Physiology/Pathophysiology Flashcards
What were the key preparedness and prevention recommendations in the RECOVER guidelines?
- Organized, pre-stocked arrest stations improve CPR performance and should be located where animals are routinely anesthetized
- Post-CPR debriefing is safe, easy and improves future performance
- Standardized training programs have improved adherence to guidelines in human medicine and are needed in veterinary medicine
- Leadership and team communication training increase effectiveness of CPR teams
- High fidelity manikins for teaching CPR psychomotor skills are highly effective in human medicine and would be valuable in veterinary medicine.
What are the key BLS recommendations for canine and feline CPR made in the Recover guidelines?
- Emphasis on rapid recognition of CPA and rapid initiation of CPR
- Immediate initation of chest compressions with intubation and ventilation performed simultaneously
- Ventilation rate of 10 breaths/min without interruptions to chest compressions
- Chest compressions should aim to compress the chest by 1/3 to 1/2 its width in lateral recumbency, at a rate of at least 100 compressions/min allowing full recoil between compressions (“push hard and push fast”)
- Utilization of 2 minute cycles of uninterrupted chest compressions with alternation of compressors between cycles. Intercycle interruptions in compressions should be kept to a minimum, only as long as required for rhythm diagnosis.
What are the key ALS reccomendations for canine/feline CPR as laid out in the RECOVER guidelines?
- Standard dose epinephrine (0.01mg/kg) is the preferred dose for CPR
- Rapid defibrillation is warranted in animals with observed progression to pulseless VT or VF, preferentially using a biphasic defibrillator
- Defibrillation should follow a cycle of CPR in unwitnessed pulseless VT or VF
- Open chest CPR might be considered in select cases with access to post cardiac arrest support
- Reversal of anesthetic agents and correction of major acid-base and electrolyte disturbances is advisable
What are the key monitoring recommendations laid out by the RECOVER guidelines?
- Time spent verifying an absent pulse may delay onset of CPR; chest compressions should be initiated immediately for apneic, unresponsive patients
- ECG analysis of an unresponsive patient may help to rule out CPA or be used to evaluate for rhythms requiring specific therapeutic approaches (eg ventricular fibrillation–VF)
- EtCO2 should not be used as the sole confirmation of ET intubation in cardiac arrest patients
- Pauses in chest compressions to evaluate the ECG rhythm should be minimized
- EtCO2 monitoring is useful to identify ROSC and may be prognostic for the liklihood of ROSC
- Patient monitoring following ROSC should be directed at identifying abnormalities that may portend another CPA and should be individually tailored to each patient
What are the key post-cardiac arrest care guidelines recommended by the RECOVER analysis?
- Based upon human studies that suggest hemodynamic optimization protocols during the PCA phase are clinically feasible an dpotentially useful, in hemodynamically unstable dogs and cats after cardiac arrest, a hemodynamic optimiazation strategy including fluid therapy adjusted according to criteria customary to veterinary SAECC is reasonable
- Good evidence to advocate normoxemia versus hyper/hypoxemia in the early PCA period
- THe evidence suggests a neuro benefit of mild hypothermia in the early postresuscitation period and that fast rewarming after induced/unintended hypothermia may be harmful
- There is no evidence to support routine administration of corticosteroids, antiseizure prophylaxis, mannitol or metabolic protectants after cardiac arrest
- Low-dose corticosteroid teratment of patients with perisstent hypotension requiring sympathomimetic support may be considered
- Hypertonic saline may be considered in animals that are suspected of having cerebral edema as evidenced by coma or obtundation after cardiac arrest
- Bundled therapy including hypothermia, hypertension and normocapnia and thiopental, methylprednisolone, phenytoin and perhaps antioxidants may have outcome benefit
- More comprehensive PCA care in a specialty center wiht access to more advanced monitoring equipment and supportive care may have outcome benefit
Discuss the cardiac pump versus thoracic pump theory.
- Cardiac Pump
- During compressions, the ventricles are directly compressed between the ribs
- Best for cats, small dogs
- Can use in keel-chested dogs as well, placing hands directly over location of heart in lateral recumbency
- Thoracic pump
- During compressions, the overall intrathoracic pressure is increased, secondarily compressing the aorta and collapsing the vena cava, leading to blood flow out of the chest
- During elastic recoil, subatmospheric intrathoracic pressure provides a pressure gradient that favors the flow of blood from the periphery back into the thorax/lungs where oxygen and Co2 exchange occurs
- Best for medium, large dogs, placing hands over widest portion of chest
- Provide compressions at 100-120bpm
What is the optimal ventilation strategy during a CPR event?
- 10 breaths per minute
- VT 10ml/kg
- Inspiratory time of 1 second
Compare monophasic and biphasic defibrillators.
- Monophasic defibrillator
- Unidirectional current flows from one electrode to another
- Requires higher energy
- Initial dose 4-6J/kg
- Biphasic defibrillator
- Current initially flows in one direction, then reverses and flows in the other direction
- Have been shown to more effectively terminate VF at lower defibrillation energy than monophasic defibrillators, in turn leading to less myocardial injury
- initial dose 2-4 J/kg
After loss of perfusion, the ischemic heart is known to pass through what three phases?
- The electrical phase during which minimal ischemic damage occurs, lasting 4 minutes
- The circulatory phase during which reversible ischemic damage occurs, lasting 6 minutes
- The metabolic phase during which potentially irreversible ischemic damage begins to occur and which may necessitate more advanced techniques such as therapeutic hypothermia and cardiac bypass to reverse.
Immediate defibrillation is recommended in cases of CPA d/t pulseless VT of duration of 4 minutes or less.
If the patient is known/suspected to have been in VF/pulseless VT for >4 minutes (therefore beyond the electrical phase) energy substrates are likely depleted and the patient will most likely benefit from a 2min cycle of BLS before defibrillation.
What is the formula for myocardial perfusion pressure?
- MPP=ADP-RADP (aortic diastolic minus right atrial diastolic)
- The majority of myocardial perfusion during CPR occurs during the decompression phase of chest compressions and is determined predominantly by myocardial perfusion pressure
- A higher MPP during CPR is associated with better success in both humans and dogs
What conditions essentially make external chest compressions futile and necessitate converstion to open chest CPR?
Pleural space disease, pericardial effusion, penetrating thoracic injuries
Following cardiac arrest, PCA brain injury results from global cerebral ischemia perfusion. Much of the mechanism of injury is poorly understood, however, list 4 key points that we do know…
- Most of the injury is sustained during the reperfusion event, not ischemia, giving the clinician time to intervene after ROSC is attained
- Cytosolic and mitochondrial calcium overload leads to activation of proteases that may lead to neuronal detah and production of ROS
- A burst of ROS occurs during reperfusion, leading to oxidative alterations of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, propagating injury of neuronal cell compnents and limiting the cells protective and repair mechanisms
- MIld thearpeutic hypothermia administered after ROSC is proven to reduce postresuscitation cerebral dysfuncion
How is mild therapeutic hypothermia proposed to exert its protective effects in increasing neurologically intact survival from OHCA?
- Reduces mitochondrial injury and dysfunction
- Decreases cerebral metbolism
- REduces Ca inflow into cells and neuronal excitotoxicity
- Reduced production of ROS and reduced apoptosis
- Reduced seizure activity
Explain the term “myocardial stunning”.
- Refers to reversible myocardial injury in the absence of cell necrosis that occurs following cardiac arrest
- PCA myocardial dysfunction is characterized by:
- increased CVP and pulmonary capillary wedge pessure
- Decreased left and right sided systolic and diastolic ventricular function
- Increased end diastolic and end systolic volume
- Reduced left ventricular ejection fraction and cardiac output
- Typically resolves within ~48 hours
What is a reactive oxygen species (ROS)?
A species that may cause oxidative injury; capable of reacting with all biological molecules including nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids
What molecules are most frequently damaged by ROS and what reaction happens?
- Lipids
- Mammalian cells are rich in PUFA’s which are highly susceptible to oxidative stress
- Once an ROS is formed, it can either react with another radical to form a covalent bond or, more commonly, react with a non-radical
- When a free radical reacts with a non-radical, the non-radical loses an electron and transforms into a free radical
- This is the chain reaction that propagates extensive damage to cell membranes
- The product can actually be more damaging than the original radical
- NO combining with superoxide, creates peroxynitrite which is 2000 times more damaging than H2O2
- The interaction of ROS with lipids in the presence of free iron results in lipid peroxidation
What are the two major free radicals that can initiate lipid peroxidation? What happens with lipid peroxidation?
- Hydroxyl radical and peroxynitrite
- Lipid peroxidation severely damages cell membranes, causing alterations in enzyme systems and receptors, alterations in ionic channels and increased permeability to calcium and other ions
- The products of lipid peroxidation are also thought to initiate inflammation, apoptosis and activation of thiol-containing enzymes
What is an antioxidant? What are the main routes of antioxidant defense against cellular damage?
- Antioxidants are substances that can delay or prevent oxidation of lipids, DNA or proteins.
- Antioxidant proteins (albumin, haptoglobin, ferritin) abundant in plasma/ECF
- Intracellular antioxidants
- Glutathione: considered to be first line of defense against ROS
- Superoxide dismutase
- Catalase
- Cell membranes contain tocopherols/beta-carotene in their lipid layer which can impede lipid peroxidation
Describe cold versus warm ischemia.
- Cold ischemia
- Occurs in organs outside the body
- Endothelial cells and Kuppfer cells damaged first
- Warm ischemia
- Occurs in organs in the body
- Hepatocyte death predominates
Several events combine during ischemia to set the stage for massive ROS formation. What are these key steps?
- During hypoxia, cells degrade ATP into its components.
- With continued ischemia, hypoxanthine accumulates.
- Decreased ATP inactivates the ATP sensitive cell membrane pumps
- Net efflux potassium, influx of sodium, calcium, chloride
- Acute cellular swelling
- The increased intracellular calcium is one of the earliest events in IR injury
- Causes both apoptosis and necrosis of the cell
- Activates a protein that leads to marked formation of xanthine-oxide (XO)
- Continued accumulation of hypoxanthine and XO, which play a role in reperfusion
- Activation of NFKB leads to increases in inflammatory mediators, adhesion molecules
- Leads to increased leukocyte adhesion at the site of IR injury during reperfusion
- Inactivation of NO leads to vasoconstriction
Reperfusion causes more injury than ischemia and is associated with severe endothelial dysfunction. What occurs during reperfusion to lead to this severe injury?
- Massive ROS formation; first occurring at the interface between the endothelium and the blood upon reperfusion
- Oxygen re-introduction combines with the already present XO and hypoxanthine which leads to superoxide release
- Superoxide serves as a source for hydrogen peroxide
- Hydrogen peroxide, in the presence of increased intracellular iron (due to ischemia), is converted via the Haber-Weiss reaction to the hydroxyl radical
- Hydroxyl radical is a highly destructive/potent oxidizing agent
- Chain reaction of lipid peroxidation leading to loss of membrane selective permeability, damage to DNA, degradation of structural proteins and membrane bound enzyme activity
- During reperfusion, large bursts of ROS can bind to circulating NO
- Loss of NO lets endothelin (potent vasoconstrictor) run unchecked
- Also has anti-inflammatory activity
What role due neutrophils play in IR injury?
- ROS cn initiate chemotaxis and subsequent neutrophil infiltration
- Leukocyte infiltration is a crucial component of the IR cascade, with extravasation of the leukocytes from the vasculature a primary event.
- Much of the tissue injurey occuring arises from the oxidants generated and the proteolytic enzymes released from the neutrophils after extravasation
- Activated neutrophils can cause tissue injury by
- ROS synthesis during respiratory burst
- Release of intrinsic proteolytic enzymes
- Physical obstruction of capillaries
- Has been suggested the neutrophils mediate the majority of mucosal and microvascular injury subsequent to IR
- Continual neutrophil chemotaxis and activation leading to additonal ROS formation, endothelial damage and capillary plugging
What is the no-reflow phenomenon?
- Describes diminished or absent blood flow to an area of tissue after relief of vascular obstruction
- Thought to be related to swollen endothelium, endothelial protrusions and platelet and fibrin thrombi.
- Neutrophils likely to play a key role.
- Longer periods of ischemia more likely to lead to no-reflow.
What are the initial goals of chest compressions?
- Provide pulmonary blood flow for oxygen uptake and CO2 elimination
- Tissue perfusion for oxygen delivery to restore cellular metabolic activity
Define shock.
Inadequate cellular energy production.
Most commonly arises secondary to poor tissue perfusion from low or unevenly distributed blood flow that causes a critical decreases in DO2 in relation to VO2.
What are the 5 functional classifications of shock?
What clinical signs are noted in compensatory shock?
- Tachycardia
- Normal to prolonged CRT
- Normal blood pressure
- Normal pulse quality
- Normal mucous membrane color
- Tachypnea
- Normal body temperature
What clinical signs are noted in early decompensatory shock?
- Tachycardia
- Bounding pulses
- Pale MM
- Prolonged CRT
- Mild to moderate hypotension
- Mild to moderate hypothermia
What clinical signs are noted in late decompensatory shock?
- Bradycardia
- Poor pulse quality
- Hypotension
- Hypothermia
- Pale MM with prolonged CRT
Compare the hyperdynamic and hypodynamic phases of septic shock.
- Hyperdynamic
- Early phase
- Tachycardia, fever, bounding pulses, injected mm, rapid CRT
- Secondary to cytokine mediated vasodilation (“vasodilatory shock”)
- Hypodynamic
- Late phase
- Tachycardia, hypothermia, poor pulse quality, pale/icteric MM, prolonged CRT
What parameters must be met to consider a patient well perfused?
- CVP 0-5cmH20
- Urine 1ml/kg/hr
- MAP 70-120mmHg
- Normal HR, temperature, RR, pink mm, normal CRT
What is the breakdown of total body water (ICF/ECF, intravascular/interstitial)?
Define osmolarity versus tonicity.
- Osmolarity:
- Includes all osmoles in solution
- Tonicity
- Refers solely to effective osmoles that do not freely permeate most cell membranes
- Changes in tonicity will drive fluid movement in/out of cells
- Na=extracellular effective osmole
- K=intracellular effective osmole
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What is normal plasma osmolarity for dogs? Cats?
- Dogs:
- 290-310mOsm/L
- Cats
- 311-322 mOsm/L
Compare hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic fluids.
- Isotonic fluids
- Similar osmolarity and sodium to plasma
- Do not cause significant fluid shifts between intra/extracellular fluid compartments
- Useful for treating hypovolemic shock, used for interstitial rehydration
- Hypotonic fluids
- Osmolarity/sodium concentration much lower in comparison to plasma
- Replenish free water deficits
- Useful for treating animals with hypernatremia secondary to hypotonic fluid loss
- Distribute throughout both intra/extracellular fluid compartments with less remaining in the extracellular space than isotonic fluids
- Large volume of distribution and free water content make them a safer choice for slowly treating animals with decreased ability to excrete excess sodium/tolerate an elevated intravascular volume
- NEVER use for bolus therapy
- Hypertonic fluids
- High osmolarity and sodium concentration
- Cause free water shift from the intracellular to extracellular space, expanding ECF volume be 3-5 times volume administered
- Osmotic shifts from the interstitial into the intravascular space starts immediately
- Free water from the intracellular fluid compartment moves into the ECF compartment as the interstitial fluid osmolarity rises
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What are the electrolyte compositions, buffers, and osmolality of the common isotonic and hypotonic crystalloids?
What does the labeling of a HES product mean?
I.e. 6% Hetastartch 650/0.7/12.4:1
What role does the concentration of a HES solution have on its clinical effects?
- The concentration mainly influences the initial volume effect
- The concentration of the HES solution and patient intravascular volume status and COP will play a role in how much vascular volume expansion occurs after IV infusion
- Comes in 3,6 and 10%; 10% solution is hyperoncotic with a reported volume effect that exceeds the infused volume by 145%
What role does the molecular weight of a HES solution play in its kinetics?
- Osmotic effectiveness of an HES solution depends on the number of particles in solution/unit volume
- HES molecules with a MW below the renal threshold (45-60kDa) are excreted rapidly in the urine, reducing the number of circulating HES particles and decreasing the osmotic effect of the circulating HES
- The higher MW molecules are broken down by alpha-amylase into smaller molecules–this continues, keeping up the osmotic support, until the molecules are hydrolyzed to a size below the renal threshold
What role does the molar substitution of a HES product play in its kinetics?
- The MS represents the average number of HE residues per glucose subunit on the HES molecule
- The number of sites of substitution will determine the shape and size of the specific HES molecule and ultimately what access alpha-amylase has to the bonds for degradation
- HES with a higher MS will remain in the intravascular space for longer
- 0.7=hetastarch; 0.6=hexastarch, 0.5=pentastarch, 0.4=tetrastarch
What does the C2C6 ratio of an HES solution mean?
- Pattern of substitution describes the locations of HE residues on the glucose subunits
- HE groups on the C2 atom will inhibit the access of alpha-amylase to the linking bonds more effectively than on the C6
- A high C2C6 ratio will favor slower breakdown of the HES molecules
What are the most important factors determining the pharmacokinetics of an HES solution?
Pattern of substitution
Molar substitution
What is the elimination half life of hetastarch (6% HES 450/0.75) and how does that compare to humans?
- 7.45 days in dogs compared to 12.8 days in people
- Dogs have a higher alpha-amylase concentration than people
The majority of HES is excreted by the kidneys in the urine, however, other routes of elimination are possible, such as tissue storage. Which of the products have the highest level of tissue storage?
- With increasing MS there is increased tissue storage of HES
What are 3 proposed mechanisms of HES induced renal injury?
- HES macromolecules are reabsorbed into proximal renal tubular cells causing an osmotic nephrosis
- “Hyperoncotic” AKI
- Increase in intravascular COP d/t unfiltered osmotically active colloid molecules coupled with low renal perfusion pressure in the glomerular arteries is proposed to cause alteration of intraglomerular colloid oncotic forces, leading to reduction/cessation of GFR
- Renal excretory function is proposed to be further compromised by back-leak of filtrate across damaged tubular epithelium
- Dilutional hypoalbuminemia
- Decreased levels of albumin d/t HES administration; albumin is renoprotective and decreases with dilution may predispose to AKI
What were the major findings of the CHEST study evaluating renal injury with use of HES (6% HES 130/0.4)?
- In the HES group significantly more patients required RRT compared to those treated with NaCl
- No significant difference in 28 and 90 day mortality
What reported coagulation abnormalities have been associated with HES products?
- Platelet dysfunction
- Decreased concentration of vWF
- Decreased concentration of factor VIII coagulant (FVIII:C)
- Enhanced fibrinolysis
What are proposed mechanisms of decreased platelet adhesion associated with HES administration?
- Diminished circulating levels of vwF interfering with platelet binding to subendothelial collagen
- Interference with platelet alphaIIb-Beta3 expression/activation
- HES macromolecular binding to platelet surface
- HES macromolecular nonspecific coating of platelet surface
What is a proposed mechanism for the development of decreased circulating levels of vWF secondary to HES administration?
- vWF-FVIII binding with HES molecules leading to accelerated elimination in urine
What are proposed mechanisms of decreased FVIII secondary to HES administration?
- Reduced half-life due to decreased circulating vWF
- vWF-FVIII complex binding with HES molecules leading to accelerated elimination in urine
What is a proposed mechanism of increased fibrinolysis associated with HES administration?
- Diminished thrombin-fibrinogen and FVIIIa-fiber polymer interactions via:
- HES indcued efflux of coag factors fro IV to interstitium reducing physical contact of factors necessary for clot formation
- Steric interactions of HES and fibrin polymers lessens transit of proteases, protease inhibitors, and/or FXIIa in forming clot matrix
- HES molecule entrapment in microcompartments of developing clot prevents adequate intramuscular spacing of fibrin polymers for cross linking
- Inhibits binding of TAFI
- Poor alpha-2-antiplasmin-mediated protection of fibrin molecules from plasmin
Administration of large volumes of 0.9% NaCl has been associated with hyperchloremia induced AKI. What is the proposed mechanism for this development?
- HIgh chloride levels inducing renal vasoconstriction, decreased GFR and subsequent ischemic renal tubular damage
What are proposed benefits of hypertonic saline administration?
- Transiently improves cardiac output and tissue perfusion via arteriolar vasodilation (i.e. decreases afterload)
- Volume loading (increasing preload)
- Reduction of endothelial swelling
- Weak positive inotrope effect
- Immune-modulatory effects (suppression of neutrophil respiratory burst activity and cytotoxic effects)
- Imporves CPP in head trauma patients by augmenting MAP and decreasing ICP
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What is normal COP in a dog? Cat?
- Dog 15-26mmHg
- Cat 17-33mmHg