Piaget

Question 1

Assimilation

Answer 1

Assimilation is the process of using or transforming the environment so that it can be placed in preexisting cognitive structures.

Question 2

Stages of Cognitive Development. Piaget identified four stages in cognitive development:

Answer 2

1. Sensorimotor stage (Infancy). In this period (which has 6 stages), intelligence is
   demonstrated through motor activity without the use ofsymbols. Knowledge ofthe world is limited (but developing) because its based on physical interactions / experiences. Children acquire object permanence at about 7 months ofage (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities. Some symbollic (language) abilities are developed at
   the end ofthis stage.
2. Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood). In this period (which has two substages), intelligence is demonstrated through the use ofsymbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a nonlogical, nonreversable manner. Egocentric
   thinking predominates
3. Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence). In this stage (characterized by 7 types ofconservation: number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume), intelligence is demonstarted through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible). Egocentric thought diminishes.
4. Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood). In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use ofsymbols related to abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to egocentric thought. Only 35% ofhigh school graduates in industrialized countries obtain formal operations; many people do not think formally during adulthood.

Question 3

Assimilation

Answer 3

Accomodation is the process of changing cognitive structures in order to accept something from the environment.

Both processes are used simultaneously and alternately throughout life. An example of assimilation would be when an infant uses a sucking schema that was

Question 4

Sensorimotor stage

Answer 4

Stages of Cognitive Development. Piaget identified four stages in cognitive development:

In this period (which has 6 stages), intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge ofthe world is limited (but developing) because its based on physical interactions / experiences. Children acquire object permanence at about 7 months of age (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities. Some symbollic (language) abilities are developed at the end ofthis stage.

the sensorimotor stage “extends from birth to the acquisition of language.” In this stage, infants progressively construct knowledge and understanding of the world by coordinating experiences (such as vision and hearing) from physical interactions with objects (such as grasping, sucking, and stepping).[23] Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform within it.[24] They progress from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.[24]

Children learn that they are separate from the environment. They can think about aspects of the environment, even though these may be outside the reach of the child’s senses. In this stage, according to Piaget, the development of object permanence is one of the most important accomplishments. Object permanence is a child’s understanding that an object continues to exist even though they cannot see or hear it. Peek-a-boo is a game in which children who have yet to fully develop object permanence respond to sudden hiding and revealing of a face. By the end of the sensorimotor period, children develop a permanent sense of self and object and will quickly lose interest in Peek-a-boo.

Question 5

Simple reflexes

Answer 5

1 Simple reflexes Birth–6 weeks“Coordination of sensation and action through reflexive behaviors”.

Three primary reflexes are described by Piaget:

1. sucking of objects in the mouth,
2. following moving or interesting objects with the eyes, and
3. closing of the hand when an object makes contact with the palm (palmar grasp).

Over the first six weeks of life, these reflexes begin to become voluntary actions. For example, the palmar reflex becomes intentional grasping.

Question 6

First habits and Primary Circular Reactions

Answer 6

2 First habits and primary circular reactions phase 6 weeks–4 months

“Coordination of sensation and two types of schema:

1. Habits (reflex) and
2. Primary circular reactions (reproduction of an event that initially occurred by chance).

​The main focus is still on the infant’s body”. As an example of this type of reaction, an infant might repeat the motion of passing their hand before their face. Also at this phase, passive reactions, caused by classical or operant conditioning, can begin.

Question 7

Secondary Circular Reactions Phase

Answer 7

3 Secondary circular reactions phase 4–8 months Development of habits. “Infants become more object-oriented, moving beyond self-preoccupation; repeat actions that bring interesting or pleasurable results”. This stage is associated primarily with the development of coordination between vision and prehension.

Three new abilities occur at this stage: intentional grasping for a desired object, secondary circular reactions, and differentiations between ends and means. At this stage, infants will intentionally grasp the air in the direction of a desired object, often to the amusement of friends and family. Secondary circular reactions, or the repetition of an action involving an external object begin; for example, moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly. The differentiation between means and ends also occurs. This is perhaps one of the most important stages of a child’s growth as it signifies the dawn of logic.

Question 8

Coordination of secondary circular reactions stages

Answer 8

4 Coordination of secondary circular reactions stages 8–12 months

“Coordination of vision and touch—hand-eye coordination; coordination of schemas and intentionality”. This stage is associated primarily with the development of logic and the coordination between means and ends. This is an extremely important stage of development, holding what Piaget calls the “first proper intelligence”. Also, this stage marks the beginning of goal orientation, the deliberate planning of steps to meet an objective.

Question 9

Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity

Answer 9

5 Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity 12–18 months

“Infants become intrigued by the many properties of objects and by the many things they can make happen to objects; they experiment with new behavior”. This stage is associated primarily with the discovery of new means to meet goals. Piaget describes the child at this juncture as the “young scientist,” conducting pseudo-experiments to discover new methods of meeting challenges.

Question 10

Internalization of schemas

Answer 10

6 Internalization of schemas 18–24 months“Infants develop the ability to use primitive symbols and form enduring mental representations”. This stage is associated primarily with the beginnings of insight, or true creativity. This marks the passage into the preoperational stage.

Question 11

Mental operations according to Jean Piaget.

Answer 11

Seriation—the ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other characteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a color gradient.

Transitivity—The ability to recognize logical relationships among elements in a serial order, and perform ‘transitive inferences’ (for example, If A is taller than B, and B is taller than C, then A must be taller than C).

Classification—the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another.

Decentering—where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it. For example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than a normally-wide, taller cup.

Reversibility—the child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to their original state. For this reason, a child will be able to rapidly determine that if 4+4 equals t, t−4 will equal 4, the original quantity.

Conservation— the awareness that physical quantities do not change in amount when they are altered in appearance, such as when water is poured from a wide, short beaker into a thin, tall one. According to Piagetian theory, children become capable of this mental operation in the concrete operational stage.

Question 12

Seriation

Answer 12

Seriation—the ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other characteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a color gradient.

Question 13

Transitivity

Answer 13

Transitivity—The ability to recognize logical relationships among elements in a serial order, and perform ‘transitive inferences’ (for example, If A is taller than B, and B is taller than C, then A must be taller than C).

Question 14

Classification

Answer 14

Classification—the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another.

Question 15

Decentering

Answer 15

Decentering—where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it. For example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than a normally-wide, taller cup.

Question 16

Reversibility

Answer 16

Reversibility—the child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to their original state. For this reason, a child will be able to rapidly determine that if 4+4 equals t, t−4 will equal 4, the original quantity.

Question 17

Heteronomous Morality

Answer 17

In Piaget’s schema, morality is formed in two stages.

Heteronomous morality develops as children are able to see rules as being fixed and dictated by authority, a period also called “the morality of constraint.” A child’s behavior is determined by physical consequences and rules are considered unchangeable; motives are not related to intention, actual consequences rule intention. Justice is a concept that is meted out as punishment by some supernatural agent in response to the child’s misbehavior.

Question 18

Autonomous Morality

Answer 18

Autonomous morality, or the morality of cooperation, forms as children see rules as flexible and people-dictated rather than absolute. In this second stage, children are able to see morality as linked to intentions, not consequences, and are able to see that moral punishment can be modified by circumstances. In the latter stage, incidents such as illness are no longer connected to punishment for bad behavior in the child’s mind. Justice becomes a more abstract consequence and goal.

Question 19

Substages of Sensory Motor Period

Answer 19

Substages

As any parent or caregiver can attest, a great deal of learning and development happens during the first two years of a child’s life. The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six separate sub-stages that are characterized by the development of a new skill:1

Reflexes (0-1 month)

During this substage, the child understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking.

Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)

This substage involves coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example, a child may suck his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the action. These actions are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable.

Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)

During this substage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. For example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or her mouth.

Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months)

During this substage, the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. The child may also combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect. Children begin exploring the environment around them and will often imitate the observed behavior of others. The understanding of objects also begins during this time and children begin to recognize certain objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child might realize that a rattle will make a sound when shaken.

Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)

Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth substage. For example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of getting attention from a caregiver.

Early Representational Thought (18-24 months)

Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in the final sensorimotor substage. During this time, children begin to move towards understanding the world through mental operations rather than purely through actions.

Question 20

Primary Circular Reaction

Answer 20

primary circular reaction

in Piagetian theory, a type of repetitive action that represents the earliest nonreflexive infantile behavior. For example, in the first months of life, a hungry baby may repeatedly attempt to put a hand in the mouth. This does not result in effective goal-oriented behavior, but it does indicate a primitive link between goal (easing hunger) and action (attempting to suck on the hand). Primary circular reactions develop in the sensorimotor stage, following the activation of such basic reflexes as sucking, swallowing, crying, and moving the arms and legs.

Question 21

Secondary Circular Reactions

Answer 21

Secondary circular reactions, or the repetition of an action involving an external object; for example, moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly.

Question 23

Tertiary circular reactions

Answer 23

in Piagetian theory, an infant’s action that creatively alters former schemes to fit the requirements of new situations. Tertiary circular reactions emerge toward the end of the sensorimotor stage, at about the beginning of the 2nd year; they differ from earlier behaviors in that the child can, for the first time, develop new schemes to achieve a desired goal. Also called discovery of new means through active experimentation.

Question 24

The sensorimotor stage is divided into 6 substages:

Answer 24

The sensorimotor stage is divided into 6 substages:

• *1.Simple reflexes** (Birth - 1 Month Old) Characterized by reflexes such as rooting and sucking
• *2. Primary circular reactions** (1-4 Months Old) Infants learn to coordination sensations. A primary circular reaction is when the infant tries to reproduce an event that happened by accident (ex: sucking thumb)
  3. Secondary circular reactions( 4-8 Months Old) Children become aware of things beyond their own body and become more object oriented. (ex: accidentally shaking a rattle and continuing to do so for the sake of satisfaction)
  4. Coordination of secondary circular reactions(8-12 Months Old) Children start to show intentionality (ex: using a stick to reach something)
  5. Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 Months Old) They start to explore new possibilities of objects
  6. Internalization of schemes(18-24 Months Old) A shift to symbolic thinking

Question 25

Equilibrium & Adaptation

Answer 25

Piaget’s Constructivist Theory: Piaget’s theory assumes that cognitive development relies on a combination of biological maturation and experience and describes it as an active process in which a child constructs knowledge by interacting with the environment. According to Piaget, the source of motivation for cognitive development is equilibration, which is an innate drive toward a state of equilibrium between one’s current ways of thinking and the environment. When disequilibrium occurs, a child is motivated to restore equilibrium through adaptation, which consists of two processes: Assimilation and Accomodation.

Question 26

Assimilation

Answer 26

Assimilation occurs when a child attempts to understand a new object or situation using an existing cognitive schema,

Question 27

Accomodation

Answer 27

while accommodation occurs when a child modifies an existing cognitive schema or creates a new schema to fit the new object or situation.

For example, when a young child who’s familiar with dogs sees a cow for the first time, she might attempt to assimilate the cow into her dog schema because the cow has four legs and is the same color as a neighbor’s dog. But, when the cow moos instead of barks, the child will experience disequilibrium and will create a new cow schema with the help of a parent who says the animal is a cow and points out that cows are bigger than dogs and say “moo” instead of “woof.”

Question 28

Transductive reasoning

Answer 28

transductive reasoning

the tendency of a child in the preoperational stage of cognitive development to see a connection between unrelated instances, using neither deductive nor inductive means to do so. For example, the child might say, I haven’t had my nap, so it isn’t afternoon.

Question 29

The inability to conserve is due to what two characteristics of preoperational thinking?

Answer 29

The inability to conserve is due primarily to two characteristics of preoperational thinking:

1. Centration, which is the tendency to focus on one aspect of an object or situation to the exclusion of all other aspects
2. Irreversibility, which is the inability to understand that an action or process can be reversed.  

Question 30

Two Stages of Piaget’s Moral Development

Answer 30

Cognitive developmentalists, such as Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg, suggest that moral maturation is an active process of acquiring a moral sense through a set of cognitively derived constructions that operate in conflictual situations. In Piaget’s schema, morality is formed in two stages.

Heteronomous morality develops as children are able to see rules as being fixed and dictated by authority, a period also called “the morality of constraint.” A child’s behavior is determined by physical consequences and rules are considered unchangeable; motives are not related to intention, actual consequences rule intention. Justice is a concept that is meted out as punishment by some supernatural agent in response to the child’s misbehavior.

Autonomous morality, or the morality of cooperation, forms as children see rules as flexible and people-dictated rather than absolute. In this second stage, children are able to see morality as linked to intentions, not consequences, and are able to see that moral punishment can be modified by circumstances. In the latter stage, incidents such as illness are no longer connected to punishment for bad behavior in the child’s mind. Justice becomes a more abstract consequence and goal.

Question 31

Piaget on Moral Development

Answer 31

Piaget’s Theory: To study moral development, Piaget asked children to respond to dilemmas involving violations of game rules. Based on the results, he concluded that moral development involves three stages.

(a) Premoral Stage: This stage lasts from birth to about five years of age. During this stage, children have very limited understanding of rules and moral behavior.
(b) Heteronomous Stage: This stage begins at about five or six years of age. During this stage children believe that rules are made by authorities and cannot be changed. When judging behaviors that have negative consequences, they base their judgments primarily on the consequences of the behavior.
(c) Autonomous Stage: This stage begins when children are about 10 or 11 years old. Children in this stage believe that rules are determined by agreement between people and can be changed by agreement. When judging behaviors that have negative consequences, they base their judgments primarily on the actor’s intentions.

Question 32

Kohlberg’s Theory of the Development of Moral Reasoning

Answer 32

Level 1: Preconventional Morality: The two stages of this level are (a) the punishment and obedience stage, during which the acceptability of a behavior depends on whether or not the behavior leads to punishment, and (b) the instrumental hedonism stage, during which the acceptability of a behavior depends on whether or not it leads to rewards or satisfies the person’s needs.

Level 2: Conventional Morality: The two stages of this level are (a) the “good boy/good girl” stage, during which the acceptability of a behavior depends on whether or not it is socially approved of or liked by others, and (b) the law and order orientation stage, during which the acceptability of a behavior depends on whether or not it violates laws and rules that have been established by legitimate authorities.

Level 3: Postconventional Morality: The two stages of this level are (a) the morality of contract, individual rights, and democratically accepted laws, during which the acceptability of a behavior is whether or not it’s consistent with democratically chosen laws, and (b) the morality of individual principles of conscience, during which the acceptability of a behavior is whether or not it’s consistent with broad, universally applicable general principles (e.g., justice, fairness).