyrolysis was recently proposed for converting billions of disposable COVID-19 PPE kits into biocrude
synthetic fuel (biofuel).
Advantages of Pyrolysis
 Inexpensive for processing a wide variety of feedstocks.
 Reduces waste going to landfill and GHG emissions.
 Reduces the risk of water pollution.
 The National Green Tribunal, in 2014, prohibited used tyres from being burnt in the open or used as
fuel in brick kilns.
Fuel adulteration
* The taxes on diesel and gasoline are high compared to that on kerosene, which is meant as a cooking fuel.
Adulteration of gasoline and diesel with lower-priced kerosene is hence rampant in India. Adulterated fuel
increases emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter.
Emissions from Agriculture, Waste Treatment and Biomass Burning
* Ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O – GHG) are the critical pollutants from agricultural
activities.
* Methane (CH4) is the major pollutant released from landfills and wastewater treatment plants.
* Ammonia (NH3) is a by-product released from the composting process.
Stubble Burning
* Stubble burning is intentionally setting fire to the straw stubble that remains after grains, like paddy and
wheat, have been harvested. It is practised in all parts of India.
* Stubble burning in Punjab, Haryana, and UP to clear the fields for the sowing of Rabi Crop from the last
week of September to November is causing severe pollution in the NCR region in winter. There is only a two
to three weeks window between the harvesting of paddy crops and the sowing of the next crop. Hence the
pollution levels quickly rise, leaving the NCR region gasping for breath. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 204
* Burning crop residue is a crime under IPC and the Air and Pollution Control Act of 1981. The National
Green Tribunal (NGT) banned crop residue burning in Rajasthan, UP, Haryana, and Punjab, but the practice
is still rampant.
Effects of Stubble Burning
 Pollution: Stubble burning emits large amounts of toxic pollutants into the atmosphere, which contain
harmful gases like methane (CH4), Carbon Monoxide (CO), and Volatile Organic compounds (VOC).
These pollutants adversely affect health by creating a thick blanket of smog.
 Loss of Soil Fertility: Burning crop residues on the fields destroy the nutrients and useful bacteria and
fungi in the soil, making it less fertile.
 Loss of Soil Moisture: The heat generated by stubble burning penetrates the soil and leads to the loss of
moisture.
[UPSC 2015] Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the three mega cities of the country, but air pollution is a much more severe problem in Delhi compared to the other two. Why is this so?
(200 words)
* In 2014, a global study on air quality by the WHO declared Delhi the most polluted city in the world.
Despite similar urbanisation, air pollution is much more severe in Delhi than in Mumbai and Kolkata. This
is because of the following reasons:
Geography and Climate
* This is the most determining factor. Delhi is a continental city, while the other two are coastal. Land and
Sea Breezes in Mumbai and Kolkata carry pollutants away from the city. There is no such advantage to
Delhi as it is landlocked. Also, the duration of monsoon winds is short in Delhi compared to the other two.
* Delhi faces severe cold waves in winter compared to the other two. The cold climate creates temperature
inversion, which traps the pollutants, mainly smog, for a longer duration. Also, the Himalayas are a barrier
to cleaner air from the north.
Polluting Industries in close vicinity
* Delhi & its neighbourhood (Noida, Gurugram, Ganga-Yamuna Doab) are the hotbeds of coal-powered
polluting industries. Burning coal releases oxides of sulphur which forms sulphurous smog. This type of
smog is more pronounced in Delhi than in the other two cities due to geography and climate.
Vehicular Emissions
* All three cities contribute nearly equal vehicular emissions rich in CO2 and NO2. NO2 results in photochemical smog. Here again, Delhi is the worst hit due to its geography and climate.
Farm Straw Burning
* Delhi is at the heart of the most densely populated agricultural region of India. Burning farm straw in the
surrounding regions adds to Delhi’s pollution levels.
Winters are more polluted than summers in Delhi. Why?
* The most polluted months are November, December & January. Most of the crop residue is burnt in Haryana, Punjab and UP during November. Locally, the burning of leaves also picks up in November. All this
coincides with the cold, foggy, windless days (temperature inversion), leading to the accumulation of
pollutants. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 205
Household Air Pollution (Indoor Air Pollution)
* Household air pollution results from the burning of various fuels (coal, charcoal, wood, agricultural residue,
animal dung, and kerosene, among others) for heating or for cooking with limited ventilation. This produces
an array of pollutants, including fine particulate matter (PM2.5), black carbon, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide and methane. On the other hand, paints, carpets, furniture, etc., in rooms may give out volatile
organic compounds (VOCs).
Volcanism – Acid Rain, Ozone Destruction
* The volcanic gases that pose the most significant hazard to people, animals and property are sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen sulphide.
* Locally, sulphur dioxide can lead to acid rain and air pollution downwind from a volcano. Globally, significant explosive eruptions inject a tremendous volume of sulphur aerosols into the stratosphere, leading to
lower surface temperatures & promoting the depletion of the ozone layer.
[UPSC 2021-22] Consider the following:
1) Carbon dioxide
2) Oxides of Nitrogen
3) Oxides of Sulphur
Which of the above is/are the emission/emissions from coal combustion at thermal power
plants?
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 206
d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation:
* Burning coal releases CO, CO2, SO2 and NOx.
Answer: d) 1, 2 and 3
Noise Pollution
* Any unwanted sound that causes annoyance, irritation and pain to the human ear is termed noise. Noise is
measured in dB (decibels), which indicates the loudness of the sound. World Health Organization (WHO)
has prescribed optimum noise level as 45 dB by day and 35 dB by night.
* The human ear can tolerate noise levels up to 85 dB, and anything beyond that can affect the quality of life.
Sound above 80 dB is considered as loud and hazardous. Sound between 100-125 dB is termed uncomfortable.
Permissible noise level in India
* The Central Pollution Control Board has laid down the permissible noise level in India for different areas. All
the machines operating in an area should produce noise within the acceptable noise level.
Zone Daytime (dB) Night (dB)
Industrial Zone 75 70
Commercial Zone 65 55
Residential Zone 55 45
Silent Zone 50 40
* Silent zone includes areas within 100 meters of the premises of schools, colleges, hospitals & courts.
Laws to control Noise Pollution
* Earlier, noise pollution and its sources were addressed under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1981. Currently, they are regulated separately under the Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control)
Rules, 2000, under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
* Additionally, noise standards for motor vehicles, air-conditioners, refrigerators, diesel generators and certain construction equipment are prescribed under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
* Noise emanating from industry is regulated by State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
Classification of Air Pollutants
* Primary pollutants: These are persistent (exist or occur over a prolonged period) in the form in which they
are added to the environment, e.g. DDT, plastic, CO, CO2, oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, etc.
* Secondary Pollutants: These are formed by interaction among the primary pollutants. For example, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is formed by the interaction of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. Ozone is formed
 when hydrocarbons (HC) or VOCs and nitrogen oxides (NOx) combine in the presence of sunlight;
 when NO combines with oxygen in the air; and
 due to acid rain (sulphur dioxide or nitrogen oxides react with rainwater to form acid rain).
* Quantitative Pollutants: These occur in nature and become pollutants when their concentration reaches
beyond a threshold level. E.g., carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, etc. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 207
* Qualitative Pollutants: These do not occur in nature & are human-made. E.g., fungicides, herbicides, DDT
etc.
12.2. Air Pollutants
Particulate Pollutants
* Particulate pollutants are matter suspended in the air, such as dust and soot. Their size ranges from 0.001
to 500 micrometres (µm) in diameter. Particles less than 10 µm float and move freely with the air current.
Particles which are more than 10 µm in diameter settle down. Particles less than 0.02 µm form persistent
aerosols.
* Major sources of suspended particulate matter (SPM) are industries, vehicles, power plants, construction
activities, oil refineries, railway yards, marketplaces, industries, etc.
* Inhalable particulate matter PM10 and PM2.5 have been regarded as criteria pollutants because several
studies have documented their adverse health effects. According to the Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB), particulate size 2.5 µm or less in diameter (PM2.5) is responsible for causing the most significant
harm to human health.
* These fine particulates can be inhaled deep into the lungs. They can cause breathing and respiratory symptoms, irritation, inflammations, & pneumoconiosis (a disease of the lungs caused due to inhalation of dust.
It is characterised by inflammation, coughing, and fibrosis – excess deposition of fibrous tissue).
Particulate Matter Less than 2.5 μm (PM 2.5)
* In the atmosphere, arsenic and nickel exist as particulate matter, mostly less than 2 µm in diameter. Combustion processes like petroleum processing and the combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles or power plants
emit nickel. Nickel compounds are classified to be carcinogenic.
* There has been rising concern about PM1 (size less than 1 μm). While PM2.5 is 30 times finer than human
hair, PM1 is 70 times finer. Evidence for the health effects of PM1 is limited due to a lack of monitoring.
* There are no standards set even by the WHO for these ultra-fine particles. 40 per cent of the particulate
matter is as tiny as PM0.7 and is not even monitored officially.
* PM1 is likely to reach deeper into the respiratory system & small enough to penetrate through the skin.
PM1 also contains more toxins, including metals which can cause lung injury and lead to gene damage and
cancer. The primary source of PM1 is vehicular and industrial emissions.
Fly ash
* Fly ash is ejected mainly by thermal power plants as by-products of coal-burning. It pollutes air and water
and may cause heavy metal pollution in water bodies. It affects crops & vegetation due to its direct deposition on leaves.
Composition
* Fly ash is oxide rich and consist of silica, alumina, oxides of iron, calcium, and magnesium and toxic
heavy metals like lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, cobalt, and copper. Oxides present in large quantities
are aluminium silicate, silicon dioxide (SiO2) and calcium oxide (CaO).
[UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:
1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 208
2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment.
3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation:
* Unlike the carboniferous coal of the US and Europe, Indian coal or Gondwana coal has high moisture
and ash content. Hence it causes more pollution.
Answer: d) all
Uses
 Cement can be replaced by fly ash by up to 35%, thus reducing the cost of construction.
 Fly ash bricks are light weight and are durable.
 Fly ash is a better fill material for road embankments and concrete roads.
 It can be used in the reclamation of wastelands.
 Abandoned mines can be filled up with fly ash.
 Fly ash can increase crop yield when added to the soil. It also enhances the soil water-holding capacity.
(But if it gets deposited on the leaf, it will reduce photosynthesis).
Policy measures of MoEF
* MoEF has made it mandatory to use Fly Ash-based products in all construction projects, road embankment works, and low-lying landfilling works within a 100 km radius of thermal power stations and minefilling activities within a 50 km radius.
[UPSC 2015] Regarding ‘fly ash’ produced by power plants using coal as fuel, which of the
following statements is/are correct?
1) Fly ash can be used in the production of bricks for building construction
2) Fly ash can be used as a replacement for some of the Portland cement contents of concrete
3) Fly ash is made up of silicon dioxide and calcium oxide only and contains no toxic elements.
Select the correct answer using the code given below
a) 1 and 2
b) 2 only
c) 1 and 3
d) 3 only
Explanation:
* Aluminium silicate is the major oxide present in fly ash.
* Fly ash does contain heavy toxic elements like arsenic, cobalt, lead etc.
Answer: a) 1 and 2
Nanoparticles (NPs) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 209
* Nanoparticles have dimensions comparable to 1/109 of a meter (1 divided by 100 crores). Major natural processes that release NPs into the atmosphere are forest fires, volcanic eruptions, weathering, dust storms,
etc. Naturally occurring NPs are pretty heterogeneous in size. They can be transported over thousands of
kilometres and remain suspended in the air for several days.
* NPs have large surface area to volume ratios and react rapidly in the atmosphere, commonly growing into
particles large enough to interact with radiation, and have severe consequences for visibility and climate.
* Nanotechnology has a global socioeconomic value, with applications ranging from electronics to biomedical
uses (delivering drugs to target sites). Human-made NPs are unknowingly or purposely released into various
environmental matrices such as air, water, soil and sediments, including wastewater sludge, during various
industrial and mechanical processes.
Effects of Nanoparticles on the environment
Dust cloud formation
 NPs coagulate and form dust clouds, which decrease the intensity of sunlight. Asian brown (dust) clouds
carry large amounts of soot and black carbon (NP) and deposit them on the Himalayan glaciers (reduces
albedo). This could lead to higher absorption of the sun’s heat and potentially contribute to the increased
melting of glaciers.
NPs and hydroxy radical (OH)
 NPs being very reactive, immediately bind with hydroxyl radicals & ultimately result in their reduction in
the troposphere. This reduces the natural ‘pollutant scrubbing capacity’ of the atmosphere.
 The hydroxyl radical (sometimes called the ‘detergent’ of the atmosphere) is one of the most reactive
oxidants in the troposphere and lower stratosphere. It plays an important role in the photochemical
degradation of natural organic matter, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and pollutants like carbon
monoxide, methane, NOx and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). Therefore, it plays a crucial role in
maintaining air quality.
NPs and ozone depletion
 NPs can increase the production of free radicals (atoms, molecules, ions with unpaired valence electrons)
like Cl-
, which destroy ozone.
Effect of NPs on stratospheric temperature
 NPs in the troposphere interact with molecular hydrogen accidentally released from hydrogen fuel cells
and other sources. Molecular hydrogen, along with NPs, moves up to the stratosphere, resulting in abundant
water vapour in the stratosphere. This will cause stratospheric cooling due to the formation of stratospheric clouds (mostly ice crystals), which destroy ozone.
[UPSC 2014] There is some concern regarding the nanoparticles of some chemical elements
that are used by the industry in the manufacture of various products. Why?
1) They can accumulate in the environment and contaminate water and soil.
2) They can enter the food chains.
3) They can trigger the production of free radicals.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1 and 2 only WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 210
b) 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: d) all
Black Carbon (Soot) and Himalayan Glaciers
* Black carbon (commonly known as soot) is a solid or aerosol (suspension of fine solid particles or liquid
droplets in air or another gas) particulate (PM) short-lived air pollutant released from incomplete combustion. Regionally, it disrupts cloudiness and monsoon rainfall.
* BC is the most robust absorber of sunlight (much more than carbon dioxide) and heats the air directly.
When it is deposited on snow, it darkens the snowpack, reducing the albedo (the ability to reflect sunlight),
and heats the surface directly, leading to the melting of ice and snow.
* Black carbon is short-lived and remains only for days to weeks in the atmosphere before it descends as rain
or snow. Thus, the effects of black carbon on atmospheric warming disappear within months of reducing
emissions.
* India and China are the largest emitters of black carbon in the world.
* The Indo-Gangetic plain will become the most significant contributor of black carbon, with about 20 per
cent from biofuels, 40 per cent from fossil fuels and about 40 per cent from biomass burning.
 The presence of pollutants in glaciers (far from sources of pollution) is critical to establishing a baseline for
pollution loads and estimating the contribution of various sources to pollution.
 The monthly mean concentration of black carbon in India was found to be minimum in August (rainy
season) and maximum in May (dry season).
Brown Carbon
* Black carbon is primarily released by high-temperature combustion, and brown carbon (brown smoke and
aerosols) is emitted mainly by the impure combustion of organic matter (biomass combustion).
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
* Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless, tasteless, and highly toxic gas slightly less dense than
air. It is short-lived (lasts only a few months) in the atmosphere.
* It forms when there is insufficient oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO2). In the presence of oxygen,
carbon monoxide burns with a blue flame, producing carbon dioxide.
* Worldwide, the largest source of carbon monoxide is natural in origin due to photochemical reactions in
the troposphere. Other natural sources of CO include volcanoes, forest fires, and other forms of combustion. Anthropogenic carbon monoxide is produced from the exhaust of internal combustion engines and
incomplete combustion of various other fuels. Iron smelting produces carbon monoxide as a by-product.
Health Effects
 Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal air poisoning (poor ventilation and heat
management in laptops and other electrons can lead to the release of CO). It is toxic to haemoglobin animals
(including humans) when encountered in concentrations above 35 ppm. It combines with haemoglobin to
produce carboxyhaemoglobin, which usurps the space in haemoglobin that usually carries oxygen.
Environmental Effects WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 211
 Carbon monoxide (CO) is not considered a direct greenhouse gas (GHG). In the atmosphere, it is spatially
variable and short-lived, having a role in forming ground-level ozone (tropospheric ozone) and can elevate methane concentrations (a strong GHG).
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
* Carbon dioxide is a colourless and odourless gas. It is heavier than air. Natural sources include volcanoes,
hot springs and geysers, and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids. As it is
soluble in water, it occurs naturally in groundwater, rivers, lakes, ice caps, glaciers and seawater.
Effects on Health
 CO2 is an asphyxiant gas (asphyxia: a condition arising when the body is deprived of oxygen, causing unconsciousness or death.). Concentrations of 7% may cause suffocation, even with sufficient oxygen, manifesting as dizziness, headache, and unconsciousness.
Effects on the Environment
 Carbon dioxide is an important GHG. Burning of carbon-based fuels since the industrial revolution has led
to global warming. It is also a major cause of ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 212
Ozone (O3)
* Ozone (O3) forms less than 0.00005% by volume of the atmosphere and is unevenly distributed. It is formed
naturally in the stratosphere (good ozone — formed due to the interaction between O2 and UV light)
and absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. However, at the ground level (bad ozone), it is a pollutant
(short-lived greenhouse gas) with highly toxic effects.
* Ground-level ozone is not emitted directly into the air. Some of it is transported from the stratosphere.
The rest is formed when the pollutants like carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and volatile organic compounds (VOC — released from oil & gas extraction) react in the presence of sunlight at the ground
level and convert O2 to O3.
Tropospheric ozone formation reactions
1. Carbon Monoxide reacts with the hydroxyl radical (-OH) to produce hydroperoxy radical (HO2).
2. Volatile Organic Compounds react with hydroxyl radical (-OH) to produce peroxy radical (RO2).
3. Hydroperoxy radicals react with Nitrogen Oxide (NO) to form NO2 & hydroxyl radical (OH) / alkoxy
radical (RO).
4. NO2 gives O3 via photolysis (molecule seperation by light).
Harmful Effects of Ozone
 Ozone at ground level is a harmful air pollutant and one of the main ingredients of smog.
 Ozone makes our eyes itchy and watery. It lowers our resistance to colds and pneumonia.
 Asthma patients are at the most significant risk from breathing air containing ozone.
 Elevated ozone exposure can affect sensitive vegetation and ecosystems, including forests, especially during
the growing season.
Ozone is most likely to reach unhealthy levels on hot sunny days. It can also be transported long distances by
wind, so even rural areas can experience high O3 levels. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 213
Stratospheric Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
* ODS are human-made gases that release chlorine and bromine atoms on exposure to UV rays and destroy
stratospheric ozone (good ozone). They include:
1. chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
2. hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
3. hydrobromoflurocarbons (HBFCs)
4. halons (halocarbon gases were used in fire extinguishers)
5. methyl bromide (was used as a fumigant for pest control — suffocating pests with poison)
6. carbon tetrachloride (formerly widely used in fire extinguishers, refrigerants & as cleaning agents)
7. methyl chloroform (aerosols, solvent for organic compounds; used for cleaning metals & circuit
boards).
* ODS have been used as refrigerants in air conditioners and refrigerators, foam-blowing agents, components in electrical equipment, industrial solvents, solvents for dry cleaning, aerosol spray propellants
and fumigants.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
* CFCs are used in aerosol sprays and as refrigerants in refrigerators & air conditioners. They are also
considered greenhouse gases. Since the late 1970s, the use of CFCs has been heavily regulated because of
their destructive effects on the ozone layer. There are still CFCs left in older industrial air conditioning and
refrigeration systems.
HCFCs) and HBFCs
* Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) & Hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs) have been used as a substitute for CFCs. They are composed of molecules containing one, two or three carbon atoms and at least one
atom each of hydrogen, bromine/chlorine and fluorine. They do less damage to the ozone layer than CFCs.
They are, however, GHGs. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 214
Halons
* Halons are halocarbon gases that were initially developed for use in fire extinguishers. In halons, one or
more carbon atoms are linked by covalent bonds with one or more halogen atoms (fluorine, chlorine,
bromine or iodine). Production and consumption of halons ended in 1994 in developed countries.
 The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone
layer by phasing out the production of numerous ozone-depleting substances, including CFCs.
[UPSC 2011-12] Consider the following statements: Chlorofluorocarbons, known as ozonedepleting substances, are used
1. in the production of plastic foams
2. in the production of tubeless tyres
3. in cleaning certain electronic components
4. as pressurising agents in aerosol cans
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a. 1, 2 and 3 only
b. 4 only
c. 1, 3 and 4 only
d. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Explanation:
* CFCs were used as refrigerants, pressurising agents (aerosol cans) & for cleaning electronic equipment.
Answer: c)
Nitrogen Oxides (Oxides of Nitrogen) (NOx)
* NOx is a generic term for the various nitrogen oxides produced during combustion. They are produced
mainly in internal combustion engines & coal-burning power plants.
* They are also produced naturally by lightning. Agricultural fertilisation and nitrogen-fixing plants also
contribute to atmospheric NOx by promoting N-fixation by microbes.
 Oxygen and nitrogen do not react at ambient temperatures. But at high temperatures, they produce various
oxides of nitrogen. Such temperatures arise inside an internal combustion engine or a power station
boiler.
 The term nitrogen oxides (NOx) is usually used to include Nitric Oxide (NO – colourless, odourless gas)
and Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2 – a reddish-brown gas with a pungent odour). Other oxides of nitrogen
include Nitrogen Trioxide (NO3), Nitrous Oxide (N2O), Dinitrogen Tetroxide (N2O4) and Dinitrogen Pentoxide (N2O5).
 Nitrogen Oxide (NO) and Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) contribute to global cooling and should not be confused with Nitrous Oxide (N2O), which is a greenhouse gas and has many uses as an oxidiser.
Effects on Health and Environment
 The reduction of NOx emissions is one of the most critical technical challenges facing biodiesel.
 NOx gases are believed to aggravate asthmatic conditions and create many respiratory health issues. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 215
 NOx gases react to form acid rain and tropospheric ozone. When NOx and VOCs react in the presence of
sunlight, they form photochemical smog.
 Mono-nitrogen oxides, when dissolved in atmospheric moisture, form nitric acid, a component of acid rain.
 NO and NO2 emissions cause global cooling by forming -OH radicals that destroy methane molecules
(methane cycle), countering the effect of greenhouse gases.
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
* Sulphur dioxide is a toxic gas with a pungent, irritating smell. It is produced for sulfuric acid manufacture. It
is released naturally by volcanic activity. It is also produced by:
 burning coal in thermal power plants and diesel fuels.
 some industrial processes, such as the production of paper and the smelting of metals like copper.
 reactions involving Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) and oxygen.
 The roasting of sulphide ores such as pyrite, sphalerite, and cinnabar (mercury sulphide).
* Sulphur dioxide It is a poisonous air pollutant that increases the risk of stroke, heart disease, lung cancer &
other health issues that can lead to premature death.It also contributes to acid rain.
World’s Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) Hotspots: 2019-2020
 Sulphur dioxide is abundantly available in the atmosphere of Venus, possibly due to extensive volcanism.
 The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque sulfuric acid clouds, making the planet’s atmosphere highly
reflective.
India’s SO2 Emissions
* Greenpeace India & the Centre for Research on Energy & Clean Air (CREA) has released its annual report
titled “Ranking the World’s SO2 Hotspots: 2019-2020”.
* India has occupied the top spot in the world in sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions for the fifth consecutive
year in 2019. China’s success in reducing SO2 emissions has made Russia the second-highest emitter after
India.
* In 2019, India emitted 21% of global anthropogenic (human-made) SO2 emissions. Electricity generation
using coal remains the most significant contributor to SO2 emissions. However, India’s SO2 emissions have
recorded a decline of approximately six per cent in 2019 compared to 2018, the steepest dip in four years.
SO2 Emission Hotspots in India
* India has more than 15% of all anthropogenic sulphur dioxide (SO2) hotspots detected by the OMI (Ozone
Monitoring Instrument) satellite. The emission hotspots in India are thermal power stations in: WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 216
 Singrauli in MP,
 Neyveli & Chennai in Tamil Nadu,
 Talcher & Jharsuguda in Odisha,
 Korba in Chhattisgarh,
 Kutch in Gujarat,
 Ramagundam in Telangana &
 Chandrapur & Koradi in Maharashtra.
* Among large cities, Chennai is the biggest hotspot.
Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
* PAHs are ubiquitous environmental pollutants generated primarily during the incomplete combustion of
organic materials (e.g. coal, oil, petrol, and wood). Cigarette smoke contains many PAHs. High-temperature cooking will form PAHs in meat and other foods. Naphthalene is a PAH produced commercially in the
US to make other chemicals and mothballs.
* Many PAHs have toxic, mutagenic & carcinogenic properties. They are highly lipid soluble and thus readily
absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract of mammals (Bioaccumulation). They can associate with other particulate matter, like PM2.5, and PM10, and make them more toxic.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 217
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
* VOCs are a large group of carbon-based chemicals that quickly evaporate at room temperature. For example, formaldehyde, which evaporates from paint, has a boiling point of only –19 °C. It irritates the eyes and
nose and causes allergies.
* Common examples of VOCs are benzene, ethylene glycol (manufacture of polyester fibres and antifreeze
formulations), formaldehyde, methylene chloride (dichloromethane — paint remover manufacturing,
metal cleaning and degreasing), tetrachloroethylene (primary solvent used in dry cleaning), toluene,
xylene, and 1,3-butadiene (precursor to synthetic rubber).
* The primary indoor sources are perfumes, hair sprays, furniture polish, glues, air fresheners, moth repellents, wood preservatives, and other products. Health effects include irritation of the eye, nose and
throat, headaches, nausea and loss of coordination. Long-term health effect includes liver damage.
Ethylene
* Ethylene is widely used in the chemical industry. Much of its production goes toward polyethylene, a widely
used plastic containing polymer chains of ethylene units in various lengths. It is also an important natural
plant hormone used in agriculture to force the ripening of fruits.
* Ethylene is of low toxicity to humans, and exposure to excess ethylene cause adverse health effects like headache, drowsiness, and unconsciousness. Ethylene is not, but ethylene oxide is a carcinogen (cancer-causing
agent).
Formaldehyde
* Formaldehyde is used in building materials such as particleboard, plywood, and other pressed-wood
products. It is commonly used as a fungicide, germicide, and disinfectant and as a preservative in mortuaries and laboratories.
* Formaldehyde also occurs naturally in the environment. It is produced during the decay of plant material
in the soil and normal chemical processes in most living organisms. It is also a combustion product found in
tobacco smoke.
Benzene
* Benzene (VOC & Polyaromatic Hydrocarbon) is a natural constituent of crude oil and is one of the elementary petrochemicals. It is also a natural part of cigarette smoke. Natural sources of benzene include
volcanoes & forest fires. It is used to make plastics, resins, synthetic fibres, rubber lubricants, etc. As it
has a high octane number (the higher the octane number, the more stable the fuel is), it is an essential
component of gasoline (petrol).
* As a Volatile Organic Compound, benzene reacts with other air pollutants to form ground-level ozone,
damaging crops (in the form of smog) and materials. Benzene increases the risk of cancer and bone marrow
failure.
Benzene Pollutants (VOCs & Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons)
 Toluene (methylbenzene): used in paint thinners and as an octane booster in gasoline engines.
 Xylene (dimethylbenzene): used as a solvent in the printing, rubber, and leather industry.
 Styrene (ethenylbenzene / phenylethylene / vinylbenzene): raw material for synthesising polystyrene
(used to make parts of various appliances such as refrigerators, micro-ovens, automotive parts, computers,
etc.). A styrene gas leak from the LG Polymers chemical factory in Visakhapatnam in 2020 left several dead. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 218
[UPSC 2020] Which of the following are the reasons/factors for exposure to benzene pollution?
1. Automobile exhaust
2. Tobacco smoke
3. Wood burning
4. Using varnished wooden furniture
5. Using products made of polyurethane
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1, 2 and 3 only
b) 2 and 4 only
c) 1, 3 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Explanation:
* Automobile exhaust, wood burning, and varnished furniture are apparent answers.
* Nicotine, aerosol particles, carbonyls, VOCs and hundreds of other chemicals are used in cigarettes.
* Polyurethane is a polymer used in the insulation of refrigerators, cushioning for furniture, sportswear, etc.
Answer: d) all
Minor Air Pollutants
Lead
* Lead is present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dyes, etc. Tetraethyl lead (TEL) is used as
an anti-knock agent in petrol for the smooth and easy running of vehicles. The lead particles coming out
from vehicle exhausts, when inhaled, produce injurious effects on the kidney & liver & interferes with the
development of RBCs.
* Lead can cause nervous system damage & digestive problems and, in some cases, cause cancer. It has longterm effects on children as it lowers intelligence. Lead mixed with water and food can create cumulative
poisoning.
Ammonia (NH3)
* Ammonia is a corrosive, colourless gas with a distinctive, pungent odour. It is commonly emitted in nature
by decaying organic matter and human and animal waste. Most anthropogenic ammonia emissions come
from livestock management & agricultural fertilisers.
* Ammonia is poisonous and irritates the eyes, nose, and throat. It combines in the atmosphere with sulphates
and nitrates to form ammonium salts which are secondary fine particulate matter (PM2.5).
* Ammonia is highly soluble in water and can contribute to the nitrification & eutrophication of aquatic
systems.
[UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:
1. Agricultural soils release NOx into the environment.
2. Cattle release ammonia into the environment.
3. Poultry industry releases reactive nitrogen compounds into the environment.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 219
a) 1 and 3 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 2 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation:
* Agricultural fertilisation and N-fixing plants contribute to atmospheric NOx by promoting N-fixating
bmicrobes.
Answer: d) all
Asbestos
* Asbestos refers to a set of six naturally occurring silicate fibrous minerals –– chrysotile, crocidolite, amosite,
anthophyllite, tremolite, and actinolite. Prolonged inhalation of asbestos fibres can cause severe and fatal
illnesses, including lung cancer, mesothelioma, and asbestosis (a type of pneumoconiosis).
Metallic Oxides
* Oxides of iron, aluminium, manganese, magnesium, zinc and other metals have an adverse effect due to dust
deposition on plants during mining operations and metallurgical processes. They create physiological, biochemical, and developmental disorders in plants and also contribute towards reproductive failure in plants.
Biological pollutants
* They include pollen from plants, mites, hair from pets, fungi spores, parasites, and some bacteria. Most are
allergens and can cause asthma, and other allergic diseases.
Radon
* It is a gas that is emitted naturally by the soil. Due to modern houses having poor ventilation, it is confined
inside the house and causes lung cancers.
12.3. Radioactive Pollution
* Radioactivity is a phenomenon of spontaneous emission of protons (alpha-particles), electrons (betaparticles) & gamma rays (short-wave EMR) due to the disintegration of atomic nuclei of some elements.
Radiations can be categorised into two groups, namely non-ionizing radiations and ionising radiations.
* Radioactive Pollution is defined as the increase in the radiation levels (nuclear radiation/radioactive contamination) in the environment that pose a severe threat to humans and other life forms.
* Radioactive contamination is the presence of radioactive substances on surfaces or within solids, liquids
or gases, where their presence is unintended or undesirable.
* Natural radiation sources include cosmic rays from space and terrestrial radiations from radionuclides present in the earth’s crust, such as radium-224, uranium-238, thorium-232, potassium-40, carbon-14, etc.
* Artificial radiation pollution occurs primarily due to accidental leaks from nuclear power plants and unsafe
disposal of radioactive wastes. Other artificial sources include nuclear weapon testing & nuclear fallout
(contains radioactive substances such as strontium-90, caesium-137, iodine-131, etc.), mining of
radioactive material like uranium and thorium (monazite is the ore of thorium), exposure to radiation for
diagnostic purposes (e.g. X-rays, CT Scan), chemotherapy, etc. and slow nuclear radiations emanating fromnuclear reactors, laboratories, etc.
Accidents at Nuclear Power Plants WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 220
* Nuclear fission in the reactor core produces much heat, which, if not controlled, can lead to a meltdown of
fuel rods in the reactor core. If a meltdown happens by accident, it will release large quantities of hazardous
radioactive materials into the environment with disastrous consequences to humans, animals, and plants.
* To prevent these types of accidents and reactor blow-ups, the reactors are designed to have several safety
features. Despite these safety measures, three disasters in the nuclear power plants are noteworthy – Three
Mile Island (USA) in 1979, Chernobyl (USSR/Ukraine) in 1986 and Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
in 2011 (Japan).
* In the first two cases, a series of errors resulted in the overheating of the reactor core and meltdown,
releasing a lot of radiation into the environment. The leakage from the Three Mile Island reactor was low, and
no one was injured immediately.
* However, in the case of Chernobyl, the leakage was very heavy, causing the death of many workers and
radiation spread over large areas scattered all over Europe. The latest one – Fukushima Daiichi nuclear
accident was triggered by an earthquake.
Safe Disposal of Nuclear Wastes
* Radioactive wastes are of two types:
1. low-level radioactive wastes (LLW), which include civilian applications of radionuclides in medicine,
research and industry, materials from decommissioned reactors, protective clothing worn by persons
working with radioactive materials or working in nuclear establishments.
2. High-level radioactive wastes (HLW), resulting from spent nuclear fuel rods and obsolete nuclear
weapons.
* Presently, waste fuel rods are stored in unique storage ponds at reactor sites or sent to reprocessing plants.
Even though reprocessing is more expensive, some countries use it as an alternative to waste storage. In the
US, nuclear waste is buried deep underground in insulated containers.
Non-Ionizing Radiation
* Non-ionizing radiation includes electromagnetic waves at the longer wavelength of the spectrum ranging
from long wavelength UV radiation to radio waves (including microwaves). These waves have enough
energy to excite the atoms and molecules of the medium through which they pass, causing them to
vibrate faster but not strong enough to ionise them.
* Non-ionizing radiation may damage eyes due to reflections from sand and snow (snow blindness) and
directly looking towards the sun during an eclipse. They injure the cells of skin and blood capillaries producing
blisters and reddenings called sunburns.
 In a microwave oven, the (non-ionizing) radiation causes water molecules in the cooking medium to
vibrate faster and thus raising its temperature.
 Ionisation is the process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by
gaining or losing electrons to form ions, often in conjunction with other chemical changes.
Impact of Non-Ionizing Radiation from Cell Phone Towers
Health Impacts WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 221
 Every antenna on a cell phone tower radiates non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation (EMR). When many
operators use one tower, more will be the number of antennas and more is the power intensity in the nearby
area. The power level near towers is higher and reduces as we move away.
 EMR may cause cellular & psychological changes in human beings due to thermal effects that are generated
due to the absorption of microwave radiation. The exposure can lead to genetic defects, effects on reproduction and development, Central Nervous System behaviour, etc.
 EMR can also cause non-thermal effects caused by radio frequency fields at levels too low to produce
significant heating and are due to the movement of calcium and other ions across cell membranes. Such
exposure may be responsible for fatigue, nausea, irritability, headaches, loss of appetite and other psychological disorders.
 The current exposure safety standards are purely based on the thermal effects and consider only a few
pieces of evidence from exposure to non-thermal effects.
Impact on Birds
 The surface area of birds is relatively larger than their body weight in comparison to the human body, so
they absorb more radiation. Also, the fluid contained in the body of the birds is less due to the small
body weight, so they get heated up quickly.
 The magnetic field from the towers disturbs birds’ navigation skills; hence when birds are exposed to
EMR, they become disoriented and begin to fly in all directions and die from collisions with telecommunication masts.
Ionising Radiation
* Ionising radiations — short wavelength ultraviolet radiations (UV), X-rays and gamma rays and energetic particles produced in nuclear processes, electrically charged particles like alpha and beta particles produced in radioactive decay and neutrons produced in nuclear fission — cause ionisation (one or WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 222
more electrons are pealed out from the outer shells of an atom) of atoms and molecules of the medium
through which they pass.
 Non-ionizing radiations have low penetrability and affect only those components which absorb them.
 Ionising radiations have high penetration power and cause breakage of macromolecules.
The Damage Potential of Radiation Particles
 Alpha particles can be blocked by paper and human skin.
 Beta particles can penetrate through the skin, while some pieces of glass & metal can block them.
 Gamma rays can penetrate easily through human skin and damage cells on their way through, reaching
far, and can only be blocked by thick and massive walls of concrete.
Half-Life Period of Radioactivity
* Each radioactive material has a constant decay rate. Half-life is the time needed for half of its atoms to
decay. The half-life may vary from a fraction of a second to thousands of years. The radionuclides with long
half-time are the chief source of environmental radioactive pollution.
Radiation Dose
* A traditional unit of human-equivalent dose is the rem, which stands for radiation equivalent in man. At
low doses, such as what we receive every day from background radiation (<1 rem), the cells repair the damage
rapidly.
* At higher doses (up to 100 rem), the cells might not be able to repair the damage, and the cells may either
be changed permanently or die. E.g., radiation sickness. Cells changed permanently may go on to produce
abnormal cells when they divide and may become cancerous.
Impact of Ionizing Radiation
 Ionising radiations are highly damaging to living organisms. They can cause chemical changes by breaking
chemical bonds and damaging living tissues. Short-term effects include burns, impaired metabolism, dead
tissues, and death of the organisms. Long-term effects are mutations increasing the incidence of tumours
and cancer, shortening of lifespan and developmental changes.
 At high doses, nuclear radiation is lethal, but at lower doses, it creates various disorders, the most frequent
of all being cancer. Continued exposure to small doses can cause childhood leukaemia, miscarriage, underweight babies, infant deaths, and increased susceptibility to AIDS and other immune disorders.
DNA Damage
 Electrically charged particles produced in the nuclear processes can have sufficient energy to knock electrons out of the atoms or molecules of the medium, thereby producing ions. The ions produced in water
molecules, for example, can induce reactions that can break bonds in proteins and other important molecules. An example of this would be when a gamma ray passes through a cell, the water molecules near the
DNA might be ionised, and the ions might react with the DNA causing it to break.
Biological Damage
 Radiation damage may be (a) somatic damage (also called radiation sickness) or (b) genetic damage. Somatic damage refers to damage to cells that are not associated with reproduction. Effects of somatic
radiation damage include loss of hair, fibrosis of the lungs, a reduction of white blood cells, and the
induction of cataracts in the eyes. This damage can also result in cancer and death. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 223
 Genetic damage refers to damage to cells associated with reproduction. This damage can subsequently
cause genetic damage from gene mutation resulting in abnormalities. Mutations are passed on to the next
generation.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - End of Chapter - - - - - - - - - - - - -

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Water Pollution: Causes, Effects & Control Measures

14.1. Water Pollution
* Water pollution is the presence of undesirable substances/pollutants in water, such as organic, inorganic,
biological, radiological and heat, which degrade water quality so that it becomes unfit for use. Natural
sources of water pollution are soil erosion, the leaching of minerals from rocks (due to natural solubility and
solubility triggered by acid rain) and the decaying of organic matter.
* When pollutants are discharged from a specific location, such as a drainpipe carrying industrial effluents
discharged directly into the water body, it represents point source pollution. In contrast, non-point sources
include the discharge of pollutants from diffused sources or a larger area, such as runoff from agricultural
fields, grazing lands, construction sites, abandoned mines and pits, etc.
Measuring Pollution Load in Water
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
* Optimum DO content in water is important for the survival of aquatic organisms. The presence of organic
and inorganic wastwastes decreases the DO content due to the high decomposition rate and O2
consumption.
* Several factors, such as surface turbulence, photosynthetic activity, O2 consumption by organisms and
decomposition of organic matter, determine the amount of DO in water. Water having DO content below
8.0 mg/L may be considered contaminated, and below 4.0 mg/L is considered to be highly polluted.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
* Water pollution by organic wastes is measured in terms of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). BOD is
the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bacteria to decompose the organic wastes present in water.
It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per litre of water.
* The higher value of BOD indicates high pollution due to biodegradable organic wastes and low DO
content of water. Since BOD is limited to biodegradable materials, it is not a reliable method of measuring water pollution.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
* Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a slightly better mode used to measure pollution load in the water. It
measures the amount of oxygen in parts per million required to oxidise organic (biodegradable and
non-biodegradable) and oxidisable inorganic compounds in the water sample. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 257
[UPSC 2017] Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for
a) Measuring oxygen levels in the blood
b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems
c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems
d) Assessing oxygen levels in high-altitude regions
14.2. Causes of Water Pollution
Industrial Wastes
* Discharge of wastewater from industries like petroleum, paper manufacturing, metal extraction and processing, chemical manufacturing, etc., that often contain toxic substances, notably heavy metals (defined as
elements with density > 5 g/cm3 such as mercury, cadmium, copper, lead, arsenic) and a variety of organic compounds.
Heavy Metals in Surface Water
* According to the Central Water Commission report, Iron is the most common contaminant. Other major
contaminants include lead, nickel, chromium, cadmium & copper.
* Metals found in Monsoon Period include Iron, lead, chromium, and copper — exceeded tolerance limits.
* Metals found in Non-Monsoon Period include lead, cadmium, nickel, chromium and copper.
* The primary sources of heavy metal pollution are mining, plating and surface finishing industries. Longterm exposure may result in physical, muscular, and neurological degenerative processes that mimic Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease, muscular dystrophy and multiple sclerosis (a disease of the central
nervous system).
Thermal and Radiation Pollution
* Power plants (thermal and nuclear), chemical, and other industries use much water for cooling purposes.
The used hot water is discharged into rivers, streams or oceans, raising the water temperature by 5-15 °C.
This is thermal pollution. An increase in water temperature decreases dissolved oxygen in the water.
* Unlike the terrestrial organisms, aquatic organisms are adapted to a uniform steady temperature. A
sudden rise in temperature kills fish and other aquatic animals.
* Nuclear accidents near water bodies or during natural calamities like tsunamis and earthquakes pose the risk
of radiation leakage (radiation exposure) into water bodies. E.g., Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.
* Radiation exposure causes mutations in the DNA of marine organisms. If those mutations are not repaired,
the cell may turn cancerous.
* E.g., Radioactive iodine tends to be absorbed by the thyroid gland and can cause thyroid cancer. Radioactive radon in air and water can cause lung cancer and uranium in water can cause kidney cancer.
Mining
* Much water is used in (open-pit and underground) mining operations (raw material processing, mine cooling,
metal extraction, etc.) alongside chemicals such as cyanide, sulphuric acid, and mercury, increasing the
potential for these chemicals to contaminate ground and surface water.
* Mine and mineral transportation exposes and disturbs a considerable amount of soil and rock. Erosion of
these may carry substantial amounts of sediment and harmful chemicals into streams, rivers and lakes. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 258
* Acid Rock Drainage (ARD) is a natural process whereby sulphuric acid is produced when sulphides in
rocks are exposed to water. The produced acid accelerates the (chemical) weathering of rocks and causes
the leaching of various minerals and metals.
* Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) is the greatly magnified version of ARD occurring when large quantities of rock
containing sulphide minerals are excavated from an open pit or underground mines.
* When the water reaches a certain level of acidity, a naturally occurring type of bacteria called Thiobacillus
ferrooxidans accelerates the oxidation and acidification processes, leaching even more trace metals from
the wastes.
 Thiobacillus ferrooxidans is a highly acidophilic (pH 1.5 to 2.0) autotrophic bacterium that obtains its
energy through the oxidation of ferrous iron or reduced inorganic sulfur compounds.
* Heavy metal pollution is caused when metals such as arsenic, cobalt, copper, cadmium, lead, silver and
zinc contained in excavated rock or exposed in an underground mine come in contact with water.
* Although metals can become mobile in neutral pH conditions, leaching is particularly accelerated in the low
pH conditions created by processes like AMD.
Groundwater and Drinking Water Contamination
* In India, in many places, the groundwater is threatened with contamination due to seepage from industrial
and municipal wastes and effluents, and agricultural runoff. Pollutants like fluorides, uranium, heavy metals
and nutrients like nitrates and phosphates are common.
* Among rural habitations in India, many face quality issues with drinking water. Iron is the most common
contaminant, followed by salinity, arsenic, fluoride, etc.
* Rajasthan has the highest number of rural habitations affected by (salinity) contamination. In terms of arsenic and iron pollution, WB and Assam are the worst affected.
Nitrates
* Excess nitrate in drinking water reacts with haemoglobin to form non-functional methaemoglobin and
impairs oxygen transport. This condition is called methemoglobinemia or blue baby syndrome. High levels of nitrates may form carcinogens and can accelerate eutrophication.
 Methaemoglobin is a form of oxygen-carrying metalloprotein haemoglobin. Methaemoglobin cannot bind oxygen, unlike oxyhaemoglobin.
Trace metals
* Trace metals in water include lead, mercury, cadmium, copper, chromium and nickel, which can be carcinogenic. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 259
Arsenic
* Arsenic is a tasteless, odourless carcinogen. It is highly poisonous to humans. While arsenic is naturally
occurring, it also comes in inorganic (or “human-made”) formulas used in agriculture, mining, and manufacturing.
* Seepage of industrial and mine discharges and fly ash ponds of thermal power plants can lead to arsenic
in groundwater. US, India, China & Mexico have the highest levels of arsenic in groundwater. Arsenic contamination is highest in the groundwater of the Ganges Delta (India and Bangladesh).
* Chronic exposure to arsenic causes black foot disease — a peripheral vascular disease (PVD), in which the
blood vessels in the lower limbs are severely damaged, resulting in progressive gangrene. It also causes
diarrhoea and also lung and skin cancer.
* Arsenic poisoning, or arsenicosis, occurs after the ingestion or inhalation of high levels of arsenic. It causes
melanosis and keratosis (dark spots on the upper chest, back and arms are known as melanosis & the next
stage is keratosis, in which palms become problematic).
Fluoride
* Fluorosis is a common problem in India due to the intake of high fluoride content water. Excess fluoride
intake causes neuromuscular disorders, gastrointestinal problems, teeth deformity, hardening of bones
and stiff and painful joints (skeletal fluorosis). Pain in bones and joints and outward bending of legs from
the knees is called Knock-Knee syndrome. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 260
Uranium Contamination
* Uranium is weakly radioactive with a prolonged physical half-life (~4.5 billion years for uranium-238). The
biological half-life (time taken by the human body to eliminate half the amount) is about 15 days.
* There is a prevalence of Uranium concentration above 30 micro-gram per litre (WHO’s guidelines) in some
of the localised pockets in India.
* In Rajasthan and other northwestern states, uranium occurs mainly in alluvial aquifers, while in southern
states such as Telangana, crystalline rocks such as granite are source. When groundwater is over-extracted
from such soils, the uranium is exposed to air, triggering its release.
* Elevated uranium levels in drinking water may be associated with kidney toxicity. High rates of chronic
kidney disease (CKD) in the Srikakulam district in Andhra Pradesh is thought to be due to groundwater
uranium exposure.
* The Andhra Pradesh government has ordered an inquiry into complaints about groundwater pollution caused
by the uranium mining and processing at the Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL) in the Kadapa
district.
Guidelines in India
* The Indian Standard IS 10500: 2012 for Drinking Water specification has specified the maximum acceptable limits for radioactive residues as alpha and beta emitters, values in excess of which render the water
unsuitable.
* These requirements take into account all radioactive elements, including uranium. No individual radioactive elements have been specifically identified.
* The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is working to incorporate the permissible limit of Uranium as 0.03
mg/l (WHO provisional guidelines) in drinking water standards.
Radioactive Radon
* Recently, high radioactive radon content has been detected in groundwater used for drinking in some areas
in Bengaluru. It is found to be 50 to 100 times the permissible limit of 11.1 Bq per litre.
* Radon emanates from radioactive granites and from uranium through radioactive decay to radium and
radon.
* The uranium content is also detected to be high — 300 micrograms per litre in the water against the
permissible limit of 30 µg/l. It comes from minerals like pitchblende, zircon, and monazite, among others,
in the region’s rocks.
* Radon in air and water leads to damage of lung tissues, threatening lung cancer, while the presence of
uranium affects the urinary tract leading to kidney cancer.
Freshwater Salinization Syndrome (FSS)
* FSS is the process of salty runoff contaminating freshwater ecosystems. Salts naturally occur in fresh
waters, typically caused by rock weathering &naturally saline groundwater. However, anthropogenic activities are further increasing concentrations of salts in fresh waters.
Causes
 Oil & gas extraction & other forms of resource extraction.
 Road salts for de-icing (applying salt on snowy roads has a lower freezing temperature than the surrounding ice).
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 261
 Human-accelerated weathering of rocks and soils.
 Sea-level rise and saltwater intrusion.
[UPSC 2013] Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some
parts of India?
1) Arsenic
2) Sorbitol
3) Fluoride
4) Formaldehyde
5) Uranium
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
a) 1 and 3 only
b) 2, 4 and 5 only
c) 1, 3 and 5 only
d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Explanation:
* The most straightforward options are Fluoride, Arsenic and Uranium.
* The knowledge of either “Sorbitol” or “Formaldehyde” will give us the answer.
* We are more familiar with formaldehyde (a carcinogen) since it is a volatile organic compound (VOC),
an air pollutant.
* Sorbitol (glucitol) is a sugar alcohol. It contains about one-third fewer calories than sugar and is 60 per
cent as sweet. It occurs naturally in berries and fruits.
Answer: c) 1, 3 and 5 only
Sewage Water
* Sewage water includes discharges from houses and other establishments. It contains human and animal excreta, food residues, cleaning agents, detergents, etc. Domestic and hospital sewage contain many pathogenic microbes.
Ammonia Pollution in Sewage
* Ammonia, a colourless gas with a distinct odour. It occurs naturally throughout air, soil and water and in
plants and animals, including humans.
* The human body makes ammonia when the body breaks down foods containing protein into amino acids
and ammonia, then converts the ammonia into urea.
* Ammonia is a basic building block for ammonium nitrate fertiliser, which releases nitrogen, an essential
nutrient for growing plants, including farm crops and lawns.
* Ammonium hydroxide, commonly known as household ammonia, is an ingredient in many everyday household cleaning products. Ammonia has been used in municipal treatment systems for more than 70 years
to prolong the effectiveness of disinfection chlorine added to water.
* The addition of ammonia enhances the formation of chloramines (creates bad tastes). It reduces the formation of chlorination by-products, which may be carcinogenic. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 262
* The acceptable limit of ammonia in drinking water, as per BIS, is 0.5 ppm. If the its concentration in water
exceeds 1 ppm, it is toxic to fish. In humans, long-term ingestion of water having high ammonia levels (≥
1 ppm) is harmful.
Agricultural Sources
* Agricultural runoff contains dissolved salts such as nitrates, phosphates, potassium, ammonia, other nutrients, toxic metal ions and organic compounds.
* Fertilizers contain major plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Excess fertilisers
reach the groundwater by leaching or get mixed with surface water.
* Pesticides include insecticides, herbicides, etc. They contain a wide range of chemicals such as chlorinated
hydrocarbons (CHCs – E.g., DDT, Endosulfan, etc.), organophosphates, metallic salts, carbonates, etc.
Many pesticides are non-degradable, and their residues have a long life (persistent pollutants). Wastes from
poultry, piggeries and slaughterhouses etc., reach the water through runoff.
Nitrogen Pollution in India
* Agriculture, sewage & organic solid wastes, are the most significant contributors to nitrogen pollution in
India. Only 33% of the nitrogen that is applied through fertilisers is used by the plants & remaining 67%
remains in the soil.
Invasive Aquatic Species
Water hyacinth
* Water hyacinth, an aquatic plant native to the Amazon basin, is the world’s most problematic aquatic
weed. It is known as the ‘Terror of Bengal’, ‘German Weed’ in Bangladesh, ‘Florida Devil’ in South Africa
and ‘Japanese Trouble’ in Sri Lanka. Water hyacinths grow abundantly in eutrophic (nutrient-rich) water
bodies and lead to an imbalance in the ecosystem. They cause havoc through their excessive growth leading
to the stagnation of polluted water and draining off oxygen from the water bodies, resulting in the devastation of fish stock.
Forked Fanwort
* In some places in Kerala, the widespread growth of forked fanwort has painted the water bodies pink.
forked fanwort is a submerged perennial aquatic plant that grows in stagnant to slow-flowing freshwater.
It is an invasive species that belongs to Central and South America. It requires a considerable amount of
oxygen to grow, and that could badly affect freshwater biodiversity.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 263
Pollution in River Ganga
* Almost the entire wastewater and industrial effluents generated by various urban and industrial centres, viz.
Haridwar, Kannauj, Kanpur, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna and Kolkata are disposed of into the river Ganga.
The primary industrial sector, namely, Tannery, Sugar & Distillery, Pulp and Paper mills, contributes
significant pollution load to river Ganga and its tributaries.
* Ganga is polluted by Faecal Coliforms bacteria in its entire length, whereas the level of BOD, an indicator
of organic pollution, vastly exceeds the criteria in the stretch that spans from Kannauj to Tarighat. Diversion
of river water through Upper and Lower Ganga canals, leaving virtually very little flow in the main river
stream, makes dilution difficult even for the treated sewage.
* Microplastics present in the Ganga:
 Ehylenevinyl is particularly suited for food, drugs and cosmetic packaging.
 Polyacetylene is used as a doping agent in the electronics industry.
 Polypropylene is also used in packaging, plastic sheets, fibre, fabrics, rope, etc.
 Persistent Inorganic Pollutant (PIP) is mainly used in footwear and baby bottle nipples.
 Polyamide, commonly known as nylon, is used as a natural fibre and metal wire in clothing and industry.
Marine Pollution: Oil Spills and Plastic
* Marine pollution refers to the emptying of chemicals into the ocean and its harmful effects. The potentially
toxic chemicals stick to tiny particles, and these are taken up by plankton and benthos animals which are
deposit or filter feeders concentrating upward within food chains. As animal feeds usually have a high fish
meal or fish oil content, toxins can be found in consumed food items obtained from livestock and animal
husbandry.
Oil Spills
* The most common cause of oil spills is leakage during marine transport, leakage from underground storage
tanks, and during offshore oil production.
Recent Incidents of Oil Spills
 An oil spill accident in the East China Sea in 2018 released more than 1,36,000 tonnes of volatile petroleum.
 Deepwater Horizon drilling accident is the largest oil spill disaster in history that took place in 2010, releasing 779 million litres of crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico.
 The recent MV Wakashio spill off Mauritius — about 1,000 tonnes of oil spilt into a sanctuary for rare wildlife
after the Japanese ship struck a coral reef in 2020. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 264
Impact of oil spill on marine life
* Oil, being lighter than water, covers the surface as a thin film cutting off oxygen to floating plants and
other producers. Within hours of an oil spill, the fishes, shellfish and plankton die due to suffocation and
metabolic disorders. Birds and sea mammals that consume dead fish and plankton die due to poisoning.
 Oil spills in water can be cleaned with the help of bregoli — a by-product of the paper industry resembling
sawdust, oil zapper, and microorganisms.
Marine plastic pollution
* Marine plastic pollution is said to cause ~$13 billion in economic damage to marine ecosystems yearly. It is
estimated to outweigh fish by 2050.
* Exposure to chemicals leaching from plastic pollution interfered with the growth, photosynthesis & oxygen
production of Prochlorococcus, the ocean’s most abundant photosynthetic cyanobacteria.
* Plastic has been documented even in the deepest part of the ocean (Challenger Deep in Marana Trench).
* The most visible and disturbing impacts of marine plastics are the ingestion, suffocation and entanglement
of hundreds of marine species.
* Marine wildlife, such as seabirds, whales, fish and turtles, mistake plastic waste for prey, and most die of
starvation as their stomachs are filled with plastic debris.
* Invisible plastic has been identified in salt & is present in all samples from the world’s oceans, including the
Arctic!
14.3. Effects of Water Pollution
Effects on the Human Health
* Domestic and hospital sewage contain many undesirable pathogenic microorganisms, and its disposal into
the water without proper treatment may cause an outbreak of serious diseases, such as typhoid, cholera, etc.
* Metals such as lead, zinc, arsenic, copper, mercury and cadmium in industrial wastewaters adversely affect
humans and other animals.
* Consumption of such arsenic-polluted water leads to accumulation of arsenic in the body parts like blood,
nails and hairs, causing skin lesions, rough skin, dry and thickening of the skin and ultimately skin cancer.
* Mercury compounds in wastewater are converted by bacterial action into highly toxic methylmercury, which
can cause numbness of limbs, lips and tongue, deafness, blurring vision and mental derangement. Mercury
in water causes Minamata (a neurological syndrome) in humans.
* Lead causes lead poisoning (interferes with various body processes and is toxic). The lead compounds cause
anaemia, loss of muscle power & a bluish line around the gum.
* Water contaminated with cadmium can cause Itai Itai disease, also called ouch-ouch disease (a painful
disease of bones and joints) and cancer of the lungs and liver.
Effects on the Environment
* Micro-organisms involved in the biodegradation of organic matter in sewage waste consume much oxygen and make water oxygen deficient, killing aquatic creatures.
* Presence of large amounts of nutrients in water results in algal bloom (excessive growth of planktonic
algae — leads to ageing of lakes). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 265
* A few toxic substances, often present in industrial wastewater, can undergo biological magnification (Biomagnification) in the aquatic food chain.
* This phenomenon is well-known for mercury and DDT. High concentrations of DDT disturb calcium metabolism in birds, which cause thinning & premature breaking of eggshells, eventually causing a decline
in bird populations.
Effects on Aquatic Ecosystem
* Hot and polluted waters discharged from industries lower DO content and eliminate sensitive organisms
like plankton, molluscs, fish, etc. Biocides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and heavy metals also eliminate sensitive aquatic organisms.
 A few tolerant species like Tubifex (annelid worm) and some insect larvae may survive in highly polluted
water with low DO content. Such species are recognised as indicator species for polluted water.
Ocean warming increases methylmercury toxin in fish
* There has been a decrease in seawater concentration of methylmercury since the late 1990s. However, the
amount of methylmercury in fish higher in the food chain has been found to increase. The increase is
due to two reasons — 1) ocean warming and 2)dietary shifts due to overfishing by humans.
* Due to overfishing, fish higher in the food chain relied more on larger fishes, which have higher concentrations of the toxin than other prey fish. Fish metabolism is temperature dependent. So, as ocean temperature increases, fish experience higher metabolism, and more energy obtained from food is spent on
maintenance rather than growth. This leads to more methylmercury concentration in predatory fish (fish
higher in the food chain).
* Human exposure to the toxin through fish consumption is bound to increase due to climate change.
Eutrophication and Ageing of Lakes
* Lakes receive their water from surface runoff and, along with it, various chemical substances and minerals.
Over periods spanning millennia, ageing occurs as the lakes accumulate mineral & organic matter and gradually fill up.
* The nutrient enrichment of the lakes promotes the growth of algae, aquatic plants, and various fauna. This
process is known as natural eutrophication. Human activities cause similar nutrient enrichment of lakes at
an accelerated rate, and the consequent ageing phenomenon is known as cultural eutrophication.
* Based on their nutrient content, lakes are categorised as Oligotrophic (very low in nutrients), Mesotrophic
(moderate nutrients) and Eutrophic (highly nutrient-rich). Most lakes in India are either eutrophic or
mesotrophic because of the nutrients derived from their surroundings or the organic wastes entering them.
Effects of Eutrophication
* Collapsing food chains: Eutrophic water bodies (rich in nutrients) support dense plant and phytoplankton
populations, the death and decomposition of which kills animal life by depriving water of oxygen.
* New species invasion: Eutrophication may cause the ecosystem competitive by transforming the normal
limiting nutrient to an abundant level. This causes shifts in the species composition of the ecosystem.
* Loss of freshwater lakes: Eutrophication eventually creates a detritus layer in lakes and produces a successively shallower surface water depth. Eventually, the water body is reduced into a marsh whose plant community is transformed from an aquatic environment to a recognisable terrestrial environment. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 266
* Loss of coral reefs: Occurs due to decreased water transparency (increased turbidity).
* Others: Affects navigation due to increased turbidity; creates colour (yellow, green, red) and smell; increases
biomass of inedible toxic phytoplankton, benthic and epiphytic algae and bloom of gelatinous zooplankton, etc.
Eutrophication and Algal Blooms
* Eutrophication is the response to the addition of nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates naturally or
artificially, fertilising the aquatic ecosystem. Phytoplankton thrives on the excess nutrients, and their population explosion covers almost the entire surface layer, restricting the penetration of sunlight. This condition
is known as an algal bloom. It results in the death of aquatic plants and hence restricts the replenishment
of oxygen.
Phytoplankton
* Phytoplankton are tiny microscopic autotrophs found in the ocean. They have chlorophyll to capture
sunlight and use photosynthesis to turn it into chemical energy.
* All phytoplankton photosynthesise, but some get additional energy by consuming other organisms.
* Phytoplankton include diatoms, dinoflagellates, cryptomonads, green algae, blue-green algae, etc.,
which are at the base of the aquatic food web and are important ecological indicators. They contribute
to more than half of the oxygen that we breathe. They influence our climate by absorbing human-induced CO2.
Phytoplankton Chlorophyll
* Chlorophyll is a green photosynthetic pigment found in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. It absorbs
mainly in the blue and, to a lesser extent, red portions of the electromagnetic spectrum; hence it is in
green colour.
1. Chlorophyll a: found in all higher plants, algae and cyanobacteria. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 267
2. Chlorophyll b: found in higher plants and green algae.
3. Chlorophyll c: found in diatoms, dinoflagellates and brown algae.
4. Chlorophyll d: found only in red algae.
 Algal blooms can be any colours, but the most common ones are red or brown. These blooms are commonly
referred to as red or brown tides.
 Water temperature has also been related to the occurrence of algal blooms, with unusually warm water
being conducive to blooms (climate change will accentuate algal blooms).
Mechanism
* Phytoplankton are photosynthetic during the daytime, adding oxygen to the aquatic ecosystem. But
during the night, they consume far more oxygen as they respire aggressively. Therefore, algal blooms
accentuate the rate of oxygen depletion as the population of phytoplankton is exceedingly high.
* The primary consumers like zooplankton & small fish are killed due to oxygen deprivation caused by algal
blooms, adversely affecting the food chain.
* Further, more oxygen is taken up by microorganisms during the decomposition process of dead algae,
plants, and fishes. The new anaerobic conditions (absence of oxygen) created promote the growth of
bacteria such as Clostridium botulinum which produces toxins deadly to aquatic organisms, birds, and
mammals.
Harmful Algal Blooms
* Most algal blooms are not harmful, but some produce toxins (neuro and hepatotoxins), which can kill
aquatic organisms (E.g., Shellfish poisoning) and pose a threat to humans and are known as Harmful Algal
Blooms (HABs). They adversely affect commercial and recreational fishing, tourism, and valued habitats.
Eutrophication and Dead Zones
World’s oceans have less oxygen today
* According to a study by IUCN, the fall in oxygen levels in the world’s oceans is around 2% from 1960 to
2010. The primary causes of deoxygenation are eutrophication and nitrogen deposition from the burning
of fossil fuels, coupled with the widespread impacts from ocean warming.
* Warmer oceans cause deoxygenation, both because oxygen is less soluble in warmer water, and through
temperature driven stratification.
* Ice melt and glacial runoff results in a less salty and therefore a less dense layer that floats on top. This
stratification inhibits the upwelling of nutrients into the upper layer of the ocean. This decrease in nutrient
supply is likely to decrease rates of photosynthesis in the surface ocean (where most of the oceanic photosynthesis (such as by phytoplankton) occurs).
Dead zones
* Dead zones (biological deserts or hypoxic zones) are areas in the ocean with very low oxygen concentrations (hypoxic conditions). They emerge when the influx of excess chemical nutrients spurs algae
growth (algal blooms). These zones usually occur 200-800 meters (in the saltwater layer) below the surface.
* Hypoxic zones can occur naturally (due to the upwelling of excess nutrients). They can be created or enhanced by human activity to form dead zones. Dead zones are detrimental to animal life. Most of the animal
life either dies or migrates from the zone. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 268
* Dead zones are increasing in the coastal delta and estuarine regions. One of the largest dead zones forms
in the Gulf of Mexico every spring (farmers fertilise their crops, and rain washes fertiliser off the land into
rivers). There’s a dead zone in the Gulf of Oman, and it’s growing.
 Dead Zone Formation: 1) Eutrophication, 2) Algal Bloom and 3) Hypoxic condition
Red circles show the size and location of dead zones in 2010. Dark blue regions indicate overly fertile water that
may give rise to dead zones. (NASA Earth Observatory)
[UPSC 2018] What are the consequences of the spreading of ‘Dead Zones’ on marine ecosystems?
Blue Tide
* Bioluminescent (light-emitting) tides make occasional appearances along polluted coastlines where seawater has low dissolved oxygen (climate change) and a high presence of nitrogen (eutrophication).
* The blue tide phenomenon appears when luminescent dinoflagellates or other marine life make the sea
appear deep blue through chemical reactions in their proteins. While smaller tides may be harmless, slowmoving larger tides impact deep-sea fishing.
Bioluminescence
* Bioluminescence is the property of a living organism to produce and emit light. It is an antipredator
response (predator intimidation) through bioluminescence, which helps the organisms gather and make
colonies.
* Animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria show bioluminescence. It is found in many marine organisms, such
as bacteria, algae, jellyfish, crustaceans, sea stars, fish, sharks, etc. Luminescence is generally higher in
deep-living & planktonic organisms than in shallow species.
14.4. Water Pollution Control Measures
Bioremediation
* Bioremediation uses microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) to degrade environmental contaminants into
less toxic forms. Microorganisms can be specifically designed for bioremediation using genetic engineering
techniques. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 269
In-situ (at the site) bioremediation
* Bioventing: supply of nutrients through wells to contaminated soil to stimulate the growth of bacteria.
* Biosparging: injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase groundwater oxygen concentrations and enhance the rate of biological degradation of contaminants by bacteria.
* Bioaugmentation: microorganisms are imported to a contaminated site to enhance the degradation process.
* Using bioremediation techniques, TERI has developed a mixture of bacteria called ‘Oilzapper and Oilivorous-S’, which degrades the pollutants of oil-contaminated sites, leaving behind no harmful residues.
Recently, ‘oilzapper’ was in the news. What is it?
a) It is an eco-friendly technology for the remediation of oil sludge and oil spills.
b) It is the latest technology developed for under-sea oil exploration.
c) It is a genetically engineered biofuel yielding maize variety.
d) It is the latest technology to control the accidentally caused flames from oil wells.
Answer: a) Current Affairs-Based question. Keep track of similar developments.
Ex-situ bioremediation
* Ex-situ — involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere.
* Landfarming: contaminated soil is excavated and spread over a prepared bed and periodically tilled until
pollutants are degraded. The goal is to stimulate indigenous biodegradative microorganisms and facilitate
their aerobic degradation of contaminants.
* Bioreactors: these involve the processing of contaminated solid material (soil, sediment, sludge) or water
through an engineered containment system.
* Composting: Composting is nature’s recycling of decomposed organic materials into a rich soil known as
compost.
Bioremediation of Arsenic
* Using arsenic (arsenate and arsenite are the toxic forms) contaminated water for agricultural purposes
can lead to increased concentration of arsenic in fruits and grains, proving toxic to humans. Arsenic can be
removed from contaminated soil with the help of Bacillus flexus and Acinetobacter junii. Both bacteria WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 270
have a special gene, which aids in arsenic detoxification. (B. flexus exhibited resistance to arsenate and A.
junii to arsenite.)
Advantages of bioremediation
 Destroys a wide variety of contaminants.
 The destruction of target pollutants is possible.
 Less expensive and environment-friendly.
Disadvantages of bioremediation
 Bioremediation is limited to biodegradable compounds.
 Not all compounds are susceptible to biodegradation.
 It often takes a longer than other treatment processes.
[UPSC 2017] In the context of solving pollution problems, what is/are the advantage/advantages of bioremediation technique?
1) It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by enhancing the same biodegradation process that occurs in
nature.
2) Any contaminant with heavy metals such as cadmium and lead can be readily and completely treated by
bioremediation using microorganisms.
3) Genetic engineering can be used to create microorganisms specifically designed for bioremediation.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Bioremediation is limited to biodegradable compounds. Answer: c) 1 and 3 only
Riparian buffers for Mitigation of Eutrophication
* Riparian buffers are interfaces (of vegetation) between a flowing body of water and land created near the
waterways, farms, roads, etc., in an attempt to filter pollution. Sediments and nutrients are deposited in the
buffer zones instead of deposition in water (wetlands and estuaries are natural riparian buffers). Phytoremediation plays a key role in filtering pollutants.
Phytoremediation
* Phytoremediation is the use of plants to remove contaminants from soil and water. Mangroves, estuarine
vegetation and other wetland vegetation carry out natural phytoremediation.
* Phytoextraction/phytoaccumulation is the accumulation of contaminants into the roots and aboveground
shoots or leaves of plants. E.g. Water hyacinth (an aquatic weed, invasive species) can purify water by
taking some toxic materials and several heavy metals from water.
* Planting eucalyptus trees all along sewage ponds is suggested. These trees absorb all surplus wastewater
rapidly and release pure water vapour into the atmosphere.
Sewage Water Treatment for Domestic Use
* Sewage water contains suspended solids, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, and minerals such as iron and manganese. The processes involved in removing these contaminants are described here. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 271
Coagulation / Flocculation
* During coagulation, coagulants like aluminium sulfate (alum), ferric sulphate or sodium aluminate are
added to untreated water. This causes the tiny particles of dirt in the water to coagulate. Next, groups of dirt
particles stick together to form larger particles called flocs. Flocs are easier to remove by settling/filtration.
Filtration
* The filters are made of layers of sand and gravel, and in some cases, crushed anthracite (coal). Filtration
collects the suspended impurities in water and enhances the effectiveness of disinfection.
Sedimentation
* As the water and the floc particles progress through the treatment process, they move into sedimentation
basins, where the water moves slowly, causing the heavy floc particles to settle to the bottom as sludge.
Disinfection
* Water is disinfected using chlorine before it enters the distribution system to ensure that pathogens are
destroyed. Chlorine is used as it is a very effective disinfectant, and residual concentrations can be maintained to guard against possible biological contamination in the water distribution system.
* The addition of chlorine or chlorine compounds to drinking water is called chlorination. Chlorine can combine with certain naturally occurring organic compounds in water to produce chloroform and other potentially harmful by-products. The risk of this is very small when chlorine is applied after coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration.
* Ozone gas may also be used for the disinfection of drinking water. However, since ozone is unstable, it
cannot be stored and must be produced on-site, making it more expensive than chlorination.
* Ozone has the advantage of not causing taste or odour problems. It eaves no residue in the disinfected
water.
* The lack of an ozone residue, however, makes it difficult to monitor its continued effectiveness as water flows
through the distribution system.
Fluoridation
* Fluoride is generally present in natural water. Its concentration up to a certain level is not harmful. Beyond
that level, the bones start disintegrating (fluorosis).
* Water fluoridation is the treatment of water supplies to adjust the concentration of the free fluoride ion to
the optimum level sufficient to reduce dental caries or cavities.
* Defluorination at the domestic level can be carried out by mixing water for treatment with an adequate
amount of aluminium sulphate (alum) solution, lime or sodium carbonate and bleaching powder depending upon its alkalinity (concentration of bicarbonates and carbonates in water) and fluoride contents.
* We have a fluoride problem in many parts of our country. BIS prescribes 1.0 mg/l as desirable and 1.5 mg/l
as the permissible limit for drinking water.
pH Correction
* Lime is added to the filtered water to adjust the pH and stabilise the naturally soft water to minimise corrosion in the distribution system and within customers’ plumbing.
Removal of iron
* In many parts of India, there is a problem of excess iron in drinking water, especially in North-East regions.
* Iron causes terrible taste and odour to the drinking water. BIS prescribes a desirable limit for iron as 0.3 mg/l. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 272
* A significant part of iron is oxidised. Then the water is made to react with oxidising media (lime). By aeration
and further oxidation, the dissolved iron is converted to insoluble ferric hydroxide. The insoluble iron can
thus be easily removed through filtration.
Removal of arsenic
* BIS prescribes a desirable limit for arsenic as 0.05 mg/l.
* Bleaching powder & alum are used for the removal.
Bio-Toilets
Terms associated with Bio-Toilets
 Bio-digesters: shells of steel for the anaerobic digestion of human waste.
 Bio-tank: tanks made of concrete for the anaerobic digestion of human waste.
 Aerobic Bacteria: bacteria that flourish in the presence of free dissolved oxygen in the wastewater and
consume organic matter for their food, thereby oxidising it to stable end products.
 Anaerobic Bacteria: bacteria that flourish in the absence of dissolved oxygen and survive by utilising
the bounded molecular oxygen in compounds like nitrates (NO3), sulphates (SO4) etc, thereby reducing
them to stable end products along with the evolution of foul-smelling gases like H2S (hydrogen sulphide)
and CH4 (methane).
 Facultative Bacteria: bacteria that can operate either aerobically or anaerobically.
 Anaerobic Microbial Inoculums: a mixture of different types of bacteria responsible for the breakdown of
complex polymers into simple sugars, further broken down into low-chain fatty acids and finally into biogas.
Anaerobic (Digester) Biodegradation System
* Anaerobic digestion is a collection of processes by which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen. The final waste is Methane (biogas), Carbon Dioxide and biofertiliser. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 273
* Every tonne of food waste recycled by anaerobic digestion as an alternative to landfill prevents between 0.5
and 1.0 tonnes of CO2 from entering the atmosphere, one of the many benefits of anaerobic digestion.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 274
[UPSC 2015] With reference to bio-toilets used by the Indian Railways, consider the following
statements:
1) The decomposition of human waste in the bio-toilets is initiated by a fungal inoculum.
2) Ammonia and water vapour are the only end products in this decomposition which are released into the
atmosphere.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Explanation:
* Anaerobic bacteria carry out the decomposition of human waste in bio-toilets. The final waste is CO2 and
CH4.
Answer: d) Neither 1 nor 2
Anaerobic Biodegradation Aerobic Biodegradation
Complete anaerobic conditions. Forced aeration is essential, which is energy intensive.
More than 99% pathogen inactivation. Incomplete aeration leads to a foul smell.
Anaerobes can even degrade detergents/phenyl. Cannot tolerate detergents.
Sludge generation is significantly less. Generate a large amount of sludge.
One-time bacterial inoculation is enough. Repeated addition of bacteria/enzymes is required.
Minimal maintenance and no recurring cost. Maintenance and the recurring cost is high.
EcoSan toilets
* Ecological sanitation is a sustainable system for handling human excreta, using dry composting toilets.
This is a practical, hygienic, efficient, and cost-effective solution to human waste disposal. With this composting method, human excreta can be recycled into a natural fertiliser.
Bio-Toilets in Indian Trains
* Bio-toilets for the Indian trains were designed by Indian Railways in association with DRDO. The bio-toilets
are fitted underneath the lavatories. The human waste discharged into them is acted upon by a particular
kind of bacteria that converts it into non-corrosive neutral water. Direct discharge of human waste from the
existing toilet system in trains causes corrosion of the tracks.
14.5. Water Pollution Control Measures in India and Indian River Systems
* The Government of India has passed the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 to safeguard our water resources.
* The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), an apex body in the field of water quality management, in
collaboration with the concerned State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB), has developed a concept of “designated best use”. Accordingly, the water body is designated as A, B, C, D, and E based on pH, dissolved
oxygen, BOD, total coliform, free ammonia, electrical conductivity, etc. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 275
* The classification helps the water quality managers and planners to set water quality targets and identify
needs and priorities for water quality restoration programmes. The Ganga Action Plan and, subsequently,
the National River Action Plan are the results of such an exercise.
Major River Conservation Initiatives
Ganga Action Plan (GAP)
* GAP was the first river action plan taken up by MoEF in 1985 as a centrally sponsored scheme. The programme began with pollution abatement works in the river Ganga.
* Subsequently, GAP Phase-II was initiated, which included the works on the major tributaries of the river
Ganga, namely, Yamuna, Gomti and Damodar.
* At the time of launching, the main objective of GAP was to improve the water quality of the Ganga to acceptable standards. However, it was later recast to the ‘Bathing Class’ standard, which is as follows:
Parameter GAP Bathing Class
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 3 mg/l maximum
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 5 mg/l minimum
Total Coliform 10,000 per 100 ml
Faecal Coliform 25,00 per 100 ml
* Partially successful GAP I was declared closed on 31st March 2000. It made a significant difference to water
quality, however, in many places, the BOD levels were above the permissible limit of 3.0 mg/l.
National River Conservation Plan (NRCP)
* In 1995, GAP was broad-based to cover other national rivers under the aegis of the centrally sponsored
scheme National River Conservation Plan (NRCP).
* NRCP is under implementation by the Ministry of Jal Shakti in 160 towns along polluted stretches of 34
rivers spread over 20 States, excluding those in the Ganga basin.
* NRCP provides financial and technical assistance to the States/UTs on cost sharing basis. The objective is to
implement the following pollution abatement schemes to bring the river to bathing quality standards:
 Capture and treatment of raw sewage before flowing into the river (responsibility of the respective State
Governments and Urban Local Bodies);
 Prevention and control of industrial pollution (by the respective Pollution Control Boards).
 Low-cost sanitation works to prevent open defecation on river banks;
 Electric crematoria to ensure proper cremation of bodies brought to the burning ghat;
 Riverfront development works such as improvement of bathing ghats, etc.
National Ganga Council
* The National Council for Rejuvenation, Protection & Management of the River Ganga (National Ganga
Council) was established by the River Ganga (Rejuvenation, Protection, and Management) Authorities Order,
2016. It replaced the National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA).
* NGC has the overall responsibility of preventing pollution and rejuvenating the Ganga River Basin. National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG – registered as a society under the Societies Registration Act
1860) is the implementation wing of NGC, which is implementing the Namami Gange Programme.
Members of the National Ganga Council WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 276
 Prime Minister – Chairperson
 Union Minister for Jal Shakti – Vice-Chairperson
 Union Minister for Environment, Finance, Power, Housing, Science & Technology, State for Tourism &
Shipping.
 CMs of States through which Ganga or its tributaries flow.
 Vice Chairperson, Niti Aayog
National Ganga River Basin Authority (NRGBA)
* GOI established NGRBA in 2009 under Section 3 of the Environment Protection Act, 1986. NGRBA declared the Ganges as the “National River” of India. National Ganga Council replaced it in 2016.
Project Arth Ganga
* Project Arth Ganga is a sustainable development model focusing on channelising river-related economic activities along the banks of the Ganga River.
* It strives to contribute at least 3% of the GDP from the Ganga Basin. The concept was introduced during
the first National Ganga Council meeting in 2019.
* The Jal Marg Vikas Project (JMVP) aimed to develop the river Ganges as a safe mode of navigation
and is being implemented with the assistance of the World Bank. ‘Project Arth Ganga’ envisages re-engineering the JMVP by involving the local community with a focus on economic activities.
* Small jetty terminals (a structure that projects from land out into the water) will be set up along the banks
to boost the economic activities at the community level, which will bring down the logistics cost for farmers
in the movement of local produce.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 277
Namami Gange Programme
* Other than NRCP, the Ministry of Jal Shakti is implementing the central sector scheme of Namami Gange,
an Integrated Conservation Mission, approved as a ‘Flagship Programme’ by GOI in 2014 with a budget
outlay of Rs. 20,000 Crore to accomplish the twin objectives of abatement of pollution, conservation and
rejuvenation of Ganga.
* The main pillars of the programme are:
 Sewerage Treatment Infrastructure
 River-Front Development
 River-Surface Cleaning
 Bio-Diversity
 Afforestation
 Public Awareness
 Industrial Effluent Monitoring
 Ganga Gram.
Clean Ganga Fund
* It was set up in 2014 as a trust under the Indian Trust Act, 1882. It allows resident Indians, Non-Resident
Indians (NRIs), Persons of Indian Origins (PIOs), Corporates (Public as well as private sector) to contribute
towards the conservation of the river Ganga. The contributions to the Clean Ganga Fund fall within the purview of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).
[UPSC 2016] Which of the following are the key features of ‘National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA)’?
1) River basin is the unit of planning and management.
2) It spearheads the river conservation efforts at the national level.
3) One of the Chief Ministers of the States through which the Ganga flows becomes the Chairman of NGRBA
on rotation basis.
Select the correct answer using the code given Below.
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation:
* NGRBA is replaced by NGC, chaired by the Honorable Prime Minister.
Answer: a) 1 and 2 only
Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM)
* SBM was Launched on 2nd October 2014. It is implemented by the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (Ministry of Jal Shakti since 2019). SMB seeks to achieve universal sanitation coverage by making
Gram Panchayats Open Defecation Free (ODF).
* Under SBM, incentives as provided for all BPL and APL households restricted to SCs/STs, physically challenged, and women-headed households for the construction of household latrines. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 278
* The incentives are provided by the Centre and States (75%:25%). For the NE States, and the Special category
States, the Central share will be 90%.
Performance of the mission
* More than 10 crore individual toilets have been constructed since the mission’s launch. Rural areas in all the
states were declared ODF on 2nd October 2019! (In 2014, sanitation coverage was reported at 38.7 per
cent.)
Swachh Iconic Places
* Swachh Iconic Places (SIP) is an initiative of the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (Ministry of
Jal Shakti since 2019) under SBM.
* SIP aims to take iconic places and surroundings to higher standards of Swachhata. It is a collaborative project
with three other central Ministries: Urban Development, Culture, Tourism and concerned States.
* Initiatives taken up under Swachh Iconic Places initiative are improved sewage infrastructure and sanitation
facilities, water vending machines, solid and liquid waste management (SLWM), lighting arrangements, beautification of parks, road maintenance, better transport facilities, etc.
Places selected for implementation
 Phase I: Ajmer Sharif Dargah, CST Mumbai, Golden Temple, Kamakhya Temple, MaikarnikaGhat, Meenakshi
Temple, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi, Shree Jagannath Temple, The Taj Mahal and Tirupati Temple.
 Phase II: Gangotri, Yamunotri, Mahakaleshwar Temple, Charminar, Church of St. Francis of Assissi, Kalady,
Gommateswara, BaidyanathDham, Gaya Tirth and Somnath temple.
 Phase III: Raghavendra Swamy Temple (Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh), Hazardwari Palace (Murshidabad, WB),
Brahma Sarovar Temple (Kurukshetra, Haryana), VidurKuti (Bijnor, UP), Mana village (Chamoli, Uttarakhand),
Pangong Lake (Leh-Ladakh), Nagvasuki Temple (Prayagraj), ImaKeithal market (Imphal, Manipur),
Sabarimala Temple (Kerala) and Kanvashram (Uttarakhand).
Swachh Bharat Mission II
* GOI has approved the second phase of the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM II) to be implemented between
2020-21 and 2024-25. The estimated central and state budget for SBM II is ~Rs 52,000 crore.
* The second phase will focus on Open Defecation Free Plus (ODF Plus), which includes ODF sustainability
and solid and liquid waste management(SLWM).
* The ODF Plus will converge with MGNREGA, especially for greywater (wastewater from non-toilet plumbing
systems such as hand basins, washing machines, showers and baths) management, and will complement the
newly launched Jal Jeevan Mission.
* The fund-sharing pattern between the Centre and States will be 90:10 for North-Eastern States and the Himalayan States and UT of J&K; 60:40 for other States; and 100:0 for other Union Territories.
National Water Quality Monitoring Programme
* CPCBs, in association with the SPCBs, has been monitoring the water quality of rivers in the country through
a network of monitoring stations under the National Water Quality Monitoring Programme. Based on
water quality monitoring results, pollution assessment of rivers has been carried out by CPCB from time to
time. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 279
* In compliance with the orders of the National Green Tribunal (NGT) regarding polluted river stretches in
the country, States/UTs are required to implement action plans approved by CPCB for restoration of the said
stretches in their jurisdiction within the stipulated timelines.
14.6. Measures to Curb Marine Pollution
* To curb marine pollution and regulate the use of the world’s oceans by individual States, the nations of the
world have come together to form two major conventions and an organisation:
1. Convention on the Dumping of Wastes at Sea (1972) (replaced by the 1996 Protocol),
2. UN Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), and
3. International Maritime Organization (IMO)
Convention on Dumping of Wastes at Sea
* An inter-governmental conference on the Convention on the Dumping of Wastes at Sea met in London in
1972 to adopt this instrument, the London Convention. The Convention has a global character and is aimed
at international control and putting an end to marine pollution.
* The definition of dumping under the Convention relates to the deliberate disposal at sea of wastes or other
materials from vessels, aircraft, platforms & other man-made structures. ‘Dumping’ here does not cover
wastes derived from the exploration & exploitation of sea-bed minerals. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 280
* Dumping of low-level radioactive wastes and industrial wastes, as well as incineration of wastes, were
earlier permitted by the Convention. The 1978 amendment banned the incineration of wastes at sea.
* The 1993 amendment banned the dumping of low-level radioactive wastes into the seas. It phased out
the dumping of industrial wastes by 1995.
1996 Protocol
* The Protocol, which became effective in 2006, replaces the 1972 Convention. The 1996 Protocol is much
more restrictive than the 1972 Convention, which allowed dumping provided certain conditions were
satisfied. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is responsible for Secretariat duties concerning
the Protocol.
* 1996 Protocol calls for appropriate preventive measures to be taken when wastes thrown into the sea are
likely to cause harm “even when there is no conclusive evidence to prove a relation between inputs and their
effects.”
* The Protocol states that “the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution”, and the parties must
ensure that the Protocol does not simply result in pollution being transferred from one part of the environment to another.
* The Protocol prohibits the Contracting Parties from dumping “wastes or any other matter except those
listed in Annex I — includes dredged material; sewage sludge; fish waste from industrial fish processing operations etc. for which the concern is mainly physical impact”.
* The Protocol prohibits the incineration of wastes at sea (permitted by the 1972 convention but prohibited
under the 1993 amendments). It states that “Contracting Parties shall not allow the export of wastes or
other matter to other countries for dumping or incineration at sea”.
2006 Amendments to the 1996 Protocol
* Adopted in 2006, the amendments were enforced in 2007. They have created a basis in international environmental law to regulate carbon capture and storage in the sub-sealed geological formation. It is part
of the measures to address climate change and ocean acidification.
* The amendments allow the storage of carbon dioxide (CO2) under the seabed but regulate the sequestration of CO2 streams from CO2 capture processes in sub-seabed geological formations.
The United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
* UNCLOS establishes general obligations for safeguarding the marine environment and protecting the
freedom of scientific research on the high seas. It can hold states liable for damage caused by violation of
their international obligations through its three institutions:
1) International Tribunal for Law of Sea,
2) International Seabed Authority (ISA), and
3) Commission on the limits of the continental shelf.
* The convention gives a clear definition on Internal Waters, Territorial Waters, Contiguous Zone, Exclusive
Economic Zone and Continental Shelf. It provides rights to landlocked states for access to and from the
sea without taxation of traffic through transit states.
International Seabed Authority (ISA)
* UNCLOS creates a legal regime for controlling resource exploitation in deep-seabed areas beyond national jurisdiction, through the International Seabed Authority (168 members, India is a member). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 281
* ISA organises, regulates and controls all mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond
the limits of national jurisdiction.
International Maritime Organization (IMO)
* IMO is the global standard-setting authority for the safety, security and environmental performance of
international shipping. Its headquarters is in the UK (the only UN Special Agency to have its headquarters in the UK).
* IMO’s objective is “Improvement of maritime safety and prevention of marine pollution”. I
* IMO’s Maritime Environment Protection Committee is responsible for coordinating the organisation’s activities in the prevention and control of marine pollution. Its measures cover accidental and operational oil
pollution.
Ballast Water Management Convention (2004)
* This IMO convention aims to prevent the spread of harmful aquatic organisms from one region to another
through ballast water, which is widely regarded as the most critical vector for spreading potentially invasive
alien species.
* Ballast water is water carried in a ship’s ballast tanks to improve its stability and balance. It is taken up or
discharged when cargo is unloaded or loaded. Without special precautions, this practice causes a massive
spread of marine organisms from their native habitats to areas where they do not naturally occur.
Bunker Convention (2001)
* Bunker Convention ensures that adequate compensation is available to persons who suffer damage
caused by oil spills. It applies to damage caused on the territory, including the territorial sea and exclusive
economic zone of state parties. It is modelled on the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil
Pollution Damage, 1969.
 India has ratified both the conventions of IMO
Regional Oil Spill Contingency Plan WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 282
* It was jointly launched by South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme (SACEP) and IMO to facilitate
international cooperation and mutual assistance in preparing and responding to a major oil pollution incidents in the seas around Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Pakistan & Sri Lanka.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - End of Chapter - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Highly Polluting Industries (HPIs)

16.1. Highly Polluting Industries (HPIs) in India
* MoEF has classified 17 categories of Industries as Highly Polluting Industries (HPIs), which are to be
closely monitored. These industries are iron & steel, thermal power station, sugar, cement, distillery, dye
and dyestuff, petrochemicals, refinery, pulp & paper, pharmaceuticals, fertiliser, pesticides, tannery,
copper smelter, zinc smelter, aluminium and caustic soda.
* Pesticides, Pharmaceuticals and Dye and Dye Stuff industries use a wide range of chemicals with far-reaching
effects on water quality. Some of the pollutants released by these industries are persistent in nature.
Grossly Polluting Industries (GPIs)
* Grossly Polluting Industry (GPI) is defined as the industry which is discharging wastewater of more than 100
kilo litres a day and/or hazardous chemicals used by the industry as specified under Schedule I, Part II of The
Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules of 1989 under Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986.
* GIPs include fertilisers, petrochemicals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, distillery, dairy, food & beverage, pulp
and paper, sugar, tannery, textile, bleaching & dyeing, thermal power plants, slaughterhouses, cement, electroplating, metallurgical, automobile industry, etc.
Water Guzzlers
* Sectors such as thermal power plants (70-80%), engineering (5%), paper and pulp (2.2%), textiles (2%),
iron and steel (1.3%), sugar (0.5%), cement and fertilisers are water guzzlers. Most water is used for
filtration, cleaning, wet scrubbing, effluent discharge, etc.
Industrial Emissions and Effluents Monitoring
* Every industry and its effluent treatment plant (ETP) outlets are connected to a central monitoring system
that continuously reads and sends data to SPCB and CPCB. Since 2014, the monitoring has been done through
the Online Continuous Emissions/Effluents Monitoring Systems (OCEMS). All the HPIs (17 categories
of industrial units) are required to have OCEMS.
* Five parameters are scrutinised for all industries: BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand), TDS (Total Dissolved
Solids), Ph value, COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) and TSS (Total Suspended Solids).
* The emissions monitored include particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
sulfur dioxide (SO2), and fluoride. If the pollution control boards receive any number that exceeds the
permissible limit, the industry is sent a notice and action is taken.
Issues
 The data collected by OCEMS is largely inaccessible to the public; in the few cases that the data is accessible,
it remains opaque. The OCEMS network is regulated by CPCB, which also monitors the Continuous Ambient WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 318
Air Quality Monitoring System (CAAQMS). However, in the OCEMS, the monitoring system is left to the
same industries that are being monitored for their emissions! (The thieves have the keys!)
16.2. Pollutants From HPIs
Thermal Power Plants (TPP)
* Processes involved: fossil fuels such as coil, oil, and natural gas are burnt to produce heat  heat is used
to produce high-pressure steam from water  high-pressure steam is used to drive a steam turbine  A
generator attached to the steam turbine generates electricity.
* In India, most TPPs use coal as fuel (coal contains many toxic elements). The energy efficiency of these
TPPs is very low (20-45%). Most TPPs do not employ pollution-reducing techniques such as flue gas
desulphurisation (FGD), electrostatic precipitation, etc.
Pollution
* Fly ash (electrostatic precipitator ash, dry fly ash, pond ash and mound ash) is a byproduct of coal combustion. It is discharged into air and ash ponds (fly ash + water). The collapse of ash ponds contaminates nearby
farms, homes, surface water bodies and groundwater with toxic heavy metals and other elements.
* Toxic heavy metals in fly ash: mercury, cadmium, arsenic, lithium, zinc, iron, copper, nickel, boron,
magnesium, lead, aluminium, etc., are widely detected in the air as well as water bodies around TPPs.
* Other toxic elements in fly ash: fluoride, sulphur, etc.
* Gaseous Pollutants from TPP: Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Oxides Of Nitrogen (NOx),
Particulate Matter (PM), Methane (CH4), Carbon Monoxide (CO — from incomplete combustion), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), etc.
* Water Pollution: heavy metal pollution due to acid mine drainage (AMD) from open-pit and underground
coal mines and TPP effluents (cooling tower blow down, ash handling wastewater, wet FGD system discharges, etc.).
Iron and Steel Industry
Processes involved WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 319
* Unwanted impurities are removed by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. Major impurities include sulphur (which forms iron sulphide, which dramatically reduces the strength of steel), lead (improves the machinability of the steel when present in small quantities), oxygen (oxides make iron and steel weak), etc.
* In a blast furnace, fuel (coke — has far fewer impurities than coal), iron ore, and flux (limestone —
removes sulphur and other impurities into slag) are continuously supplied. The byproducts obtained are
liquid slag, liquid iron (pig iron — an intermediate product of smelting iron ore; has oxides) and gases.
Oxygen in the iron oxides is reduced by a series of chemical reactions that produce CO and CO2.
 Pig iron to steel  Liquid (pig) iron  Cast iron (cooled liquid iron; brittle; carbon content greater than
2%; wrought iron (weak) = liquid iron + slag)  Steel (carbon content is up to 2.1%; it does corrode) 
Stainless steel (steel + 10.5% chromium + Nickel, manganese, molybdenum, etc.; it does not corrode).
Byproduct – Slag
* Slag  full of impurities such as calcium sulphide (CaS) and oxides of silica, alumina, magnesia, calcium
(CaO), etc., that entered with the iron ore or coke. Only a small percentage of slag goes into landfills.
* Cement made with blast furnace slag has lower permeability and is more durable than Portland (regular)
cement. It is used as an aggregate in concrete, cement clinker, asphalt concrete, asphalt and road bases.
* Soil improvement: dissolution of slag generates alkalinity that can be used to precipitate out metals, sulfates, and excess nutrients (like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) in wastewater treatment.
* Soil conditioner: ferrous slags have been used to rebalance soil pH and as fertilisers (as sources of calcium
and magnesium).
Air Pollution
* The industry burns a lot of coal (thermal power; coke in the blast furnace), causing air pollution in the form
of PM2.5 and PM10, Carbon Dioxide, Sulphur Oxides (sulphur is eliminated as SO2 in the blast furnace),
Nitrogen Oxides, Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen Sulphide, Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds
(NMVOC), etc.
* Coke ovens emit naphthalene which is highly toxic and can cause cancer (carcinogenic).
Magnetite Pollution
* Magnetite pollution refers to the presence of a magnetic mineral called Magnetite (Fe3O4) in the environment,
as a result of human activities such as mining, steel production and industrial processes.
* Magnetic particles can interfere with the migratory patterns of birds and the operation of electronic
equipment, such as compasses and navigation systems.
[UPSC 2021] Magnetite particles, suspected to cause neurodegenerative problems, are generated as environmental pollutants from which of the following?
1) Brakes of motor vehicles
2) Engines of motor vehicles
3) Microwave stoves within homes
4) Power plants
5) Telephone lines WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 320
Select the correct answer using the code given below
a) 1, 2, 3 & 5 Only
b) 1, 2 & 4 Only
c) 3, 4 & 5 Only
d) 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5
Explanaton:
* Magnetite is an oxide of iron. It is the most magnetic form of iron with ~72% metallic iron. It is a natural
magnet extensively sought out in the electrical industry for its excellent magnetic properties. Magnetite is used in brake pads as a solid lubricant.
* There are no conclusive sources mention the use of magnetite in microwave owens and telephone lines.
However, magnets are used in a microwave oven to guide electrons to heat food.
Answer: b) 1, 2 & 4 Only or d) all (tricky question)
Water pollution
* Heavy metal pollution occurs due to acid mine drainage (AMD) in slag dumps.
* Wastewater (used for filtering) from the coking process (heating coal in the absence of oxygen (CO emissions) to drive off VOCs, leaving behind high carbon coke) is highly toxic and contains several carcinogenic
organic compounds as well as cyanide, sulfides, ammonia, etc.
* Dissolution of slags (full of oxides) can produce highly alkaline groundwater. (oxides in slags react with
water to produce a higher concentration of hydroxide (OH-
) in groundwater).
Cement Industry
* Processes involved: blasting limestone quarries  crushing limestone (75%) and clay (25%)  (calcination) burning the prepared mix in a kiln (a large oven-like structure) at high temperature to form calcium
silicate clinker (a mix of limestone and minerals transformed by heat)  grinding clinker with 3-5% gypsum
(regulates the setting time of cement)  Portland Cement.
* Limestone (the most common form of calcium carbonate) is the most crucial binder in cement. It is heated
in kilns to ~1,400 °C using coal as fuel.
* Carbon trapped in the limestone combines with oxygen and is released as CO2 (byproduct) — a ton of
cement yields at least half a ton of CO2. A portion of limestone can be substituted by blast furnace slag
and/or fly ash to reduce CO2 emissions.
* Cement manufacturing requires water for cooling heavy equipment and exhaust gases, in emission control
systems such as wet scrubbers, and for preparing slurry in kilns.
Emissions and Effluents are the same as in TPP, as coal is the primary fuel source in kilns.
Copper Smelting Industry
Processes Involved
1. Mining of raw chalcopyrite ore (CuFeS2 — copper iron sulfide; most abundant copper ore mineral; <1%
Cu). WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 321
2. Improving chalcopyrite ore concentration (34.5% Cu, 30.5% Fe, and 35.0% S) by crushing, grinding, and flotation purification (oils are used as certain metals have an affinity to oils) at the mine site.
3. Roasting of improved ore concentrate is performed in copper smelters (mostly near ports) to reduce impurities, including sulfur, antimony, arsenic, lead, etc. It eliminates 20-50% sulfur as highly concentrated sulfur dioxide (SO2). It is converted to concentrated sulfuric acid and transported to fertilisers, pharmaceuticals, paper bleaching, petroleum refineries and other industries.
4. Smelting of roasted ore concentrate produces matte (65% Cu), a molten mixture of copper sulfide (Cu2S),
iron sulfide (FeS), and slag consisting of iron oxide and heavy metals.
5. Converting the matte in a converter furnace yields high-grade blister copper (~99% Cu).
6. Blister copper is refined in an anode furnace, cast into anodes to remove oxygen (99.5% Cu).
7. Electrolytic refining: Copper from the anode plates is electrolytically deposited on the stainless steel cathode plate, resulting in copper with a grade of 99.99%.
8. Slime generated in electrolytic refining contains precious metals such as gold, silver, selenium, tellurium,
etc. These metals are recovered in a slime treatment plant.
Copper slag
* Copper slag is mainly used for abrasive surface blast-cleaning (used to shape the surface of the metal,
stone, concrete, etc.). It can be used in road construction and the production of cement, mortar, and concrete as raw materials for clinker, coarse and fine aggregates.
Pollution
* Leaching of impurities from copper ore concentrate and slag: radon (emitted from the natural radioactive
decay of uranium, and copper ores), iron, arsenic, antimony, mercury, lead, cadmium, selenium, magnesium, aluminium, cobalt, tin, nickel, manganese, nitrates, fluorides, etc.
* As most copper ores are sulphur-based, the smelting process releases Sulphur Dioxide. When the concentration of sulphur dioxide is too high, the industries convert it into sulphuric acid, an irritant and water
contaminant. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 322
[UPSC 2021] Why is there a concern about copper smelting plants?
1) They may release lethal quantities of carbon monoxide into environment.
2) The copper slag can cause the leaching of some heavy metals into environment.
3) They may release sulphur dioxide as a pollutant.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
a) 1 & 2 Only
b) 2 & 3 Only
c) 1 & 3 Only
d) 1, 2 & 3
Explanation:
* Some quantity of CO is produced in almost all combustion processes. Lethal quantities of CO are produced
when there is incomplete combustion on an industrial scale.
Answer: c) 1 & 3 Only
Thoothukudi Sterlite Copper Plant Controversy
* Vedanta’s Thoothukudi Sterlite Copper Smelter in coastal TN and Hindalco’s copper smelter in coastal
Gujarat produced more than 80% of India’s copper.
* In 2018, massive protests erupted against the Thoothukudi plant over plans to increase the production capacity from 400,000 to 800,000 tonnes per year. The plant was subsequently closed.
* The plant was built 14 km from the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park, while the mandated distance
from an eco-sensitive zone for a hazardous industry like copper smelting should have been, as per CSIRNational Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), more than 25 km. It was releasing toxic
fumes of Sulphur Dioxide into the atmosphere and toxic effluents containing heavy metals into the nearby
water bodies.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 323
* The Thoothukudi plant contributed 36 per cent of the country’s demand for refined copper. It included a
sulphuric acid plant, a phosphoric acid plant and a 160 MW coal-based power plant to power the copper
smelter. The plant closure has affected many livelihoods.
Zinc/Lead Smelting Industry
* Zinc protects the steel from corrosion (galvanisation). Lead is used in batteries. Zinc and lead often occur
together as sulphides.
1. Raw materials: zinc sulfide (ZnS) and/or lead sulphide (PbS – galena) ore concentrate.
2. Beneficiation: concentration of the zinc/lead in the recovered ore is done near the mine by crushing, grinding, and flotation process using oils (lead has an affinity to oils).
3. Roasting: benefaction ore is burned in a blast furnace and turned into calcine (impure zinc oxide at high
temperature), eliminating most of the sulphur as SO2. Crude molten lead (lead bullion) is recovered similarly
using limestone flux and coke.
4. Leaching: calcine is dissolved in sulphuric acid.
5. Purification: pure zinc sulphate solution is produced by separating metals such as lead, gold, etc.
6. Electrowinning (specialised electrolysis process): zinc contained in the zinc sulphate solution is deposited
onto aluminium cathodes. Similarly, lead is also extracted from lead bullion.
* Byproducts: gold, silver & copper are collected as slimes.
* Granulated lead–zinc slag has suitable particle sizes for sand replacement in mortar and concrete.
Pollution
* Principal air pollutants: particulate matter (lead/zinc, arsenic, antimony, cadmium, copper, and mercury and metallic sulfates) and Sulfur Dioxide (SO2).
* Sources of wastewater: spent electrolytic baths, slimes recovery, spent acid from hydrometallurgy processes, cooling water, air scrubbers, etc.
* Heavy metal leaching from discarded slag: cadmium, copper, lead, iron, bismuth, antimony, arsenic, copper, etc.
Aluminium Smelting Industry
1) The Bayer Process separates alumina (aluminium oxide) from bauxite ore near the mine. The insoluble
parts of the bauxite are removed by exposing the ore to very hot caustic soda (sodium hydroxide).
2) The Hall-Héroult Process produces pure aluminium by electrolysis of alumina in an aluminium smelter. Due
to the significant energy demand, the smelters must be set up close to a power station. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 324
Pollution
* Most of the emissions are related to thermal power and electrolysis process — NOx, SO2, ammonia (NH3) and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH — formed from incomplete combustion during electrolysis).
Red Mud
* The highly alkaline and hazardous bauxite residue from the Bayer process is known as red mud. It is
composed mainly of iron oxides and various other various oxides and heavy metals.
* Historically, red was disposed of entirely in landfills. Of late, it is being used in road construction, and as a
source of iron, in producing iron-rich cements, low cost concrete, etc. It is applied to soils to improve
phosphorus cycling, amelioration of soil acidity, carbon sequestration, etc.
Petroleum Refining & Petrochemicals
* The petroleum industry is subdivided into upstream, midstream, and downstream segments. The upstream
deals with the exploration and mining of crude oil, the midstream includes storage and transport of crude,
while the downstream involves refining.
Petroleum Refining
1) Fractional distillation: separation of different fractions (hydrocarbon compounds) of crude oil based on
their boiling point differences.
2) Conversion processes: breaking down long chain molecules into more valuable smaller ones by heating.
3) Treating: separating the impurities such as sulfur, nitrogen and heavy metals.
Pollution WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 325
* Air pollutants include particulate matter (PM), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), sulfur dioxide (SO2), natural gas (methane), lead, VOCs including cancer-causing benzene pollutants, etc.
* Refineries use deep-injection into underground wells and coastal waters to dispose of wastewater and oil
residues generated inside the plants, and some of these wastes end up in aquifers and groundwater.
[UPSC 2021] With reference to furnace oil, consider the following statements:
1) It is a product of oil refineries.
2) Some industries use it to generate power.
3) Its use causes sulphur emissions into Environment.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
a) 1 & 2 Only
b) 2 & 3 Only
c) 1 & 3 Only
d) 1, 2 & 3
Furnace oil is a residue of crude oil.
Petrochemicals
* Petrochemical industry comprises the manufacture of synthetic fibres, polymers (PVC, polystyrene, performance polymers, etc.) and intermediates (styrene), synthetic rubber (elastomers), synthetic detergent intermediates, performance plastics, etc., using hydrocarbon feedstock (naphtha, ethylene, propylene, butadiene, etc.) derived mainly from crude oil and natural gas processing.
Pollution
* Organic pollutants primarily consist of complex polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The wastewater
effluents include toxic phenols, cyanide, and formaldehyde.
Fertilizer Industry
* Air Pollutants: particulate matter, ammonia (NH3), nitrogen oxides, sulphur and carbon dioxide. Prilling
towers, which manufacture urea prills, are a significant source of urea dust particulates. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 326
* Water Pollution: wastewater generated contains ammoniacal nitrogen, phosphates, heavy metals (vanadium and arsenic — used for carbon dioxide removal process in ammonia plant —and Chromium — used
as a corrosion inhibitor in cooling towers) and fluorides in varied amounts
Distilleries
* The distillery industry uses sugarcane molasses, cereals, fruits, sugar beet, and other agro products for
producing alcohol through fermented and distillation. Alcohol is an essential material in the chemical, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, beverage, food, and perfume industries.
* Distilleries are among the most water-polluting industries because ethanol fermentation results in the discharge of high-strength liquid effluents with high concentrations of organic matter (high BOD) and nitrogen compounds (eutrophication), low pH, high temperature, high turbidity and high salinity.
Paper and Pulp Industry
* Pulp is fibrous material prepared by separating cellulose fibres from wood, bagasse, fibre crops, wastepaper,
etc. The pulp mills are energy intensive and use a lot of unpolluted water and chemicals (sulfite salts,
caustic soda, sodium sulfide, hydrogen peroxide, sulphonic acid, etc.) for pulping the wood (to remove
lignin) and bleaching the pulp for producing paper of various quality and finish.
* The released wastewater contains very complex organic (high BOD) and inorganic pollutants such as sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium sulfide, chlorine dioxide, calcium oxide, hydrochloric acid, etc.
* The primary gaseous pollutants are hydrogen sulfides, sodium sulfide, methyl mercaptan, sulfur, etc.
Caustic Soda
* Caustic soda (NaOH) is produced by electrolysis of brine (common salt dissolved in water; chloralkali process) using mercury cell and membrane cell process. It is a widely used industrial chemical in pulp and
paper, detergents, packaging, agriculture, environmental protection, water treatment, textiles, etc.
* Chlor-alkali industries produce caustic soda, soda ash, chlorine and hydrogen, which are used as fuel or
converted to HCl. These products are used to manufacture paper, soaps and detergents, chemicals, water
treatment chemicals, textiles, PVC, glass, etc.
* Owing to the environmental risks associated with the mercury process and risks associated with handling
chlorine, its vapours and hydrogen, the industry is classified among the 17 polluting industry categories.
* Wastewater is generated from drying chlorine using sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Besides scrapped cell parts
(membranes, anodes and cathodes) leach heavy metals. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 327
Tannery
1. Beamhouse operations: hides from slaughterhouses  soaking (removes dirt from hides)  liming (unhairing by chemical dissolution of the hair with an alkaline medium of sulphide and lime)  deliming (alkaline
hides are neutralised with acid ammonium salts)  bating or puering (to degrade proteins)  pickling
(increases the acidity of the hide, enabling chromium tannins to enter the hide).
2. Chrome tanning: it is based on the cross-linkage of chromium ions with free carboxyl groups in the collagen. It makes the hide resistant to bacteria and temperature.
* The discharge of solid waste and wastewater containing chromium is the leading environmental problem.
* Wastewater with high organic content (high BOD) emanates from the beam house (pre-tanning) operations.
* Emissions into the air are primarily related to energy use, and the use of organic solvents and dyes — hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and ammonia (NH3).
Sugar Industry
* Processes involved: sugar cane (tropical grass crop)/sugar beet (temperate root tuber crop) harvesting 
juice extraction by crushing  filtration  crystallisation  drying of crystals  sugar.
Byproducts
* Press mud is waste produced during the filtration of cane juice. Applications: used as fertiliser, soil
amendment (any material added to a soil to improve its physical properties, such as water retention), biosorbent (effectively adsorb metal ions and contaminants), animal feed, etc.
* Molasses is a dark viscous syrup resulting from refining sugar cane juice into sugar. Applications: used to
sweeten and flavour foods, in making brown sugar for baking, ethanol production, as animal feed, soil
amendment, etc.
* Bagasse is a dry pulpy fibrous material that remains after crushing sugarcane. Applications: used as fuel in
sugar industries, raw material in paper, pulp, packaging industry.
Air Pollution
* The burning of sugar cane leaves and residue and bagasse (used as a fuel in sugar industries) generates large
quantities of fly ash, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, nitrates, carbon compounds,
and sulfates. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 328
* Sulphitation (introduction of SO2 into liquids) and carbonation (saturation of a liquid with CO2 gas)
are used as a process of purification (lightning) of cane juice by employing sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide,
lime (calcium hydroxide) and calcium carbonate (aids precipitation of impurities) producing SO2 and
CO2.
GHGs
* The major part of the total GHG emission results from residue burning, the use of synthetic fertilisers, and
about fossil fuel combustion. The sugarcane residue burning results in not only CO2, N2O (nitrous oxide)
and methane emissions but also other GHG precursors, including carbon monoxide (CO), non-methane
volatile organic compounds (NMVOC), etc.
Water Usage
* To mature in the field, one kilo of sugarcane requires 1,500-2,000 litres of water. After the harvest, crushing
a single tonne of sugarcane requires another 1,500-2,000 litres of water, generating about 1,000 litres of
wastewater.
Water Pollution
* The sugar industry ranks third for the amount of wastewater produced, after the pulp/paper and chemicals
sectors. The wastewater contains a high amount of organic pollution load, particularly in suspended solids,
organic matter, press mud, bagasse, etc., raising the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD — organic matter in
water is decomposed by bacteria and other microbes consuming a lot of dissolved oxygen).
* Coliform bacteria (indicator species for pollution load) indicates a high presence of pathogen and total
dissolved solids (TDS — inorganic salts such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, nitrates, etc.) in sugar industry
effluents.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - End of Chapter - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Land Degradation

Soil/land degradation is the decline in soil quality caused by improper use, usually for agricultural, pastoral, industrial, or urban purposes. It encompasses physical (soil erosion), chemical (salinity, alkalinity), and
biological deterioration (pollution and deterioration of vegetal cover).
17.1. Major Causes for Land Degradation
Deforestation
Roots of trees and plants bind the soil particles and regulate the flow of water, thus saving soil from
erosion. The population explosion has created pressure on forest land and resources, and this causes deforestation.
Deforestation makes soil vulnerable and accentuates soil erosion. The large-scale damage to the soil in the
Shiwalik range, the Chos of Punjab, and the ravines of Chambal valley is due to deforestation.
Major Causes of Deforestation
Shifting cultivation
In this practice a patch of land is cleared, vegetation is burned, and the ash is mixed with the soil thus adding
nutrients to the soil. This patch of land is used for raising crops for two to three years, and when the yield is
modest, it is abandoned and is left to recover its fertility, and the same practice is repeated elsewhere on
a fresh piece of land. This agricultural practice has become unsustainable due to the rapid increase in population pressure in forests.
Raw Materials
Wood is used as a raw material by various industries for making paper, plywood, furniture, match sticks,
boxes, crates, packing cases, etc.
Industries also obtain their raw materials from plants such as drugs, scents and perfumes, resin, gums, waxes,
turpentine, latex and rubber, tannins, alkaloids, bees wax.
Other Causes
Mining: opencast mining has resulted in deforestation all over the world.
Plantation Boom: increase in demand for cocoa, coffee, tea, sugar, palm oil, rubber, etc. has resulted in
deforestation in the tropical rainforests.
Deforestation also results from overgrazing, agriculture, urbanization, flood, fire, pest, diseases, etc.
Effects of Deforestation
Closed forests (based on canopy level) have diminished due to deforestation leading to an increase in
degraded forests (carbon sink turning to carbon source).
Forests recycle moisture (natural motors) from the soil into their immediate atmosphere by transpiration
where it again precipitates as rain. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 330
Deforestation results in an immediate lowering of groundwater level (low percolation due to the quick
surface runoff on barren lands) and in long-term reduction of precipitation. Due to deforestation, this natural
reuse cycle is broken, and water is lost through rapid runoff.
Soil Salinity and Soil Alkalinity
In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the topsoil is impregnated (soak or saturate with a substance) with saline and
alkaline efflorescences (becomes covered with salt particles).
Undecomposed rock fragments, on weathering, give rise to sodium, magnesium & calcium salts, & sulfurous acid. Some of the salts are transported in solution by the rivers.
In regions with a low water table (due to over-irrigation in canal-irrigated areas), the salts percolate into
the subsoil, and in regions with good drainage, the salts are wasted away by flowing water. But in places
where the drainage system is poor, the water with high salt concentration becomes stagnant and deposits all the salts in the topsoil once the water evaporates.
In regions with a high sub-soil water table, injurious salts are transferred from below by the capillary action
because of evaporation in the dry season.
In canal-irrigated areas plenty of water is available, and the farmers indulge in over-irrigation of their fields.
Under such conditions, the groundwater level rises, and saline and alkaline efflorescences consisting of
salts of sodium, calcium, and magnesium appear on the surface as a layer of white salt.
Vast tracts of canal-irrigated areas in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana; arid regions of Rajasthan, semiarid areas of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Karnataka, etc. are facing this problem.
Although the Indira Gandhi canal in Rajasthan has turned the sandy desert into a granary, it has given birth
to serious problems of salinity and alkalinity.
[UPSC 2018] Which of the following is/are the possible consequence(s) of heavy sand mining
in riverbeds?
1) Decreased salinity in the river
2) Pollution of groundwater
3) Lowering of the water-table
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1 ,2 and 3
Explanation:
Water accumulates in the (pores) space between soil particles and can stay in these spaces dues to capillary action. Capillary action occurs because water is sticky and helps the water in the pores overcome
gravity. It is because of the capillary action that water (water table) is available just a few feet below the
topsoil. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 331
When the soil is removed the capillary action is lost and the water table falls. In places of the high-water
table (near marshlands, wetlands, and river beds) when the topsoil is removed the water table is exposed
to sunlight and evaporation increases salinity. Also, soil acts as a filter and when it is removed the pollutants
manage to reach the groundwater more easily.
Answer: b) 2 and 3 only
Effects of salinity and alkalinity
 Salinity and alkalinity have an adverse effect on soil and reduce soil fertility.
 Cultivation is not possible on saline soils unless they are flushed out with large quantities of irrigation water
to leach out the salts.
 The choice of crops is limited to salinity-tolerant crops like cotton, barley, etc.
 The quality of fodder and food produced is of poor quality.
 Salinity and alkalinity create difficulties in building and road construction.
 Cause floods due to reduced percolation of water.
Steps to treat salinity and alkalinity
 Providing outlets for lands to drain out excess water and lower the water table.
 Seal leakages from canals, tanks, and other water bodies by lining them.
 Making judicious use of irrigation facilities.
 Improve vegetal cover to avoid further degradation by planting salt-tolerant vegetation.
 Crop rotation.
 Liberal application of gypsum to convert the alkalis into soluble compounds.
 Alkali (base) can be removed by adding sulphuric acid or acid-forming substances like sulfur and pyrite.
 Organic residues such as rice husks and rice straw can be added to promote the formation of mild acid as a
result of their decomposition.
Desertification
Desertification is the spread of desert-like conditions in arid or semi-arid areas due to man’s influence or
climatic change. A large part of the arid and semi-arid region lying between the Indus and the Aravalli range
is affected by spreading desert conditions.
Desert soils suffer maximum erosion by wind. The sand carried by the wind is deposited on the adjoining
fertile lands whose fertility dwindles, and slowly the fertile land starts merging with the advancing desert. It
has been estimated that the Thar Desert is advancing at an alarming rate of about 0.5 km per year.
The process of desertification is attributed to uncontrolled grazing, reckless felling of trees, and growing
population. Climate change has also contributed to the spread of deserts.
Ecological implications of desertification
 Drifting of sand & its accumulation on agricultural land.
 Excessive soil erosion by wind and water.
 Deposition of sand in rivers and lakes decreases their water-containing capacity.
 Lowering of water table leading to acute water shortage. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 332
 Increase in the area under wastelands.
 Decrease in agricultural production.
 Increase in frequency and intensity of droughts.
Measures for Controlling Desertification
 Intensive tree plantation in the transition zones.
 Mulching shifting sand dunes in deserts with different plant species. Mulches serve as an effective physical
barrier to the moving sand.
 Grazing should be controlled, and new pastures should be developed.
 Indiscriminate felling of trees should be banned.
 Alternative sources of fuel can reduce the demand for fuelwood.
 Sandy and wastelands should be put to proper use by judicious planning.
Waterlogging
The flat surfaces and depressions result in waterlogging. Waterlogged soils are soaked with water accumulated during the rainy season or due to leakage from various water sources. The extent of waterlogged soils
is about 12 million hectares in India – half of which lies along the coast and the other half in the inland area.
Waterlogging is believed to be one of the chief causes of salinity. Proper layout of drainage schemes is the
only way to overcome the menace of waterlogging. The basic methods of removing excess water from waterlogged soils are:
 Surface Drainage: Surface drainage involves the disposal of excess water over the ground surface through
an open drainage system with an adequate outlet.
 Vertical Drainage: Any bore or well from which the underlying water is extracted is defined as vertical drainage. It works well in the Indo-Gangetic plain where the pumped water is used for irrigating the neighboring
regions.
Faulty Methods of Agriculture
Much of the soil erosion in India is caused by faulty methods of agriculture. Wrong ploughing, lack of crop
rotation, and practice of shifting cultivation are the most adversely affecting methods of agriculture.
If the fields are ploughed along the slope, there is no obstruction to the flow of water and the water washes
away the topsoil easily.
In some parts of the country, the same crop (mono crop) is grown year after year which spoils the chemical
balance of the soil. This soil is exhausted and is easily eroded by wind or water.
The removal of the forest cover by shifting cultivation leads to the exposure of the soil to rain and sun which
results in heavy loss of topsoil, especially on the hill slopes.
Wind Erosion
Wind erosion or aeolian erosion is quite significant in arid and semi-arid regions. Winds usually blow at
high speeds in deserts due to the absence of physical obstruction. These winds remove the fertile, arable,
loose soils leaving behind a depression devoid of topsoil. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 333
The depression formation in deserts is the first step in Oasis formation. Oasis forms in depressions when
there is underground water that gets accumulated above rocks.
Very fine and medium sands are moved by the wind in a succession of bounds and leaps, known as saltation.
Small sand and dust particles are transported over long distances through the air by a process known as
suspension.
Coarse sand is not usually airborne but rather is rolled along the soil surface. This type of erosion is called
surface creep. Very coarse sand and gravels are too large to be rolled by wind, so wind-eroded soils have
surfaces covered with coarse fragments. This kind of arid soil surface is known as desert pavement.
Water Erosion
Running water is one of the main agents, which carries away soil particles. Soil erosion by water occurs by
means of raindrops, waves, or ice. Erosion by water is termed differently according to the intensity and nature
of erosion: raindrop erosion, sheet erosion, rill and gully erosion, stream bank erosion, landslides,
coastal erosion, and glacial erosion.
Raindrop erosion or Splash Erosion
A raindrop is approximately 5 mm in diameter and hits the soil at a velocity of 32 km/hr. Raindrops behave
like tiny bombs when falling on exposed soil, displace soil particles and destroy soil structure.
The presence of vegetation on land prevents raindrops from falling directly on the soil thus erosion of soil
in areas covered by vegetation is prevented.
Sheet erosion
With continued rainfall the displaced soil particles fill in the spaces between soil particles and prevent water from seeping into the soil. This results in surface runoff
and even more erosion. The detachment and transportation of soil particles by flowing
rainwater are called sheet/wash-off erosion. Weathering and erosion tend to level
down the irregularities of landforms and create a peneplane.
Uluru (Ayers) Rock in Australia standing on a peneplane WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 334
Rill and gully erosion
In rill erosion finger-like rills appear on land after it has undergone sheet erosion.
These rills are usually smoothened out every year while forming. Each year the
rills slowly increase in number and become wider and deeper.
Gully erosion is the removal of soil along drainage lines by surface water runoff.
When rills increase in size, they become gullies. Once started, gullies will continue to move by headward erosion or by slumping of the side walls. Gullies
formed over a large area give rise to badland topography (Chambal Ravines).
When a gully bed is eroded further due to headward erosion, the bed gradually deepens and flattens out,
and a ravine is formed. The depth of a ravine may extend to 30 meters or more. Further erosion of ravine
beds gives rise to canyons. Canyons are a few hundred meters deep and wide. E.g., Grand Canyon on the
Colorado River.
Streambank erosion
The erosion of soil from the banks (shores) of streams or rivers due
to the flowing water is called bank erosion.
In certain areas where the river changes its course, the river banks get
eroded at a rapid rate.
Streambank erosion damages the adjoining agricultural lands, highways, and bridges.
Landslide
The sudden mass movement of soil is called a landslide. Landslides occur due to instability or loss of balance
of land mass with respect to gravity. The loss in balance occurrs mainly due to excessive water or moisture in
the earth’s mass. Gravity acts on such an unstable landmass and causes the large chunks of surface materials
such as soil and rocks to slide down rapidly. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 335
Coastal erosion
In coastal areas, waves dash along the coast and cause heavy damage to the soil. During the landfall of
cyclones, storm surges destroy beaches and wash away the top layer. In estuaries, tidal bores cause extensive
damage to the surrounding banks.
Groyne for coastal protection
A groyne is a shore protection structure built perpendicular to the shoreline of the coast (or river), over
the beach to reduce longshore drift and trap sediments. A groyne functions as a physical barrier by intercepting sand moving along the shore.
Rock is often used as construction material, but wooden groynes, steel groynes, rubble-mound and sandfilled bag groynes, or groynes made of concrete elements can also be found. Rock groynes are generally
preferred as they are more durable and absorb more wave energy due to their permeable nature.
Glacial erosion
In polar regions and high mountainous regions like the Himalayas, soil erosion is caused by slowly moving
glaciers. This is called glacial erosion.
Sea Erosion in India
32 % of India’s coastline underwent sea erosion & 27% of it expanded between 1990 and 2018, according to
a report by the National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR).
[UPSC 2022] Explain the causes and effects of coastal erosion in India. What are the available
coastal management techniques for combating the hazard ? (Answer in 250 words)
Key Findings of the Report
The West Bengal coastline has been particularly most vulnerable among all i.e. 60% of the coastline underwent erosion during the period. Erosion on Odisha’s coast expanded by 51%. More erosion was found on
the eastern coast than on the western coast (West Bengal, Puducherry, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, etc.) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 336
Why there was more erosion on Eastern Coast than Western Coast?
Eastern coast showed more erosion because the Bay of Bengal witnesses rougher seas & intense tide movement in comparison to the Arabian Sea.
Also eastern coast underwent more erosion due to frequent cyclonic activities from the Bay of Bengal
in the past three decades, compared to the western coast, which remained largely stable.
Besides the southwest monsoon (June to September), the eastern coast also witnesses the Northeast Monsoon from October to December & which brings rains to coastal Andhra Pradesh & Tamil Nadu, and keeps
the sea rough for most of the year.
Apart from natural reasons, some anthropogenic factors also influence & intensified erosion i.e.
 Construction along coastlines. E.g. Ports.
 Dredging in port areas & dumping of those sediments into deep seas (ideally it should be dumped along
the coast).
28.7% of the coastline in Andhra Pradesh is under varying degrees of erosion. About 28 km of coastline in
Visakhapatnam (recently declared as the capital of AP) is prone to erosion. The erosion of beaches has been
since the construction of Visakhapatnam Port in the 1930s.
Erosion & Accretion
Coastlines are dynamic landforms and are constantly subjected to erosion and/or accretion. Coastlines are
modified by winds, waves, tides, currents, geomorphology, sediment supply to the coast, and anthropogenic
activities.
Accretion refers to an expansion of a coastal area through an increase in the width or length of the coastline.
Although accretion is not considered inherently destructive like erosion, it can have negative consequences
in deltaic ecosystems by reducing the flow of water inland.
Measures to Check Sea Erosion
 Beaches are dynamic landforms and should be treated as part of the sea and not part of the land.
 The beaches act as cushions between the high wave action of the sea and the landmass. Continuous nourishment of beaches is a must through the natural process and if disturbed, they will face severe erosion,
which may lead to issues to the landmass like caving-in of roads.
Construction of a submerged breakwater about 500 meters from the shoreline will break the energy of the
waves & stop the erosion caused by the wave current. Measures such as sea walls, revetments, groynes etc.
will also help.
 Beach Nourishment: The basic principle involved is to dredge sand from the sea and deposit it on the beaches
subject to erosion. The aim is to create a wider beach by artificially increasing the quantity of sediment on a
beach experiencing sediment loss by dredging.
National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR)
It is an attached office of the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
It monitors shoreline changes along the Indian coast.
National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 337
NCSCM is a research institute under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(MoEF&CC).
It is mandated to manage the Indian coast in a sustainable manner.
Desertification Setting in Across a Quarter Of IndiaWWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 338
According to Desertification and Land Degradation of Selected Districts of India, published by the ISRO,
some 96.40 mha, or about 30 percent of the country’s total area, is undergoing degradation.
Drylands span 228.3 mha (70%) of India’s total land. 82.6 mha of drylands (~25% of total land area) is
under desertification.
Regional causes behind desertification and degradation
Maharashtra: timber mafia is eating into already thin forests, leading to soil erosion.
Jharkhand & Odisha: Excessive mining has triggered soil erosion and aggravated water scarcity.
Goa: Rampant mining and expanding urbanization have taken a toll.
Nagaland: shifting cultivation (jhum cultivation) and rising population are to blame for desertification.
Andhra Pradesh, Telangana & Hyderabad Karnataka: droughts and increased dependence on borewells
have led to soil aridity.
Himachal Pradesh: less snow and more rainfall have deepened the desertification crisis. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 339
Gujarat: Overgrazing and encroachment of grasslands for agricultural activities.
Deforestation due to illegal mining
Unscientific and illegal mining in Goa has led to severe degradation, according to ISRO’s Land Degradation
and Desertification Atlas published in 2018.
The rush to export iron ore to China’s 2008 Olympics building frenzy degraded large swaths of forests. SC
had to stop mining in Goa in 2012 pointing to large-scale illegal mining.
Apathy for environmental governance
Most of Goa’s forests are outside recorded forest areas, according to FSI’s 2017 State of Forest Report.
The total forest cover in the state was recorded at 2,229 sq km or 60.21 percent of the state. But the state
forest department, in its own records, has only 1,224.46 sq km as government forest.
Take the example of Mopa, where the Goa government wants to build an airport. When the EIA for the airport
was done it showed no tree cover. But when the court case was filed, the forest department found 54,676
trees!
Desertification in cold areas
High altitude regions that get very little rainfall and are known as cold deserts. About 80 percent of the cold
desert region in India is in the union territory of Ladakh, while the rest is in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
There is clear evidence of desertification increasing in the trans-Himalayan regions in the form of shifting
tree lines, migrating dunes, and changes in soil moisture levels.
31% of grassland, 19% of common lands lost in a decade
The total area under grasslands reduced by 31% — 12.3 mha from 18 mha — between 2005 and 2015.
Grasslands in the Aravalli range in Rajasthan underwent severe degradation.
The country lost around 19 percent of its common lands (90.5 mha to 73.02 mha) during the same period.
Common lands include grazing grounds, some forest land, ponds, rivers, and other areas that all members
of a rural community can access and use.
State of India’s Environment (SoE) Report 2019
India has witnessed an increase in the level of desertification in 26 of 29 states between 2003-05 and 2011-
13.
India had committed to achieving land degradation neutrality by 2030. But it witnessed an increase of
1.87 million hectares undergoing the process of desertification between 2003-05 and 2011-13. More than
80 percent of the country’s degraded land lies in just nine states: Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, J&K,
Karnataka, Jharkhand, Odisha, MP, and Telangana. Top three districts with the highest area under desertification or land degradation are Jaisalmer (93%), Lahaul and Spiti (80%), and Kargil (78%).
17.2. Addressing Land Degradation and Desertification
SDG 15: Life on land: “promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.” WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 340
The pace of desertification has accelerated 30 to 35 times the historical rate in recent decades. At least onequarter of the global land has degraded in the last two decades. Some 1,500 million people depend on this
degrading land for their livelihood.
Soil Conservation
With soil conservation people rise and with its destruction, they fall. Neglect of soil is like killing the hen that
lays the golden egg. Soil conservation is the prevention of soil from erosion or reduced fertility caused
by overuse, acidification, salinization, or other chemical soil contamination.
Crop Rotation
Adopting sustainable agricultural practices is the most important measure to conserve soil. In many parts of
India, a particular crop is sown in the same field year after year. This practice leads to the exhaustion of certain
nutrients in the soil making it infertile.
Crop rotation is a practice in which a different crop is cultivated on a piece of land each year. This helps
to conserve soil fertility as different crops require different nutrients from the soil. Crop rotation will provide
enough time to restore lost nutrients.
For example, potatoes require much potash, but wheat requires nitrate. Thus, it is best to alternate crops in
the field. Legumes such as peas, beans, and many other plants, add nitrates to the soil by converting free
nitrogen in the air into nitrogenous nodules on their roots. Thus, if they are included in the crop rotation
nitrogenous fertilizers can be dispensed with.
Use of Early Maturing Varieties
Early maturing varieties of crops take less time to mature and thus put lesser pressure on the soil. In this way,
it can help in reducing soil erosion.
Strip Cropping
Crops may be cultivated in alternate strips, parallel to one another. Some strips may be allowed to lie
fallow while in others different crops may be sown. Various crops are harvested at different intervals. This
ensures that at no time of the year, the entire area is left bare or exposed.
The tall growing crops act as windbreaks and the strips which are often parallel to the contours help in
increasing water absorption by the soil by slowing down runoff.
Intercropping
Different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at different times to protect the soil from rain
wash. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 341
Contour Ploughing
If ploughing is done at right angles to the hill slope, the ridges, and furrows break the flow of water down
the hill. This prevents excessive soil loss as gullies are less likely to develop and also reduces run-off so that
plants receive more water.
Ploughing the land in a direction perpendicular to the wind direction also reduces wind velocity and protects the topsoil from erosion.
Checking Shifting Cultivation
Checking and reducing shifting cultivation by persuading the tribal people to switch over to settled agriculture is a very effective method of soil conservation. This can be done by planning for their resettlement which
involves the provision of residential accommodation, agricultural implements, seeds, manures, cattle, and
reclaimed land.
Mulching
The bare ground (topsoil) between plants is covered with a protective layer of organic matter like grass
clippings, straw, etc.
Benefits
 Protects the soil from erosion.
 Reduces compaction from the impact of heavy rains.
 Conserves moisture, reduced frequent watering.
 Maintains a more even soil temperature.
 Prevents weed growth.
 Organic mulches also improve the condition of the soil. As these mulches slowly decompose, they provide
organic matter which helps keep the soil loose. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 342
Contour barriers
Stones, grass, and soil are used to build barriers along contours. Trenches are made in front of the barriers
to collect water. They intercept downslope flowing water and soil particles. These barriers slow down the
water movement and reduce its erosive force. They also filter out and trap many of the suspended soil particles, keeping them from being washed out of the field.
A long-term advantage of barriers is that soil tends to build up behind them, creating a terrace effect.
Barriers can be classified as live (strips of living plants), dead (rocks, crop residues), or mixed (a combination
of the previous two).
Rock Dam
Rocks are piled up across a channel to slow down the flow of water. This prevents gullies and further soil loss.
Terrace farming
In terracing, a number of terraces are cut along the hill slope. These are made on the steep slopes so that flat
surfaces are available to grow crops. They can reduce surface run-off and soil erosion.
Contour Bunding
Contour bunding involves the construction of banks along the contours. Terracing and contour
bunding divide the hill slope into numerous small slopes, check the flow of water, promote absorption of
water by soil, and save soil from erosion. Retaining walls of terraces control the flow of water and help in
reducing soil erosion.
Shelterbelts or Windbreaks
In the coastal and dry regions, rows of trees are planted to check the wind movement to protect soil cover. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 343
Sand fences
Sand fences are barriers made of small, evenly spaced wooden slats or fabric. They are erected to reduce
wind velocity and trap blowing sand. Sand fences can be used as perimeter controls around open construction sites to keep sediments from being blown offsite by the wind.
Afforestation
It includes the prevention of forest destruction along with growing new forests or increasing the area under
forests. A minimum area of 20 to 25 percent of forest land was considered healthy for soil and water conservation for the whole country. It was raised to 33 percent in the second five-year plan – 20 percent for the
plains and 60 percent for hilly and mountainous regions.
Checking Overgrazing
Overgrazing accentuates erosion. During the dry period, there is a shortage of fodder, and the grass is grazed
to the ground and torn out to the roots by animals. The soil is pulverized (reduce to fine particles) by the
hoofs of animals. All this leads to the weak top layer. So overgrazing needs to be checked to prevent soil
erosion. This can be done by creating separate grazing grounds and producing larger quantities of fodder.
Dams
Much of the soil erosion by river floods can be avoided by constructing dams across the rivers in proper
places. This checks the speed of water and saves soil from erosion. But indiscriminate dam construction can
worsen the condition by creating floods and landslides as it happens in the Himalayan region.
Geotextiles
Geotextiles are permeable synthetic/natural fabrics used in association with soil to reinforce and protect it.
They are used to improve soils over which roads, embankments, & soil retaining structures are built.
Synthetic geotextiles are typically made from polypropylene or polyester. Natural geotextiles are made from
jute, coconut coir, etc. In 2020, GOI has allowed the use of coconut coir-based geotextiles for the construction of rural roads under the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 344
[UPSC 2020] In rural road construction, the use of which of the following is preferred for ensuring environmental sustainability or to reduce carbon footprint?
1. Copper slag
2. Cold mix asphalt technology
3. Geotextiles
4. Hot mix asphalt technology
5. Portland cement
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1, 2 and 3 only
b) 2, 3 and 4 only
c) 4 and 5 only
d) 1 and 5 only
Explanation:
Hot mix asphalt involves liquefying coal tar by burning. 4) is eliminated
Portland cement has higher limestone content (calcium carbonate). When limestone is heated in a cement or brick kiln it releases CO2. 5) is eliminated  a) is the answer
Cold mix asphalt technology uses unheated mineral aggregate with foamed bitumen. It does not require
any heating and causes less pollution.
Copper slag is a key by-product in the manufacturing process of copper, with very similar physical properties to conventional sand. Globally, copper slag is used in cement manufacturing, cement concrete applications, bricks, etc.
Answer: a) 1, 2, and 3 only
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
UNCCD, along with the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the UNFCCC, emerged from the
1992 Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit. UNCCD was established in 1994 in Paris. It is ratified by 196 countries
& European Union. India ratified the UNCCD Convention in 1996.
UNCCD is an agreement for ensuring global action against land degradation. It is the only legally binding
international agreement that links environment and development to sustainable land management.
The Convention requires countries to draw up their national action programmes (NAP) using a bottom-up
approach — from the local community up — to restore degraded lands.
The Global Mechanism (GM) was established under UNCCD to assist countries in the mobilization of financial resources to implement the Convention.
COP of the UNCCD
The CoP is the supreme decision-making body of UNCCD. It is held every two years. The CoP reviews the
implementation of the Convention, formulates strategies, coordinates its work with other agencies and NGOs,
and so on.
Recent COPs under UNCCD: WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 345
 COP 13 – 2017 - Ordos City (China)
 COP 14 – 2019 - New Delhi (India)
 COP-15 – 2022 - Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire)
COP-15 of the UNCCD was conducted recently at Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. At COP-15, India reaffirmed its
commitment to restoring 26 million ha of degraded land by 2030.
Future meetings of the biennial Conference of the Parties to the UNCCD & its subsidiary bodies will be held
in Saudi Arabia (COP16 in 2024) & Mongolia (COP17 in 2026).
CoP-14 at New Delhi
At CoP14, India was elected president until CoP 2015.
“Restore land, sustain future” was the theme of COP14.
Only 25% of nations include gender discussions in land degradation targets
The UNCCD mandates gender mainstreaming in advancing the efforts of countries to achieve their Land
Degradation Neutrality (LDN) targets.
Gender mainstreaming provides additional benefits to advance gender equality, increase women’s access
to and control over land and natural resources, reduce poverty, restore ecosystems, and so on.
Report on Soil Organic Carbon
Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) is pivotal in providing multifaceted benefits. It combats droughts, reduces soil
diseases and soil compacting, and helps in organic production. Because of its multifunctional roles and its
sensitivity to land management, SOC is one of the three global indicators of Land Degradation Neutrality
(LDN).
COP-15 at Abidjan
The COP-15 theme “Land. Life. Legacy: From scarcity to prosperity” is a call to action to ensure land, the
lifeline on this planet, continues to benefit present & future generations. Target is to restore one billion
hectares of degraded land between now & 2030.
The three key declarations of COP-15 included:
1. Abidjan Call issued by the Heads of State & Government to boost long-term sustainability.
2. Abidjan Declaration on achieving gender equality for successful land restoration.
3. COP-15 “Land, Life & Legacy” Declaration, as a response to the findings of the UNCCD’s flagship report,
Global Land Outlook 2 (second edition of the GLO).
The Global Land Outlook (GLO) is a UNCCD publication that underscores land system challenges, showcases transformative policies to cost-effective pathways to scale up sustainable land & water management.
Major Concerns
40 per cent of our planet’s land is degraded, which will directly affect half of humanity & is a threat to
about 50 per cent of global GDP or around $44 trillion. The world is slow on the restoration of one billion
hectares of degraded land by 2030.
UNCCD work & Impact
 UNCCD promotes practices that avoid, reduce & reverse land degradation. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 346
 It is the driving force behind Sustainable Development Goal 15 & Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN).
 The Drought Initiative: promotes a shift to proactive drought management.
 The Great Green Wall Initiative: aims to restore Africa’s degraded landscapes in the Sahel.
 The Sahel is a semiarid region that forms a transitional zone between the Sahara to the north & tropical
savannas to the south.
 It contains the fertile delta of the Niger. The Sahel’s fertile land is rapidly becoming desert because of
drought, deforestation, & intensive agriculture.
The Great Green Wall Initiative
It was launched in 2007 by the African Union. This ambitious project is being implemented across 22
African countries & will revitalize thousands of communities across the continent.
The GGW initiative’s ambition is to restore 100 mha of currently degraded land; sequester 250 million tons
of carbon & create 10 million green jobs by 2030.
Barely 18 per cent of the Great Green Wall’s objectives for 2030 have been achieved. Lack of communication, funds, & coordination are among the greatest challenges faced by GGW.
 Communities have played a major role in China, which has a quarter of its land under deserts. China is
a global leader in greening deserts because of successful community engagement.
WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 347
UNCCD Global Land Outlook Report
Loss of cropland due to urbanization
Human settlements have historically developed in the most fertile and accessible lands. Their growing size
is beginning to significantly displace fertile agricultural land.
Urbanisation is projected to cause the loss of between 1.6 and 3.3 million hectares of prime agricultural
land per year in the period between 2000 and 2030. (Between 48 and 99 million hectares in the period.) The
loss of croplands translates into a 6 per cent production loss in Asia and a 9 per cent drop in Africa.
Increasing meat consumption across the world has put great pressure on land.
Reducing the average meat consumption from 100 grams to 90 grams per person per day would make a
significant impact on both, human health and climate change.
The growing demand for meat and other land-intensive food (processed food using soy and palm) had led
to crises like land scarcity and food insecurity.
Water scarcity
The demand for water is projected to outgrow extraction capacity by 40 per cent by 2030.
Around two-thirds of the world’s population would be living in water-stressed countries by 2025.
Demand of water for agricultural purposes will double by 2050 due to growing demands for food.
The most water-intensive crops per kg of production are:
1. cotton (7,000 to 29,000 litres/kg),
2. rice (3,000 to 5,000 litres/kg),
3. sugar cane (1,500-3,000 litres/kg),
4. soya (2,000 litres/kg) and
5. wheat (900 litres/kg).
At present, two billion people and 40 per cent of irrigation were dependent on ground water. India (39
million hectares), China (19 mha) and the US (17 mha) were intensively using ground water.
Drought
There is a strong nexus between land use and drought and the management of both, land and drought, need
to be fundamentally linked.
Drought was one of the five ‘Strategic Objectives’ of the UNCCD for 2018-2030. UNCCD introduced the
concept of ‘drought-smart land management’ (D-SLM) within the broader group of SLM (sustainable land
management)-based interventions.
Cost
An investment of $1.8 trillion in climate-adaptation measures over the next decade will bring about concrete
transformation on the ground.
Desertification from Conservation Perspective
By desertification, we do not mean the natural expansion of existing deserts in the world. When we say desertification, we mean the degradation of land in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas. It is a gradual loss
of soil productivity — which makes raising of food grains and other crops impossible. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO
PMF IAS - Learn Smart 348
Importance of reversing land degradation
34% of the earth’s land surface and half of the farmlands are in drylands. Over 2 billion people and half of
the world’s livestock live depend on these lands.
[Mains 2020] The process of desertification does not have climatic boundaries. Justify with
examples. (150 words).
Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) initiative
The concept of LND emerged from the UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) in 2012.
In 2015, LDN became a target for the SGD 15, which is about sustaining life on land.
At COP12 to UNCCD, Parties adopted LDN as a “strong vehicle for driving implementation of UNCCD” and
called on countries to set voluntary targets to achieve “no net loss” by 2030.
New Delhi Declaration: 190+ countries agreed to achieve ‘land degradation neutrality’ by 2030 and
vowed to ensure that the efforts in this direction do not affect land rights of forest dwellers and women.
The countries will, however, must mobilise a huge sum of $300 billion to step up the restoration exercise.
India’s LND Targets: India will restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030; earlier the target
was 21 mha.
- - - - End of Chapter - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

23. Water Conservation

* A hundred cities worldwide, including 30 in India, face the risk of severe water scarcity by 2050 due to a dramatic increase in their population percentage to 51 % by 2050, from 17 % in 2020, according to a recent report by World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). The cities include global hubs such as Beijing, Jakarta, Johannesburg, Istanbul, Hong Kong, Mecca and Rio de Janeiro. More than half of the identified cities are from China & India. Jaipur topped the list of Indian cities, followed by Indore and Thane. Mumbai, Kolkata, and Delhi are also featured on the list. 23.1. Difference between Water Scarcity, Water stress and Water risk Water Scarcity Water Stress Water Risk * “Water scarcity” refers to the lack of adequate availability or supply of water. * Water scarcity is a physical, objective reality that can be measured consistently across regions and over time. * “Water scarcity” is one aspect of many that contribute to “water stress.” * An area could be highly water-stressed but not waterscarce if, for example, it had water pollution but plentiful supplies of contaminated water. * “Water stress” refers to the ability, or lack thereof, to meet human and ecological demand for water. * It is caused either due to water scarcity or the unusable nature of the available water. * Compared to scarcity, “water stress” is a more inclusive and broader concept. * It considers several physical aspects related to water resources, including water scarcity, but also water quality, environmental flows, and the accessibility of water. * “Water risk” refers to the probability of an entity experiencing a deleterious water-related event. * Water risk is felt differently by every sector of society and the organisations within them and thus is defined and interpreted differently. * For example, areas or sectors with poor water management can be at “water risk” sooner or later. Cities like Bengaluru are at “water risk” due to the rampant encroachment of water bodies. * Water-scarce regions: Rajasthan, Gujarat, rain-shadow part of Western Ghats (Hyderabad-Karnataka, Vidarbha), and other drought-prone regions. * Water stress regions (spatial pattern of water stress): All the water-scarce regions plus the regions affected by  Urban and industrial pollution (Ganga-Yamuna industrial region, mining hotbeds like Odisha, Jharkhand and metropolitan cities like Mumbai and Bengaluru),  alkalinity and salinity (overexploited regions like Punjab-Haryana),  marine saline ingress (coastal regions affected by cyclones and storm surges or sea-level rise) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 575  [UPSC] What is water stress? How and why does it differ regionally in India?  Mains Practise: What is the difference between water scarcity and water stress? Describe the spatial pattern of water stress in India. 23.2. India’s Water Situation * India accounts for 16% of the world’s population living in less than 2.5% of the global area & has just 4% of the worldwide water resources. * Water-scarcity condition is prevalent in the basins of the Indus, Krishna, Cauvery, Subarnarekha, Pennar, Mahi, Sabarmati & east-flowing rivers, and west-flowing rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra, including Luni. * According to the Central Water Commission (CWC), the estimated water resources potential of the country, which occurs as natural runoff in the rivers, is 1,999 billion cubic metres (BCM). Of this, the estimated utilisable resources are 1,122 BCM per year — 690 BCM per year surface water & 432 BCM per year replenishable groundwater. Per-Capita water situation * According to the CWC, per capita availability in the country will decrease from 1,434 cubic metres in 2025 to 1,219 cubic metres in 2050. As per CWC benchmarks: 1) 1700 cubic meters/person/year – 1000 cubic meters/person/year = Water Stressed Condition. 2) Less than 1000 cubic meters/person/year = Water Scarcity Condition. 3) 1000 cubic meters/person/year – 500 cubic meters/person/year = Chronic Water Scarcity. 4) Less than 500 CM/person/year = Absolute Scarcity.  The absolute minimum water requirement for domestic usage is 50 litres per person per day.  The ideal requirement is 100-200 litres/person/day. India’s groundwater situation * According to ‘Water and Related Statistics 2019’ by the CWC, the annual replenishable groundwater resources in India (2017) are 432 BCM, out of which 393 BCM is the yearly “extractable” groundwater availability. * The current annual groundwater extraction is 249 BCM, the largest user being the irrigation sector. The CGWB has classified the country’s assessment units (blocks, taluks, mandals, etc.) into safe, semi-critical and over-exploited in terms of groundwater resources. Jal Shakti Ministry had said 14% of the country’s assessment units are semi-critical, 5% are critical, & 17% are over-exploited, as of 2017. [UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements: 1. 36% of India’s districts are classified as “overexploited” or “critical” by the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA). 2. CGWA was formed under the Environment (Protection) Act. 3. India has the largest area under groundwater irrigation in the world. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 576 c) 2 only d) 1 and 3 only Explanation:  Critical 5% + over-exploited 17% = 22% | Semi-critical 17% + Critical 5% + over-exploited 14% = 36%.  India has the largest area under groundwater irrigation, followed by China. Answer: b) 2 and 3 only * India is the 2nd largest producer of wheat in the world. But with severe groundwater depletion, the cropping intensity in the winter season may decrease by up to 20% by 2025. (Some of the important winter crops are wheat, barley, mustard & peas). 13% of the villages in which farmers plant a winter crop are in critically water-depleted regions. * A study has now pointed out that India could experience more flash droughts by the end of this century. Even if all regions that are currently using depleted groundwater for irrigation will switch to using canal irrigation, cropping intensity may decline by 7% nationally. * About 85% of the rural water supply in India is dependent on groundwater. Due to the rampant drawing of subsurface water, the water table in many regions of the country has dropped significantly in recent years resulting in a threat to groundwater sustainability. An average drop in groundwater level by 1 m would increase India’s total carbon emissions by over 1%. * The Indo-Gangetic Plain, North-western, Central & Western parts of India account for the most intensive groundwater-based irrigation. And among these regions, Western India & the Indo-Gangetic Plain have more than 90% of the area irrigated using groundwater. Causes for depletion * Unsustainable usage of water:  Frequent pumping of water from the ground.  Usage rate is greater than the Recharge rate. * Low-intensity rainfall during the monsoon. Groundwater depletion is further worsened by the substantial increase in the concurrent hot & dry monsoon in India. * Agriculture needs a large amount of groundwater. * Green Revolution era led to unsustainable groundwater use for irrigation. Green Revolution led to a large increase in rice cultivation in north-western India, mainly in Punjab & Haryana, which are less suitable for rice cultivation due to predominantly light soils. * There are limited storage facilities owing to the hard rock terrain in central India. 23.3. Measures by the Government * Water being a state subject, steps for conservation are undertaken by the State government, and the Central Government supplements the efforts. * National Water Policy (2012) has been formulated by the Department of Water Resources. It advocates for rainwater harvesting & conservation of water. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 577 * Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) has issued directions under the Environment Protection Act, 1986, for mandatory Rain Water harvesting for all target areas in the country, including UTs. * Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) prepared a document entitled “Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Ground Water in India” in 2013. It envisages the construction of 1.11 crore rainwater harvesting & artificial recharge structures in the country by harnessing surplus monsoon runoff to augment groundwater resources. * Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs has released Model Building Bye-laws, 2016. It recommends Rainwater Harvesting for all types of buildings with a plot size of 100 sq. m or more. It aims for sustainable management of groundwater resources with community participation in water-stressed blocks of Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, MP, Maharashtra, Rajasthan&UP. * Creation of a new Ministry of Jal Shakti by merging Ministries of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation with Drinking Water & Sanitation for dealing with all matters relating to water at one place in an integrated manner. * The government has launched various programmes:  Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal Jal)  Jal Shakti Abhiyan for water conservation would focus on 1,592 “water-stressed” blocks in 257 districts.  Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM)  Micro Irrigation Fund under NABARD  National Perspective Plan (NPP) has been formulated for water resources development to transfer water from surplus to deficit areas. * Projects related to rainwater harvesting, rejuvenation of water bodies, and recharging of groundwater through:  Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) by MoHUA  Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS)  Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana – Watershed Development Component (PMKSY-WDC). Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) * CGWB is a subordinate office & the apex organisation of the Ministry of Jal Shakti dealing with groundwater and related issues. It is mandated to develop and disseminate technologies & monitor & implement national policies for the scientific and sustainable development and management of India’s groundwater resources. * Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) has been constituted by GOI under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to regulate & control the development & management of groundwater resources in the country. It works under the Department of Water Resources, Ministry of Jal Shakti. Powers & Functions: * CGWA has been conferred with the following powers: 1. Exercise of powers under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 2. To resort to penal provisions WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 578 3. To regulate & control, management & development of groundwater in the country 4. Exercise of powers under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, for the appointment of officers. Regulatory Measures * CGWA is regulating the withdrawal of groundwater by industries/projects in 802 Over-exploited & 169 Critical Assessment Units. A list of these critical areas has been circulated to the SPCBs and MoEF, which refer the new industries/projects to CGWA for obtaining permission. * CGWA has notified 162 critical/overexploited areas for control & regulation of the development of groundwater resources. Construction of new groundwater structures is prohibited in the notified areas. NGT vs CGWB * NGT has struck down the Central Ground Water Authority’s (CGWA) 2020 guidelines, saying they were against the law. NGT ordered commercial entities to follow new rules for getting permission to extract groundwater. NGT Guidelines * Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) will now form the basis of granting such permissions. There must be no general permission for groundwater withdrawal, particularly to any commercial entity, without EIA. * Water management plans need to be prepared for all OCS (overexploited, critical & semi-critical) assessment units in the country based on the mapping data, starting with overexploited blocks. * Permission to extract groundwater must be for specified times & quantity of water, not for perpetuity. Why such guidelines? * India accounted for 25% of the total annual global water extracted. There was no claim over groundwater levels improving, nor was there a projection for future improvement in the past 23 years of regulation by the CGWB. * India was at the bottom of the water quality index, at 120 among 122 countries. Most states achieved less than half the total score in the augmentation of groundwater resources. Almost none of the states have built the infrastructure required to recharge groundwater in over-exploited & critical areas wither. [UPSC 2022] Which one of the following has been constituted under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986? a) Central Water Commission b) Central Ground Water Board c) Central Ground Water Authority d) National Water Development Agency Central Water Commission (CWC) * CWC was established in 1945. It is a technical organisation that functions as part of the Ministry of Jal Shakti. It is entrusted with providing consultation to various state governments on water bodies related issues, and coordinating various governmental schemes for the conservation, control, and utilisation of water resources. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 579 * It has the responsibility of initiation and coordination of schemes introduced by the Ministry of Jal Shakti. They include schemes to conserve/control the water resource usage in the country and the States. The schemes also help in the fields of flood management, irrigation activities, drinking water supply, hydroelectricity generation, etc. National Aquifer Mapping & Management Programme (NAMMP) * Aquifer mapping is a process to characterize the quantity, quality & sustainability of groundwater in aquifers. * NAMMP, a central sector scheme of the Department of Water Resources, which is aimed at delineating aquifer and water availability, is being implemented by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) to facilitate sustainable management of groundwater resources. It is a part of the Ground Water Management and Regulation Scheme (a central sector scheme) Objectives of Programme * Delineation & characterization of aquifers in 3D to understand their disposition. * Identification & quantification of groundwater issues. * Development of groundwater management plans. Atal Bhujal Yojana (ATAL JAL) * ATAL JAL is a Rs. 6000 crore World Bank approved Central Sector Scheme of the Ministry of Jal Shakti. The funding pattern is 50:50 between the Government of India and the World Bank. The scheme will be implemented over a period of 5 years (2020-21 to 2024-25). It aims to improve groundwater management in priority areas through community participation. * The priority areas identified under the scheme fall in the states of Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, MP, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and UP. * They also cover two major types of groundwater systems found in India – alluvial and hard rock aquifers – and have varying degrees of institutional readiness and experience in groundwater management. Features of ATAL JAL Scheme * ATAL JAL will promote panchayat led groundwater management & behavioural change with a primary focus on demand-side (water consumption) management. It envisages community-led Water Security Plans. Concepts such as ‘Water User Associations’ and Water Budgeting will be introduced. Better performing districts and panchayats will get more funds. Jal Shakti Abhiyan * GOI launched the Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA), a time-bound water conservation campaign to be carried out in two phases across the 255 districts having critical and over-exploited groundwater levels. Reasons for the failure of Jal Shakti Abhiyan * JSA was not a funding programme & did not create any new intervention on its own. It only aimed to make water conservation a ‘people’s movement’ through schemes like the MGNREGA. These projects primarily involved building tanks, ponds and building recharge wells. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 580 Not much scientific planning went into JSA * Water planning should be based on hydrological units like river basins & catchment areas. However, JSA was planned based on administrative boundaries. This resulted in the division of basins/aquifers into multiple units that followed multiple policies. * There was no data on basin-wise rainfall, and no analysis of runoff and groundwater maps were rarely used. As a result, water harvesting in a district was sometimes at the cost of water in adjoining districts. * The JSA ignored the fact that most of India’s water-stressed basins, particularly those in the peninsular regions, are facing closure, with the demand exceeding supply. Hence, groundwater recharge happened at the cost of surface water and vice versa. Facile assumptions * The per capita water allocation was 55 litres for rural &135-150 litres for those living in urban areas. However, JSA stressed the rural areas and conveniently ignored the urban areas. Therefore, the JSA’s asking villagers to save water appears hypocritical, particularly when district administrations blatantly allow the sewage generated from cities to pollute village water sources. Lack of long-term solutions * Most of the farm bunds built with soil collapse within one monsoon season. There are issues like lack of proper engineering supervision of these structures, involvement of multiple departments with less or no coordination, and limited funding under MGNREGA and other schemes. * Finally, there have hardly been any efforts undertaken to dissuade farmers from growing water-intensive crops such as paddy, sugarcane, and banana. [UPSC 2020] What are the salient features of the Jal Shakti Abhiyan. launches by the Government of India for water conservation and water security? (250 words). Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) * JJM, launched in 2019, envisions providing safe and adequate drinking water through individual household tap connections by 2024 to all households in rural India. * The programme will also implement source sustainability measures as mandatory elements, such as recharge and reuse through grey water (used wastewater that has not come into contact with faeces) management, water conservation, rainwater harvesting, etc. * JJM will be based on a community approach to water (Jan Andolan for water — making water everyone’s priority) and will include extensive information, education, and communication as a key component. * The mission will converge with other Central and State Government Schemes to achieve its objectives of sustainable water supply management across the country. * The Jal Shakti Ministry is the nodal ministry for the implementation of the mission. The fund sharing pattern between the Centre and states is 90:10 for Himalayan and North-Eastern States, 50:50 for other states, and 100% for Union Territories. Jal Jeevan Mission (URBAN) WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 581 * JJM Urban has been announced under the Housing and Urban Affairs Ministry. It aims to provide universal coverage of water supply to all households through functional taps in all statutory towns in accordance with Sustainable Development Goal 6 (clean water and sanitation for all). It complements the Jal Jeevan Mission (Rural). Objectives * It proposes to cover the estimated gap:  2.68 crore in urban household tap connections.  2.64 In sewer connections in 500 AMRUT cities. * Rejuvenation of water bodies to augment sustainable fresh water supply and creating green spaces. * To reduce floods and enhance amenity value through Urban Aquifer Management plans. * To promote the circular economy of water through focusing on recycle/reuse of treated sewage, rejuvenation of water bodies and water conservation. * To spread awareness among masses through Information, Education & Communication campaign. * To conduct Pey Jal Survekshan in cities to ascertain:  Equitable distribution of water.  Reuse of wastewater. Jal, Jeevan, Hariyali Mission (JJHM) * JJHM is an autonomous body (society) registered under the Societies Registration Act 1860, under Rural Development Department, Govt. of Bihar. * Objectives of the mission are climate sustenance, conservation and rejuvenation of water bodies and groundwater, ensuring adequate water availability, climate resilient agriculture, etc. * The mission involves the implementation of the following:  Rejuvenation of all public conventional water storage structures  Construction of check dams and other water harvesting structures in small rivers/drains  Creation of new sources and delivering of water from the surplus river area to water deficit areas  Construction of Rain Water Harvesting Structures in the buildings  Creation of nurseries and dense plantation of trees  Promoting the usage of Alternative Cropping, Drip Irrigation, Organic Farming  Promotion of the usage of solar energy and encouraging conservation of energy Har Ghar Gangajal Scheme * Har Ghar Gangajal project was launched in Rajgir and Gaya. It is part of the Bihar government’s Jal, Jeevan, Hariyali Mission. The scheme, described as a “lift-store-tame-treat-supply”, will harvest the excess water in the Ganga during the monsoon season and then treat, store, and pipe it to the parched Rajgir, Gaya and Bodhgaya. The area is rocky and water-deficient and indiscriminate use of groundwater has lowered the water table.  Rajgir, Gaya and Bodhgaya region is the nucleus of the ancient Magadh kingdom and is associated with the founders of both Buddhism and Jainism. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 582 BIS – Drinking Water Standards * BIS recommends the acceptable limits of substances to be implemented in drinking water. Substance/Characteristic Requirement (Acceptable Limit) (mg/l) Permissible limit (mg/l) pH Value 6.5 – 8.5 NR Total Dissolved Solid 500 2000 Aluminium 0.03 0.2 Ammonia 0.5 NR Calcium 75 200 Chloride 250 1000 Chloramines 4.0 NR Cadmium 0.003 NR Fluoride 1.0 1.5 Arsenic 0.01 0.05 Lead 0.01 NR Iron 0.3 NR Magnesium 30 100 Mercury 0.001 NR Nickel 0.02 NR Selenium 0.01 NR Sulphide 0.05 NR Nitrate 45 NR Copper 0.05 1.5 Total Hardness (CaCo3) 200 600 Phenolic compounds 0.001 0.002 NR: No relaxation | All parameters except pH are in mg/l BIS’ Public Drinking Water Supply Draft * BIS has prepared a draft ‘Drinking water supply quality management system requirements for piped drinking water’ standard for the supply system of piped drinking water. It outlines the process of water supply, from raw water sources to household taps. It has been developed keeping in view the Centre’s Jal Jeevan Mission for providing safe & adequate drinking water to all rural households by 2024 through tap connections. * It sets the Indian Standard (IS) 10500 for the treated water for drinking. The IS 10500 outlines the acceptable limit of heavy metals such as arsenic, pH value of water, turbidity, the total dissolved solids, and the colour & odour. * The draft suggests the adoption of the concept of District Metering Area (DMA) where it is possible. DMA is a concept for controlling leakages in the water network. It also mentions that water should be sampled at the treatment plant every four hours against quality parameters. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 583 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) * BIS is the National Standard Body of India established under the BIS Act 2016 for the harmonious development of the activities of standardization, marking & quality certification of goods. * BIS is involved in various activities as given below:  Standards Formulation  Product Certification Scheme  Compulsory Registration Scheme  Foreign Manufacturers Certification Scheme  Hall Marking Scheme  Laboratory Services  Laboratory Recognition Scheme  Sale of Indian Standards  Consumer Affairs Activities, etc. National Hydrology Project (NHP) * NHP is a pan India, World Bank assisted Central Sector Scheme, with a 100% grant to the States. It is to be implemented for 8 years from 2016-17 to 2023-24. It intends to provide a system for real-time water resources data acquisition, storage, collation & management. * NHP data will be stored on a real-time basis & can be accessed by users at the State/District/village level. It will reduce the vulnerability of many regions to recurring floods & droughts, as the absence of realtime ground information for the entire country creates difficulties in issuing timely alerts. * The objectives of the project are to  improve reliability & accuracy of Hydrology & Ground Water data throughout India,  establish an effective hydrological database,  design aids to assist in the effective water resources planning & management,  build resilience against flooding & droughts due to uncertainties of climate change. 23.4. Recommended Conservation Measures Clean water sanctuaries * Over 70% of India’s surface water (rivers and lakes) and groundwater is polluted. Indians will soon need reverse osmosis (RO) for homes, which will add to the existing burden. The only unpolluted sources of water that remain are the waters underlying the floodplains of rivers (for bulk water) and subterranean natural mineral water underlying forest tracts (for drinking). These are two non-invasive sources that can perennially provide unpolluted water. * Floodplains can be secured by planting organic food forests or fruit forests, which don’t consume much water. Carving out lakes, as has been lately suggested, would require digging out vast quantities of sand. This will affect the wetland ecology of the floodplains. It will also cause a loss of water due to evaporation. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 584 * The natural mineral water that underlies forests is of the highest international quality. Unpolluted rainwater percolates through the humus or leaf cover on the forest floor while picking up nutrients and then through the underlying rock while picking up minerals. It finally settles in underground aquifers. This is the highest quality natural mineral water for drinking. All regions in the sweep of the Western and Eastern Ghats have such forest aquifers. Sponge City Concept * The Sponge City indicates a particular type of city in which water is Conserved + Stored + Recharged + Sustainably used. A sponge city does not act like an impermeable system, not allowing any water to filter through the ground. It acts like a sponge & absorbs the rainwater. * The absorbed water is naturally filtered by the soil & allowed to reach into the urban aquifers. This allows for the extraction of water from the ground through urban or peri-urban wells. This water can be easily treated and used for the city water supply. What does a Sponge City need in practice? * A sponge city needs to be abundant with spaces that allow water to seep through them. Instead of only impermeable concrete and asphalt, the city needs more:  Contiguous open green spaces, interconnected waterways, channels and ponds across neighbourhoods.  Green roofs that can retain rainwater and naturally filters it before it is recycled or released into the ground. Benefits of a Sponge City  Replenished groundwater and thus greater accessibility to water resources for cities.  Cleaner groundwater due to the increased volume of naturally filtered stormwater.  Reduction in flood risk as the city offers more permeable spaces for the natural percolation of water.  Lower burdens on drainage systems, water treatment plants, artificial channels and natural streams. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 585  Greener, healthier, more enjoyable urban spaces.  Enriched biodiversity around green open spaces, wetlands, urban gardens and green rooftops. Measures Required for Water Conservation * We need better policies in eastern India to expand irrigation & thus increase agriculture productivity. This will also release some pressure from north-western Indian states. * Water resource management plans need to incorporate the effects of climate change in order to accurately predict future supplies. * Traditional conservation methods must be revived like:  Constructing farm ponds, check dams, gully plugging, dug wells, and borewells.  Artificial glaciers in Ladakh and Tamaswada Pattern nallahs treatment in Maharashtra. * Need for greater regulation & strict penalties:  Currently, regulations are more of a toothless tiger. * Encouraging farmers to adopt micro-irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation & micro-sprinklers.  The government has initiated schemes like the DRIP programme, more drop per crop, Krishi Sinchai Yojana to ensure economical water use practices in agriculture. * Artificial recharge of tube wells, water reuse, afforestation, scientific methods of agriculture should also be done. * It is recommended to study the aquifer geometry:  Establish the saline-fresh interfaces within a few km of the coastal area.  To study the effects of glaciers melting on the recharge potential of aquifers in the Ganga basin & its effects on the transboundary aquifer systems, particularly in the arid & semi-arid regions. 23.5. Droughts * Flash droughts intensify more rapidly than normal, posing a risk to agriculture, ecosystems & water availability. They develop at an unusually fast rate due to extreme weather conditions & persists from a few weeks to some months. Conventional droughts, on the other hand, take months to years to develop to full intensity. * Flash droughts can be localised to a specific region or can become widespread. Several factors, including atmospheric anomalies, and anthropogenic GHG emissions, play an important role. In 1979, India faced a severe flash drought, affecting about 40% of the country. What is Drought? * As defined by the IMD, drought is a consequence of the natural reduction in the amount of precipitation for a long period of time. It is associated with other climatic factors like high winds & temperatures & low relative humidity. These factors can aggravate the severity of the drought event. * As per the Manual for Drought Management 2016, drought is declared considering the following factors: 1. The extent of rainfall deviation (depreciation) 2. The consequent dry spell WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 586 * A drought year is defined by the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) as a year in which:  The overall rainfall deficiency is more than 10% of the Long Period Average value (LPA) value; and  If more than 20% of its area is affected by drought conditions, either moderate or severe or combined moderate & severe.  When the spatial coverage of drought is more than 40%, it will be called All India Severe Drought Year. * The 2009 Manual of Drought Management classifies droughts into 3 categories: 1. Meteorological drought 2. Hydrological drought 3. Agricultural drought International Efforts for Drought Management * The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) launched the Integrated Drylands Development Programme (IDDP), which aims to strengthen resilience by working on the twin vulnerabilities of Poverty & Unsustainable land management in the drylands. * The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) developed a Drought Risk Reduction framework that provides a comprehensive framework for both higher-level & local action. * In 2013, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the Global Water Partnership (GWP) launched the Integrated Drought Management Programme (IDMP) to address drought issues. The IDMP & its partners have adopted 3 pillars of drought management. 1. Monitoring & Early Warning Systems: Monitoring & analysing drought indicators such as precipitation, temperature etc. 2. Vulnerability & Impact Assessment: It considers social, economic & environmental factors to determine a community’s susceptibility to drought hazards. 3. Mitigation & Response: Drought mitigation includes structural (i.e., appropriate crops, dams & engineering projects) & non-structural measures (i.e., policies, public awareness, & legal framework). Drought Management in India * There is no single, legally accepted definition of drought in India. Some states resort to their own definitions of drought. State Government is the final authority when it comes to declaring a region as droughtaffected. * India has published two important documents in respect of managing a drought. 1. Manual for Drought Management, 2009 by Ministry of Agriculture (not Ministry of Earth Sciences). 2. Guidelines for Management of Drought, 2010 by National Disaster Management Authority. * However, these documents have no binding force & are mere guidelines to be followed if so advised. * Drought would certainly fall within the definition of “disaster” as defined under Section 2(d) of the Disaster Management (DM) Act, 2005 – SC in Swaraj Abhiyan Vs Union of India in 2016.  National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) to be the agency responsible for drought management, particularly with respect to chalking out long term preventive & mitigation measures. WWW.PDFNOTES.CO PMF IAS – Learn Smart 587  However, the state government concerned would be the final authority to declare a drought.  Droughts can also be declared for a particular village in a district or a taluka or tehsil or block. Way forward * There is a need for efficient drought monitoring & early warning systems in India. * Drought Vulnerability & Impact Assessment needs to be done at regular intervals. * Framework for the Assessment of Benefits of Action or Cost of Inaction (BACI) for Drought Preparedness must be adopted. It suggests a methodological framework for the assessment of BACI as a tool to support a shift in drought policy & programs from crisis management to a risk management approach. * National Drought Management Policy Guidelines must be included while formulating policies:  It was codified by the WMO & the Global Water Partnership (GWP).  It provides a template for action that countries can use in the development of a national drought management policy & drought preparedness/mitigation plans. * Preventive Methods:  Judicious use of surface & groundwater.  Cloud seeding in drought prone regions of India.  Use of modern micro-irrigation methods like drip & sprinkler irrigation.  Afforestation  Use of traditional water conservation techniques. * Mitigation measures  Contingency Crop Planning by providing other options to farmers, like drought-resistant crops.  Arrangements must be made for relief employment programmes on the lines of MGNERGA.  Crop Insurance schemes like PM Fasal Bima Yojna. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - End of Chapter - - - - - - - - - - - -