Pitt the Younger Flashcards
What was the national debt in 1775?
£127 million
How much did the national debt rise in the war years? (American wars)
91%
What was the national debt in 1784?
£243 million
When did war break out with France? What did this do to finance?
1793 (up until this point Pitt managed to avoid adding to the national debt)
What was the national debt in 1801?
£456 million
What was the issue of ‘debt funding’ and what was the issue with it? What was the issue with corruption surrounding the large national debt?
Interest rates were at a high 6% (benefitting those who lent and the privileged few who could secure govt jobs or contracts). There were issues of corruption and the money paid to service the debt was thought to take away from investment in trade, agriculture and business.
What was the parliamentary accounts committee?
A influential group of MPs in the 1780’s who looked at govt spending and income. It proposed many of the reforms Pitt took forward
When did Pitt introduce the sinking fund? What did it entail?
1786
One million pounds a year was set aside from taxes and special commissioners would use this money to buy government shares. The prices of shares were lower than face value so they got a bargain and used the interest rate to buy more stock
Who advocated a sinking fund? Who first used a sinking fund?
Financial expert Richard Price advocated it
PM Sir Robert Walpole first used it
How much had the public debt reduced by 1793 due to the sinking fund?
£10 million
When was a new sinking fund set up along the old one?
1792
What was the long term financial plan in 1792?
For the national debt to be paid off in 45 years
What were the issues with the scheme of sinking funds?
It dealt only with long term debt. Short term debt increase £7 million between 1783 and 1793.
It only worked in peacetime
Sinking fund continued until 1829 but was ineffective in war (1793-1815) in war borrowing had to rise so debt reduction was tricky
When was the war with the French?
1793-1815
When was Pitt’s Hovering Act of 1787? What did it change?
Extended a previous measure of 1780, set up in 1787
Customs Officers could search ships 12 miles off shore rather than the previous 6 miles
What things did Pitt increase indirect taxes on?
Bachelors, hats, servants, wig powder, dice, houses (1785 introduced tax paid on male servants and introduced tax on female servants, provision for bachelors to pay more than married households)
What new taxes did Pitt introduce?
Paper duties, carriages, silver and gold plate, beer licenses, bricks and tiles, saddle horses and silk imports
When did Pitt introduce his original idea of taxes on retail shops? What was the effect?
Introduced in 1785
Causes rioting by those who fear price increases
Repealed in 1789
What did Pitt do to attack the smuggling trade?
Hovering act
Reduced high import duties on wine, tobacco and tea (which went from 199% to 25%) encouraging people to avoid heavy penalties for smuggling and pay the tax- raises govt income
What tax policy did Pitt put in place to relate taxes to the ability to pay?
Window tax
Taxes on luxuries
What was the ‘consolidated fund’?
All customs duties were paid into it and measures to combat fraud were put in place.
What was ‘retrenchment’?
The number of govt jobs reduced
Example by early 1790’s nearly 750 fewer excise duties were in place
Why did Pitt give higher pay to officials?
It reduced corruption and provided incentives to collect all due taxes
When was the money going to the royal family reduced? How?
1786
By reform of the ‘civil list’
What is a sinecure? What did Pitt do to them? Which group wanted to get rid of them?
A job with no responsibility but with a salary (usually for supporters to ensure loyalty)
Pitt reduced the number of them
The County Association wanted to be rid of them
What did Pitt do to govt contracts?
More were put out to public tender due to Pitt
Reduction of corruption due to this
What did Pitt do to the King’s estates?
Managed them in a more cost effective way, increases revenue
What idea did Pitt launch that was copied?
The public lottery
When did the national debt turn to a narrow surplus?
1792
Done by reductions in expenditure and increases in income
When did Pitt introduce an income tax?
1799
He was the first British PM to do this.
On all incomes over £60 per year
How was the majority of wartime expenditure raised?
Taxes for the first time ever
When was peacetime between the American war and French war?
1783-1793
Some may credit peace as the reason for financial achievement over Pitt’s actions
What did Pitt do in regard to the recommendations made to sweep away corruption in 1789?
He ignored it
How small was Pitt’s administration?
Very small! Only about 3000 people (majority in customs and excise around 600)
DEFECT INHERITED BY PITT
What were the issues with govt departments inherited by Pitt?
Sinecures
Resources badly spread (some overstaffed, others understaffed)
Leadership in departments was poor
How did Pitt tackle and reform administration?
Reformed from within
Appointed strong administrators to take charge of departments ( Richard Frewin in customs in 1787)( Sir Charles Middleton the civilian administrator of the Navy)
Gradually abolished sinecures
Tackles East India Company
How many warships did Pitt build in his peacetime ministry?
33! Increased the size of the navy greatly
How many sinecures had Pitt ended by 1792? When did sinecures ended as a practice?
Ended 28 by 1792
Practice ceased by 1806
However Pitt reluctant to dismiss sinecures and usually waited for people to die before abolishing their post
When did Pitt tackle the East India Company? How did he do this?
1784
The India Act of 1784 established a board of control, two cabinet ministers say on this and scrutinised the company’s activities
How did Pitt change the numbers in excise?
Increases in numbers to reflect more taxes
What was Pitt’s plan as PM?
Reduce corruption
Generate income- increasing wealth of country
Making administration more modern and cost effective
How could you criticise Pitt’s administrative reforms?
They were quite slow
Admin changes in the navy not fully implemented
East India Company continued to run India until 1858
Did not push view that promotion should be on principle ( example of Post Master General John Palmer- Palmer pensioned off)
Did not reform ‘rotten boroughs’ as he desired
What did Pitt do to reform ‘rotten boroughs’?
His idea of reforming the composition of parliament by abolishing 36 ‘rotten boroughs’ defeated in Parliament in 1785
Pitt did not attempt to reintroduce it
What did Pitt think about trade?
That Britain needed to expand overseas trade rather than limit existing trade- building alliances and leading to peace
Felt there should be freer trade
Who set up the trade treaty with France in 1786?
William Eden
The Eden treaty
Britain offered low duties on wine import and reduction by both countries on duties on textiles, pottery and leather goods
Silk excluded due to competition fears
Treaty favoured Britain as were producing more manufactured goods than France
What is mercantilism?
World trade stable and only had to increase the share of world trade
Lead to protectionism and 17th century legislation like the Navigation Acts which meant only British ships carried British empire products
Attacked more and more
Who is Adam Smith?
Economist that argues that if competition is allowed to flourish- wealth created and not diminished
Why did Pitt need more overseas trade?
Needed an outlet for the greater number of products produced due to growth of industry backed by expansion of roads and canals and the great amount of agricultural produce
How did Pitt aim to get freer trade?
Reducing duties on trade with America and Ireland
Trying to get commercial treaties with other European powers ( Spain, Portugal, France, Russia)
Envoys sent to most European countries to negotiate reductions in duties but have limited success
What happened to the free trade treaty with Ireland?
Had to be dropped in 1785 as it has opposition from manufacturers (fear of foreign competition)
What was the relationship between trade and the navy?
Trading leads to empire (navy helps get this too)
Navy protects trade and trade pays for wars
What changes socially occurred in high society due to increased trade?
It assimilated wealthy merchants and bankers who financed the high society
Prejudice again trade lessened
Trading and bank wealth could purchase land and lead to MPs and political influence
What happened to trade 1783-1792?
What happened to the national debt as a consequence?
Value of British trade almost doubled
Deficit of £2.25 million turns to surplus of £2 million
(Could also say this is due to peace and manufacturing allowing cheap mass produced products which could undercut continental rivals)
What was the British reaction to the early French Revolution?
Initially mixed, some including Fox see them as taking a route to constitutional monarchy. Others thought they were headed in the direction of religious toleration and reforms.
The French king unpopular in UK as he sided with the American colonists
Pitt hoped a new French govt would cooperate over trade with Britain
By 1790, what were the views toward the early revolution?
The mobs and political agitation worried some in Britain by 1790.
British political elite hardened against the French Revolution. In 1790 MPs defeated proposal by Henry Flood to reform parliament
Meanwhile radical groups such as the London corresponding society, the society for constitutional information and the society of the friends of the people ( Fox and Charles Grey members) sympathised with the French and called for reform.
Who was Thomas Paine?
The most radical writer of his time(1737-1809). He argued for the right to rebel.
Who was Edmund Burke?
He was a lawyer turned Whig MP. He argues against and attacks the events that occurred in France
Who are dissenters?
Protestants not part of the Church of England
What were the fears for Britain regarding the French Revolution?
Fear of France dominating the coastline
Fear of Revolution
Fear of gross beheading of king
Fears of popular unrest
What action did Pitt take in 1792 to try to prevent Britain going the same way as France?
Procured a royal proclamation against seditious publications and meetings
Were there conservative radicals?
Yes the ‘church and kings’ group attacked supporters of reform and dissenters
What caused disturbances in 1791?
Food prices and bad harvests
What issues did reform associations have?
Their aims were not uniform ( all want parliamentary reform but to different extents)
Some groups wanted to end the slave trade (Wilberforce) others wanted religious toleration
Political awareness grew and the gap between Whigs who demanded change and Pitt who disliked Revolution grew
What were the September massacres?
In September 1792 Paris mobs invaded the prisons and brutally killed those suspect of opposing Revolution. This sparks the reign of terror, the revolutionary government in 1793-94 executed thousands, including the king and Queen.
What were the Gordon riots?
2 June 1780, 50,000 Londoners marched on parliament to protest against the easing of restrictions on Roman Catholics.
London dominated by mobs for a week- the danger of popular violence on the streets was real. However there had never been violence for political ideology only unpopular ministers or religious intolerance
What factors meant there was a good chance of Revolution in Britain?
Clear political ideas for the people to have more power
Opposition to corrupt political system
Unrest caused by economic conditions
War had stopped progress of reform
Royal family were unpopular
Support for revolution by members of the political elite
Political organisations with large memberships growing
Spread of reformist literature
What were the new political ideas in Britain?
Paine’s ‘Rights of man’ and other widely read publications called for change by 1793. These spread ideas of constitutional reform, liberty and natural rights. The USA and France were example of successful revolution.
Mass meeting, banners, symbols spread radical ideas around the country
Who was Thomas Hardy?
Formed the London Corresponding Society in 1792
Popular hero for liberty and change
Tried for ‘imagining the king’s death’ a offence carrying the death penalty. He was acquitted (1794)
When was Habeas Corpus suspended?
1794 by an Act
What government measures were put in place to suppress naval mutinies?
Seduction from Duty and Allegiance Act 1797
Act against administering unlawful oaths 1797
When did the Government pass the gagging acts?
1795
Seditious meetings and Assemblies Act- meetings of more than 50 people needed permission and magistrates could disperse meetings
Treasonable Practices Act forbade expressing views that bought the king or Government into contempt
When was the Newspaper publications Act passed?
1798-99
When were the combination acts passed?
1799-1800
Prevented workers uniting for better pay or conditions
When were leading London radicals arrested?
1794
What does the Government do to Newspapers in 1792-3?
Subsidises those that oppose reform and spread alarm about Revolution
When did Pitt get a royal proclamation against seditious publications?
December 1792
Why was Scotland better at trials for sedition?
Great political control in Scotland under Henry Dundas
When was the Act for the More Effective Suppression of Societies Established for Seditious and Treasonable Purposes passed?
1799
What examples are there of opposition to a corrupt political system?
1760’s- John Wilkes protesting about government suppression of his satirical political journal ‘The North Briton’
1770’s- 25 country associations pioneered by reformed Christopher Wyville pressed for reform of parliament as they resented pocket or rotten boroughs
‘Old corruption’- Fox and Sheridan want to end this
Pitt also tries to pass a bill to reform parliament but fails
What political organisations sprung up on the back of the French Revolution?
The Revolution society- sent a message to the states General urging that Britain and France should cooperate to promote freedom
Society of the Friends of the People- young whigs, sympathetic to France and want more people to have the vote
Society of Constitutional Information, founded 1791- more mixed membership socially and a larger membership
Sheffield Constitutional Society- abolished subscriptions, has 2,500 members due to this
London Corresponding society, formed 1792, led by Thomas Hardy. Membership=3,000 by 1795
What did the political organisations of the 1790’s do? What issues did they face?
They represented the political self-education of the non upper class, with craftsmen and skilled workers they had a mixed social membership with lower middle classes (unlike the County Associations of the 1770’s)
They had debates, letters, declarations and pamphlets, but these did little more than provoke govt reaction and convinced the govt there were attempts to stir up the lower classes
Parallels drawn to them and the political clubs of the French Revolution (Jacobins)
They were often the victims of ‘Church and King’ mobs
What were common things political organisations in the 1790’s called for?
Reform of parliament
Restoration of common land
Shorter factory hours
Lower taxes
Prison reform
Better care for the old
Education for the young
Who was Thomas Hardy?
Scottish Shoemaker, inspired by the French Revolution forms the London Corresponding Society in 1792.
Arrested and tried for treason in 1794 but the jury would not convict him.
Why were the economic conditions in Britain in the 1790’a favourable for revolution?
London had got bigger in the 18th century. It had slum areas and economic hardship- this led to mob activity
There were bad harvests and this caused issues as bread was a staple. Bad summer of 1792 and also poor harvests in 1795-6. This led to high bread prices, in 1796 the cost of wheat per quarter was 76 shillings whereas 1780-89 the average was 46 shillings,( the average 1790-99 was 58 shillings)
Industry changes also led to unrest as workers in factory towns dependant on trade and markets.
What support was there for revolution from the political elite?
Although war eroded support for Fox he still had 50 supporters in the HoC
Writers like Paine
Distinctive leaders like John Thelwal and John Horne Tooke
Ordinary men coming to prominence like Thomas Hardy
What issues were the radical political elites talking of?
Enclosure, this has a large popular appeal
Rights of women following Mary Wollstonecraft’s book ‘A vindication of the rights of women’ in 1792
In France politics was being expressed in a new language, popular sovereignty, liberty and popular representation in govt for example. Radicals wanted to replicate this
What was enclosure?
An agrarian grievance
Reorganisation of land, made common land inaccessible to the common people and stopped ‘common grazing’
This meant smaller land holdings often became inefficient to farm
What factors of War made revolution likely?
Higher taxation
Forced recruitment of men into the navy and army
Economic distress caused by the disruption of trade and inflation due to wartime spending
The state became more repressive and popular discontent rose- an expression of this being naval mutinies
What naval mutinies occurred in the 1790’s? How many occurred?
Spithead 1797. channel fleet immobilised. Issues with pay, poor provision and harsh punishments
The Nore 1797. Men declared a ‘floating republic’. 29 sailors hanged under new laws quickly passed which made incitement to mutiny a capital offence.
1797 happened in total
These encourage the govt to pass more repressive legislation as these were influence by France and radical writings
The willingness of the Navy to negotiate showed that the mutinies were potentially serious had they been able to link with other discontents.
Why was the revolutionary threat 1791-1797 not really a threat?
The different elements it contained did not unite
An anti-French sentiment had developed due to ward. There was a strong movement in support of the crown and church. The association of political radicalism and religious non-conformity led to popular attacks on dissenters.
Little radical activity in the countryside where the bulk of the population still lived
The executions of the French King and Queen shocked more than it inspired
The government used propaganda to create alarm about revolution and repressive legislation in a way to stop the threat of revolution
When was there a radical threat to Britain? Why did Pitt think there was a threat?
At times of hunger and high prices, people would listen to revolutionary activists
There was a threat of Invasion ( in 1798 French troops landed in Ireland to support a rising , the United Irish Rebellion)
Issues maintaining food supplies
Issues having enough men and money to sustain the war
This war had an ideological aspect which was unusual
Foxite opposition didn’t support the govt
Radicals openly supported the ideals of Britain’s enemies
Was Pitt’s government overacting by taking counter measures against radicalism?
This is very much up to debate
Why was Pitt’s terror considered very limited compared to the French Revolution?
It was dependant on laws and said laws needed parliamentary approval, so Fox and his supporters could criticise them
In England juries were reluctant to convict (especially for sedition which had the death penalty) political crimes were not really seen as crimes
The government relied on spies and agent provocateurs but didn’t have an extensive police force to enforce its powers
Who were Agent Provocateurs?
Government spies who pretended to support radical groups and encourage them into protests and illegal activity then betray them
What can be said was good in regard to Pitt’s terror (in the government’s eyes)
Varied resources
Influenced opinion by subsidising newspapers and having loyalist associations (the so called Pitt’s clubs) which rivalled radical clubs
It rushed through legislation to deal with the 1797 mutinies
Made life tricky for reformers by allowing attacks on them- ‘Church and King mobs’
200 prosecutions for treason, ‘habeas corpus’ suspended.
Was radicalism a danger in Britain?
Radicalism stronger in times of economic problems and not a constant threat - other reasons but repression that revolution didn’t occur
Radicals were not one united group- repressive measures weakened them easily
Enthusiasm for the French Revolution declined as political violence grew. ( from 1795 ruled by the corrupt Directory from 1799 Napoleon, a military director) - this factor may have been more important than repression
When was Pitt in power?
December 1783 to March 1801 then again from May 1804 until his death in January 1806
Who was Pitt’s main political opposition?
Charles James Fox
Pitt not as good an orator as him
Pitt better at admin and financial detail
When were the Whigs in power 1783-1830?
Briefly February 1806 to March 1807
Then not until November 1830
At the beginning of the studies period, who was the leader of the Whigs? What was the Whigs beliefs and what did they comprise of?
The second Marquess of Rockingham
Opposed war against the American colonists and supported ideas for reform
Less of a party and more of a group of influential nobles. Talented speakers like Fox and Burke in the HoC.
Rockingham reluctantly appointed pm in 1782 but dies the same year leaving Whig support divided.
What happened after Rockingham’s death?
Some like Fox and Rockinghma’s successor the Duke of Portland refused to join Shelburne’s ministry
Portland and Fox try to overturn Shelburne’s ministry by forming a coalition with Lord North, once their political enemy
The king sees this as immoral and so appoints Pitt in December 1783
When Pitt took office the Whigs are already divided and lose 100 seats in the 1784 election
What events weakened and divided the Whigs even after their loses in the 1784 election?
The regency crisis
- Whigs seen as backing hereditary monarch power over parliament power…
The French Revolution
-Burke opposed it, Fox saw it as a great home for the future
- when war came in 1793, the Whigs divided again and Pitt formed a virtual coalition with his own ministers and leading Whigs
Foxites dwindled to 50 MPs- opposition became demoralised, didn’t always show up to parliament
Explain the regency crisis if 1788-89?
George 3rd appears to go mad in 1788
Fox eager for his friend the Prince of Wales to be declared regent- hoped he would then dismiss Pitt
Pitt argued the decision should be made by parliament
Fox, the great supporter of people’s and parliaments rights looks like he is arguing for the power of the monarchy, whereas Pitt who owed a lot of his power to the crown is supporting Parliaments rights. Looks bad on Fox
When did King George the 3rd rule?
1760-1820
When was Lord North in place as PM?
1770-82
What things did Pitt fail at?
Some argue Pitt was not a genuine reformer and merely wanted to maintain the status quo by making minimum changes.
He didn’t carry out his plan to reform parliament
He didn’t help his friend William Wilberforce end the slave trade
His attempts to permit Roman Catholics as MPs failed
When was there a rebellion in Ireland?
1798
Why was Pitt an unlikely choice for a prime minister?
He was only 24 and had only been an mp for 4 years- he had little experience of political life
The rest of the cabinet sat in the Lords
The majority of MPs supported the former ministry ( Fix and North). At any time Pitt’s government could have been rendered useless by the votes of his opponents in the HoC
He had no popular following, was only an MP because he was nominated for the pocket borough of Appleby
He was able (although had only been chancellor of the exchequer for nine months) but he lacked charm and was unlikely to win over MPs
Pitt’s ministry was nicknamed the ‘mince pie ministry’ because it wouldn’t last past Christmas. Why did the King take such a risk by appointing him?
He wanted a loyal and able PM instead of a Whig leader who wanted to dominate him
He saw the alliance between Fox and North as unprincipled as they were previously political enemies.
However without support in the HoC Pitt wouldn’t have been able to do govt business or pass any legislation- the king would have to then appoint Whig leaders he disliked to the cabinet and look powerless. Pitt had to do well or the King would look like he had no influence
What problems did the Whigs have?
Fox- bad reputation
- womaniser and gambler. Seems unprincipled due to his coalition with North. Disloyal to the king and extravagant In support for the Prince of Wales, giving him a large allowance of £100,000
Publication of parliamentary debates made Fox seem exaggerated and extreme, he speeches sounded better in real life. Pitt seemed dull but more reasoned in this media
Pitt supports causes like reform of parliament and ending the slave trade, undercuts Whigs appeal
Whigs supported some outdated causes- protection of trade for example and Fox’s position in the regency crisis. The Whig opposition to the Eden treaty also seemed misguided
The onset of war against France made Fox seem unpatriotic
How great was Pitt as a reform minister?
Both a conservative and a reformer
Torn between admiring his skill and efforts to modernise government and his defence of a society dominated by landed elite
Compared to aristocrat politicians of the 18th century, Pitt was effective and modern
However he was too careful of vested interests to be a full on reformer
The war with France affected Pitt’s ability to be able to reform
Questions surround whether he deliberately exaggerated threats of Revolution and pursued policies that were overly repressive and alarmist
Some felt he was making minimum change to keep to the status quo and preserving the power of the political elite
Many said he did nothing that would antagonise the king, the city or the independent MPs- careful to be politically safe
Pitt is said to have had shrewd judgement by many
How did Pitt have political skill?
He avoided clashed with vested interests like those who held sinecures
Didn’t press for unpopular reforms, like parliament reform
Used peerages to keep government support in the House of Lords
Good at finance and administration
What favourable circumstances did Pitt depend on?
The regency crisis was ended by the King’s recovery
The Eden treaty (one of his big successes) was bought about by the French being willing to go against their own interests economically
Divided opposition
War with France associated his ministry with the patriotic interests of the nation (although this undermined his financial achievement)
How old was Pitt when he became PM? How much experience did he have? What big issues did he face?
He was 24
He had 4 years of being an MP
He had been chancellor of the exchequer for 9 months- little political experience
Rest of his cabinet sat in the House of Lords
In the HoC the majority supported the former ministry, a coalition of Whig/ Fox and North supporters
Pitt had no political following ( elected for the pocket borough of Appleby)
He wasn’t very charming and was unlikely to win MPs over
What did Pitt hope in delaying the 1784 election?
The kings agents would use royal influence effectively
He would establish a reputation as a statesman in Parliament
- the independent MPs did warm to him- by 1784 March, Pitt could pass the mutiny Bill.
How had Pitt gained advantage by the March 1784 election?
He had set out ideals for reform
Seemed loyal and patriotic
Won the respect on independent MPs and introduced a bill in 1783 to bolster their representation
Respected for integrity as refused to accept sinecures
Public recognition
Had support of Political managers John Robinson and Henry Dundas
What were the results of the 1784 election? Why?
100 MPs who supported Fox and the Whig Lords lost their seats
In the HoL Pitt could rely on a majority as the King could create New peers and influence standing peers
The bishops in the House of Lords also tended to favour the crown
Peers loyal to the king got Pittites elected as they controlled many small boroughs
Pitt could use royal patronage to reward supporters
People liked the principled and reform minded Pitt and disliked the artificial coalitions between Fox and Lord North
However large Westminster (13,000 voters) was won by Fox
The East India Company which disliked Fox’s attempt to regulate it was influential in the boroughs
What was the election down to?
Royal influence- yet Pitt was no royal mouthpiece ( he kept he King’s confidence though)
Independents impressed by his statesmanship and family name and reputation
Pitt attracted those who favoured reform and more morales in politics
The election allowed less instability and greater change
When was the American War?
1776-83
Why did Pitt reform finance and admin?
Influenced by time as Chancellor under Shelburne
Pressure from the country, saw the USA defeat as proof the govt was hopeless
The servicing of the ever growing national debt was expensive
Pitt’s reputation built on desire for cheaper and more efficient government
Feeling that Britain should be more moral and pure
Government corruption was rife
