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PM3B copy (dvw) > (PM3B) CNS Intro > Flashcards

(PM3B) CNS Intro Flashcards

1
Q

What is the sympathetic nervous system?

A

Autonomic - involuntary

(1) Mobilises

(2) Fight/ flight

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2
Q

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

Autonomic - involuntary

(1) Conserves

(2) Rest/ digest

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3
Q

What is the coronal (frontal) plane?

A

Ear to ear

Splits front and back of body

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4
Q

What is the horizontal (transverse) plane?

A

Front to back

Splits top and bottom of body

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5
Q

What is the sagittal plane?

A

Left and right

Splits left side of body from right side of body

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6
Q

What is grey matter?

A

Brain tissue

Dense in neuronal cell bodies

Glial cells + neurophil

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7
Q

What is white matter?

A

Areas dense in myelinated axonal tracts

Fewer cell bodies

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8
Q

What is the cerebral cortex?

A

Contains 90% of brain’s total neurons

Responsible for:
(1) Abstract thought
(2) Judgement
(3) Memory
(4) Interpretation
(5) Integration of sensory input

Proportionally larger in humans than other mammals

Evolutionary young area

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9
Q

What are Brodmann areas?

A

Regions of the cerebral cortex

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10
Q

What is the frontal lobe?

A

A cortical lobe of the brain

Responsible for higher, executive function

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11
Q

What are the cortical lobes of the brain?

A

(1) Frontal lobe

(2) Parietal lobe

(3) Occipital lobe

(4) Temporal lobe

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12
Q

What is the parietal lobe?

A

A cortical lobe of the brain

Responsible for integration of sensory information

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13
Q

What is the occipital lobe?

A

A cortical lobe of the brain

Responsible for visual processing

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14
Q

What is the temporal lobe?

A

A cortical lobe of the brain

Responsible for processing sensory information

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15
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

Responsible for application of emotion to cognitive functioning (fear/ love/ rage/ pleasure)

Includes:

(1) Hypothalamus

(2) Amygdala

(3) Hippocampus

(4) Thalamic nuclei

(5) Olfactory region + others

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16
Q

What brain areas/ systems are responsible for determining overall behaviours?

A

Balance of cortical + limbic functions

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17
Q

What is the thalamus?

A

Area in the brain

In the limbic system

Pre-processor + relay for sensory information

Dysfunction can cause perceptual symptoms, e.g. hallucinations

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18
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A

Area in the brain

In the limbic system

Coordinates nervous system with endocrine system (via pituitary) + sympathetic nervous system

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19
Q

What is the hippocampus?

A

Area in the brain

In the limbic system

Important for learning + memory

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20
Q

What is the amygdala?

A

Area in the brain

In the limbic system

Involved in fear processing + emotional memories

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21
Q

What are the basal ganglia?

A

Interconnected nuclei within the cerebrum

Responsible for coordinating voluntary motor activity between cerebellum + cortex

Maintenance of posture + muscle zone

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22
Q

What are the main components of the basal ganglia?

A

(1) Striatum

(2) Globus pallidus

(3) Subthalamic nuclei

(4) Substantia nigra

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23
Q

What can happen following basal ganglia dysfunction?

A

(1) Huntington’s disease

(2) Parkinson’s disease

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24
Q

What is the excitatory neurotransmitter in the basal ganglia?

A

Glutamate

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25
What is the inhibitory neurotransmitter in the basal ganglia?
GABA
26
What is the modulatory neurotransmitter in the basal ganglia?
Dopamine
27
What is the brainstem?
Oldest part of the brain (in evolutionary terms) Contains visual, auditory + motor centres Responsible for involuntary motor functions
28
What are the components of the brainstem?
(1) Midbrain (2) Pons (3) Medulla
29
What are the main responsibilities of the brainstem?
(1) Respiration (2) Cardiovascular control (3) Pain sensitivity control (4) Alertness (5) Consciousness
30
What is the relay station in the brainstem?
Reticular formation monitors + influences CNS input + output (1) Ascending: Carries information TO the brain (2) Descending: Carries information AWAY from the brain
31
What does the ascending relay station do in the brainstem?
Carries information to the brain From the periphery
32
What does the descending relay station do in the brainstem?
Carries information to the periphery From the brain
33
Where are the majority of cell bodies for amine neurotransmitters contained?
Brainstem
34
What are the main neurotransmitters in the brainstem?
(1) Dopamine (2) Noradrenaline (3) 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) (4) Cholinergic neurons
35
What are neurons?
Principle signalling units of the NS
36
What are glia?
(1) Oligodendrocytes: Make myelin (2) Astrocytes: Homestasis + synaptic modulation + BBB (3) Microglia: Brain's immune system (4) Ependymal cells
37
What are astrocytes?
Type of glia Stellate (fibrous + protoplasmic) (1) Physical support for neurons (2) Neurotransmitter uptake (3) Ionic homeostasis (4) Signalling to neurons
38
What are oligodendrocytes?
Type of glia Myelinating cells of CNS Each cell myelinates several axons
39
What are microglia?
Type of glia Macrophage-like cells Cells of the immune system in the CNS Respond to CNS injury + inflammation Phagocytose foreign bodies Contribute to repair + injury
40
What is the blood brain barrier?
High-selective + partially permeable membrane Barrier to protect brain from periphery (1) Endothelial cells form tight junctions (2) Tight junctions make the brain inaccessible for polar molecules (unless actively transported)
41
What is receptor mediated-transcytosis?
Mechanism by which some large molecules enter the CNS
42
What is the role of efflux transporters in the blood brain barrier?
Actively pump some molecules out of the brain
43
How do most drugs pass the blood brain barrier?
via diffusion Needs low molecular weight + high lipid solubility
44
What are the key factors which determine if a molecule can diffuse through the blood brain barrier?
(1) Must be low molecular weight (2) Must have high lipid solubility
45
What are the structural features of a neuron?
(1) Dendrites - Basal - Apical (2) Cell body (3) Axon - Initial segment - Hillock - Myelin sheath - Node of Ranvier (4) Nerve terminals - Presynaptic terminal
46
How can neurones differ morphologically?
(1) Shape (2) Spines (3) Myelinated/ unmyelinated
47
What percentage of neurons use glutamate as a neurotransmitter?
50%
48
What percentage of neurons use GABA as a neurotransmitter?
30%
49
What are some of the most common neurotransmitters used by neurons?
(1) Glutamate (2) GABA (3) Acetylcholine (4) Neuropeptides (5) Amines (serotonin/ noradrenaline)
50
Which structures within the neuron are responsible for processing?
(1) Dendrites (2) Cell body
51
Which structures within the neuron are responsible for output?
(1) Axon (2) Nerve (axon) terminals
52
What are some of the positive and negative charged ions used for transmission of an electrical signal?
(1) Cations: - Na+ - Ca2+ - K+ (2) Anions: - Cl- - Protein anions
53
What is the approximate charge of the inside of a neuronal cell?
-70mV
54
In a neuronal cell, which ions are at high concentration extracellularly?
(1) Ca2+ (2) Na+ (3) Cl-
55
In a neuronal cell, which ions are at high concentration intracellularly?
(1) K+ (2) Protein-
56
What is another term for potential difference?
Voltage
57
What is another term for voltage?
Potential difference
58
How can ion channels be opened?
(1) Ligands – ligand-gated channels (2) Changes in membrane potential – voltage-gated channels
59
What is the role of sodium (Na+) as an electrochemical transmitter?
To make the maximum voltage (Vm) more positive (1) High concentration outside the cell (2) Sodium channels are closed at resting membrane potential (3) Channels open – Na+ enters neuron down concentration gradient (4) Sodium can be pumped back out of the neuron in exchange for potassium ions (K+)
60
What is the role of potassium (K+) as an electrochemical transmitter?
To make the maximum voltage (Vm) more negative (1) High concentration inside the cell (2) Many K+ channels are open at rest to fine tune the resting potential (-70mV) (3) Channels open – K+ moves out of neurons down concentration gradient (4) K+ is pumped into the cell
61
What is the role of chloride (Cl-) as an electrochemical transmitter?
To make the maximum voltage (Vm) more negative (1) High concentration outside the cell (2) Most Cl- channels are ligand-gated (GABA + glycine receptors) (3) Channels open – Cl- flows into neuron down the concentration gradient (4) Cl- is pumped out of the cell by a co-transporter
62
What is the action potential of a neuron?
-70mV at rest – depolarisation drives the action potential towards + beyond 0mV The binary unit of information transfer in the nervous system Conveys information intRAcellularly Initiates electrochemical transmission intERcellularly Relies on voltage-activated ion channels
63
What are dendrites?
Receive signals from other neurons
64
How are post-synaptic potentials graded?
Volume of neurotransmitter present
65
What is an excitatory post-synaptic potential?
Due to influx of Na+ and Ca2+ ions Depolarises the cell (makes it less negative)
66
What is an inhibitory post-synaptic potential?
Due to influx of negative ions (Cl-) Hyperpolarises the cell (more negative)
67
What determines whether an action potential fires or not?
Overall contribution of excitatory post-synaptic potentials and inhibitory post-synaptic potentials
68
What is temporal summation?
When ≥2 post-synaptic potentials coincide This has a much greater effect than 1 post-synaptic potential This applies for both inhibitory and excitatory
69
What is spatial summation?
Thousands of inputs received by a neuron (excitatory/ inhibitory) Gives rise to 'spatial summation' Determines whether an action potential fires or not
70
Why are some neurotransmitter receptors located presynaptically?
Activation decreases further release of neurotransmitter Called autoreceptors Self-regulate via negative feedback
71
What is the most common type of autoreceptor?
Metabotropic e.g. 5-HT or dopamine
72
What is an autoreceptor?
Activation decreases further release of neurotransmitter Located presynaptically Self-regulate via negative feedback
73
What are some examples of neurotransmitter receptors?
(1) Glutamate + GABA receptors (2) a1 + a2 adrenergic receptors (noradrenaline) (3) 5-HT receptors (4) D1 + D2 receptors (dopamine) (5) H1 (histamine) (6) M1 (acetylcholine)
74
Using glutamate as an example, state the stages of action potential propagation.
(1) Resting neuron membrane potential at -70mV (2) Glutamate released from presynapse (3) Activates AMPA/kainate receptors, influx of Na+ leading to depolarisation (4) Cell depolarises (NMDARs slower and voltage-dependent) (5) Resulting depolarisation called an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) (6) Subsequent APs can occur before Vm returns to rest and summate (7) If/when summated EPSPs reach the threshold for voltage-gated Na+ channel activation (~-55mV), allowing rapid entry Na+ and an action potential will fire, propagating the signal (8) All or nothing mechanism of action (no partial action potentials)
75
Where are presynapses located?
Axon terminals
76
What are the types of postsynaptic cell receptor?
(1) Ionotropic – fast-acting channels/ pores (2) Metabotropic – slower-acting via secondary messengers
77
What is glutamate?
(1) Most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS (~50% of neurons) (2) Acts on ionotropic + metabotropic receptors
78
What is GABA?
(1) y-amino-butyric acid (2) Principal inhibitory neurotransmitter (3) GABA(a) acts at ionotropic receptors (4) GABA(b) acts at metabotropic receptors
79
How does an ionotropic receptor work?
(1) Ionotropic receptor activation opens channel to allow influx specific ions (2) Glutamate receptors allow Ca2+ and Na+ ions, GABA(a) allow in Cl- ions (3) Leads to depolarisation (e.g. glutamate) or hyperpolarisation (GABA)
80
How do metabotropic receptors work?
(1) Metabotropic neurotransmitter receptors are G-protein coupled (GPCRs) (2) On binding ligand, get dissociation and activation of G-protein signalling (3) Downstream effect depends on which G-protein type has been coupled (4) Slower, receptor activates intracellular signals, may activate or close ion channels, may increase/decrease gene expression
81
What are some examples of small neurotransmitters?
(1) Amino acids (e.g. glutamate, GABA, glycine), typically fast-acting (2) Monoamines (e.g. dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin), diffuse effects, neurons of brainstem (3) Soluble gases (Nitric oxide) (4) Acetylcholine
82
What are some examples of large neurotransmitters?
Neuropeptides (e.g. endorphins, substance P, neuropeptide Y)
83
What are the types of glutamate receptors?
(1) Ionotropic: AMPAR (fast activation), NMDAR (slower, voltage-dependent block at resting), Kainate R (2) Metabotropic: mGluR1-8 (Class I: mGluR1 & 5, Gq; Class II: mGluR2&3, Gi/G0; Class III mGluR4-8, Gi/G0)

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