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Viva Blanks > Physiology > Flashcards

Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

How do the body’s organs develop?

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2
Q

How do organs differ from body systems?

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3
Q

What is homeostasis?

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4
Q

How does the body exert control over its physiological systems?

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5
Q

What is positive feedback?

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6
Q

Describe the basic layout of a cell

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7
Q

Describe the composition of the cell nucleus

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8
Q

What are the organelles? Describe the major ones

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9
Q

What is a chromosome?

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10
Q

What is DNA?

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11
Q

What is RNA? How does it differ from DNA?

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12
Q

What is a codon?

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13
Q

What are the modes of Mendelian inheritance?

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14
Q

What is the structure of the cell membrane?

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15
Q

What structures are found within the cell membrane?

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16
Q

What are the functions of transmembrane proteins?

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17
Q

By what means are substances transported across the cell membrane?

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18
Q

What is a catalyst?

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19
Q

What are the main features of an enzyme?

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20
Q

How does an enzyme work?

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21
Q

What types of enzyme are there?

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22
Q

What is meant by the terms cofactor and coenzyme?

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23
Q

What are the components and functions of the upper respiratory tract?

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24
Q

How does the upper airway remain patent during breathing?

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25
Q

What happens to the upper airway during sleep?

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26
Q

What is obstructive sleep apnoea?

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27
Q

What are the functions of the lung?

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28
Q

Describe the functional anatomy of the lower airways

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29
Q

Which cell types are found in the alveolus?

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30
Q

What is the alveolar capillary barrier?

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31
Q

How does the lung inflate and deflate during tidal breathing?

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32
Q

What are the non-respiratory functions of the lung?

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33
Q

How is oxygen transported in the blood?

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34
Q

How do the body’s oxygen stores compare with its consumption of oxygen?

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35
Q

Describe the structure of a red blood cell

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36
Q

What is haemoglobin?

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37
Q

What is co-operative binding?

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38
Q

What is the OHDC?

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39
Q

What forms of Hb are there?

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40
Q

How does the single point mutation cause clinical disease in sickle cell disease?

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41
Q

What is he clinical significance of MetHb?

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42
Q

What is the pathophysiology of CO poisoning?

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43
Q

What are the mechanisms of cyanide toxicity?

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44
Q

What is myoglobin?

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45
Q

How does CO2 production and storage compare with that of oxygen?

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46
Q

How is CO2 transported in the circulation?

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47
Q

What is the Haldane effect?

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48
Q

What is the Bohr effect?

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49
Q

What are the principal features of the carbon dioxide dissociation curve?

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50
Q

Which factors affect the rate of diffusion across a biological membrane?

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51
Q

How is the lung alveolus designed for gas exchange?

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52
Q

How do diffusion of oxygen and CO2 compare in the lungs?

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53
Q

How does the diffusion of O2 compare with that of other gases?

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54
Q

How is transfer of oxygen across the alveolar-capillary membrane limited?

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55
Q

What is meant by ‘lung diffusion capacity’?

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56
Q

What is lung ‘dead space’?

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57
Q

What are the different types of dead space?

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58
Q

What factors affect anatomical dead space?

How is it measured?

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59
Q

What factors affect alveolar dead space?

How is it measured?

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60
Q

What is dead space ventilation?

How is it different from minute ventilation?

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61
Q

How are alveolar ventilation and CO2 tension related?

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62
Q

What is Fowler’s Method?

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63
Q

What is the Bohr method for dead space measurement?

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64
Q

What is the difference between a lung volume and capacity?

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65
Q

What is the importance of the FRC?

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66
Q

What factors affect FRC?

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67
Q

How can lung volumes and capacities be measured?

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68
Q

What is the closing capacity?

How is it measured?

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69
Q

What are the uses of pulmonary function tests?

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70
Q

What variables does spirometry measure?

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71
Q

How are FEV1, FVC and PEFR measured?

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72
Q

What is an expiratory flow-volume curve?

What is it used for clinically?

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73
Q

Explain the shape of the forced expiratory flow-volume curve

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74
Q

What is the difference between a flow-volume curve and a flow-volume loop?

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75
Q

What is meant by the term hypoxia?

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76
Q

What are the causes of hypoxaemic hypoxia?

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77
Q

How does hypoventilation cause hypoxaemia?

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78
Q

Is diffusion limitation an important cause of hypoxaemia?

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79
Q

What is meant by shunt?

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80
Q

Contrast shunt and V-Q mismatch?

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81
Q

What happens to PaCO2 in the presence of shunt?

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82
Q

What is the shunt equation?

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83
Q

How is the shunt equation derived?

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84
Q

What is the effect of increasing FiO2 in the presence of shunt?

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85
Q

How does gravity affect the lungs?

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86
Q

What is meant by ventilation-perfusion ratio?

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87
Q

What are the causes of abnormal V-Q ratio?

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88
Q

How can hypoxaemia with V/Q mismatch be managed?

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89
Q

Is gravity the only factor affecting V-Q matching?

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90
Q

What are the West Zones of the lung?

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91
Q

How do changes in arterial, venous and alveolar pressures affect lung perfusion?

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92
Q

When does West Zone 1 become clinically significant?

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93
Q

What is meant by ‘global oxygen consumption’?

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94
Q

What is meant by ‘global oxygen delivery’?

What is a typical value for this?

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95
Q

How are DO2 and VO2 related?

Is there a point at which delivery is inadequate?

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96
Q

What is the AGE?

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97
Q

What is the RQ?

Why does it differ for different substrates?

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98
Q

How is the AGE relevant to altitude adaptation?

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99
Q

What is the oxygen cascade?

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100
Q

What is lung compliance?

Is this the same as respiratory compliance?

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101
Q

What factors affect lung and thoracic cage compliance?

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102
Q

How does surfactant affect lung compliance?

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103
Q

What is the difference between static and dynamic compliance?

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104
Q

What is hysteresis?

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105
Q

How does the static compliance curve explain regional differences in lung ventilation?

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106
Q

What is meant by ‘work of breathing’?

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107
Q

What factors affect airway resistance?

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108
Q

How can WOB be described graphically?

How does it change with disease?

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109
Q

How is ventilation controlled?

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110
Q

What is the ventilatory response to hypoxaemia?

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111
Q

What is the ventilatory response to hypercapnia?

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112
Q

What are the unique features of the pulmonary circulation?

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113
Q

Why can the pressure in the pulmonary circulation be low?

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114
Q

How does PVR compare to SVR?

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115
Q

What factors affect PVR?

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116
Q

What is the clinical relevance of HPV?

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117
Q

Describe the pressure wave changes during flotation of a PAFC?

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118
Q

What is Oxygen toxicity?

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119
Q

How does the body mitigate oxidative stress?

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120
Q

How are reactive oxygen species used by the body?

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121
Q

How much O2 is harmful?

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122
Q

What is the connection between bleomycin and Oxygen toxicity?

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123
Q

What is meant by ‘respiratory failure’?

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124
Q

How may a patient with myasthenia gravis develop respiratory failure?

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125
Q

How do patients with COPD develop hypercapnoea?

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126
Q

How do anaesthetic drugs affect the respiratory system?

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127
Q

How does general anaesthesia affect the lung?

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128
Q

How does general anaesthesia affect post-operative respiratory function?

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129
Q

What are the functions of the heart?

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130
Q

Describe the structure of the heart

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131
Q

What is meant by the term ‘functional syncytium’?

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132
Q

Describe the coronary circulation and venous drainage

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133
Q

Describe the changes in blood flow to the myocardium over the cardiac cycle

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134
Q

What factors affect coronary blood flow?

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135
Q

What is the cardiac cycle?

What are its key events?

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136
Q

What is stroke volume?

How is it calculated?

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137
Q

Which factors affect cardiac output?

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138
Q

How does the body regulate CO?

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139
Q

What is the Bowditch Effect?

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140
Q

What is the cardiac index?

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141
Q

How is MAP related to CO?

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142
Q

How may CO be measured?

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143
Q

What is Starling’s law of the heart?

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144
Q

What is cardiac failure?

A

A

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145
Q

What is compensated heart failure?

A

A

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146
Q

What are the clinical consequences of decompensated heart failure?

A

A

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147
Q

Describe the left ventricular P-V loop

A

A

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148
Q

How does the P-V loop change when preload is increased?

A

A

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149
Q

How does the P-V loop change when aflerload is increased?

A

A

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150
Q

How does myocardial contractility change the P-V loop?

A

A

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151
Q

How does the LV P-V loop relate to cardiac work?

A

A

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152
Q

How do the LV and RV P-V loops compare?

A

A

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153
Q

How does O2 extraction in the heart compare to other organs?

A

A

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154
Q

What is meant by the term ‘acute coronary syndrome’?

A

A

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155
Q

How is an MI diagnosed?

A

A

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156
Q

What are typical symptoms of MI?

A

A

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157
Q

What is the physiological mechanism for referred cardiac pain?

A

A

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158
Q

How is MI classified?

A

A

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159
Q

What is the treatment for type 1 MI

A

A

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160
Q

What is the difference between type 2 MI and myocardial injury?

A

A

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161
Q

What is ischaemic reperfusion injury?

A

A

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162
Q

What is ischaemic preconditioning?

A

A

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163
Q

What are the functions of the circulation?

A

A

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164
Q

What are the constituent parts of the systemic circulation?

A

A

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165
Q

What are the main differences between the systemic and pulmonary circulations?

A

A

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166
Q

How does blood velocity change throughout the systemic circulation?

A

A

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167
Q

Describe the cross-section of an artery

A

A

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168
Q

What types of artery are there?

A

A

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169
Q

How are vessel radius and resistance to blood flow related?

A

A

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170
Q

What are the functions of the arterioles?

A

A

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171
Q

What factors are involved in vasoconstriction and dilatation?

A

A

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172
Q

How is SVR calculated?

A

A

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173
Q

How are SBP, DBP and MAP calculated?

A

A

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174
Q

Which factors affect arterial blood pressure?

A

A

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175
Q

What is the Windkessel effect?

A

A

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176
Q

What is the difference between the arterial pressure wave and the blood flow wave?

A

A

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177
Q

Describe the arterial pressure waveform for the aorta

A

A

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178
Q

How does the arterial pressure waveform differ from the aorta in the peripheral arteries?

A

A

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179
Q

What information can be gathered from the arterial pressure waveform?

A

A

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180
Q

What are the roles of the capillaries?

What are the different types?

A

A

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181
Q

How does capillary-tissue exchange occur?

A

A

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182
Q

How do Starling forces determine transmembrane fluid flow?

A

A

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183
Q

Does blood always flow through all the capillary networks?

A

A

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184
Q

What are the functions of the vascular endothelium?

A

A

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185
Q

What are the roles of the venous system?

A

A

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186
Q

How does the structure of a vein differ to that of an artery?

A

A

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187
Q

How do venous and arterial compliance compare?

A

A

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188
Q

Which factors determine venous return to the heart?

A

A

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189
Q

How does venous pressure affect resistance to flow?

A

A

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190
Q

What are the key features of the CVP waveform?

A

A

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191
Q

What are some examples of pathological CVP waveform variants?

A

A

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192
Q

What is a normal CVP?

What are causes of abnormal CVP?

A

A

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193
Q

Can CVP be used to guide fluid management?

A

A

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194
Q

Describe the anatomy of the lymphatic system

A

A

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195
Q

What are the functions of the lymphatic system?

A

A

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196
Q

Why is it important to maintain a physiological MAP?

A

A

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197
Q

How is MAP regulated?

A

A

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198
Q

Describe the arterial baroreceptor reflex

A

A

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199
Q

What is the Bainbridge reflex?

A

A

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200
Q

What are the cardiovascular consequences of chemoreceptor activation?

A

A

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201
Q

Outline the physiological changes that occur following haemorrhage

A

A

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202
Q

What is the valsalva manoeuvre?

What was it originally used for?

A

A

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203
Q

How might a patient perform a valsalva manoeuvre?

A

A

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204
Q

What physiological changes occur during the valsalva manoeuvre?

A

A

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205
Q

What are the uses of the valsalva manoeuvre today?

A

A

206
Q

Describe abnormal responses to the valsalva manoeuvre

A

A

207
Q

What is the difference between static and dynamic exercise?

A

A

208
Q

What types of skeletal muscle fibre are there?

A

A

209
Q

Which substrates are used by skeletal muscle to generate energy for contraction?

A

A

210
Q

What is muscle fatigue?

A

A

211
Q

What physiological changes occur in anticipation of exercise?

A

A

212
Q

What are the physiological effects of exercise?

A

A

213
Q

What is VO2 max?

A

A

214
Q

What happens to O2 consumption after exercise?

A

A

215
Q

How do elite athletes differ from the normal population physiologically?

A

A

216
Q

How can we assess patients’ fitness for surgery?

A

A

217
Q

How can exercise capacity be assessed clinically?

A

A

218
Q

What normally happens to VO2 during CPET?

A

A

219
Q

How are METs related to VO2?

A

A

220
Q

What are the functions of the nervous system?

A

A

221
Q

Describe the structure of a neuron

A

A

222
Q

How is the nervous system organised?

A

A

223
Q

What are the component tissues of peripheral nerves?

A

A

224
Q

Describe the gross anatomy of the brain

A

A

225
Q

What are the meninges?

A

A

226
Q

What are the neuroglia?

A

A

227
Q

Describe the cerebral arterial blood supply

A

A

228
Q

Describe the venous drainage of the brain

A

A

229
Q

What is an electroencephalogram?

A

A

230
Q

What are the functions of cerebrospinal fluid?

A

A

231
Q

Where is CSF produced?

Where is it absorbed?

A

A

232
Q

Do the constituents of CSF differ from plasma?

A

A

233
Q

What is hydrocephalus?

A

A

234
Q

What are the functions of the blood brain barrier?

A

A

235
Q

What are the anatomical layers of the BBB?

A

A

236
Q

How do substances cross the BBB?

A

A

237
Q

Which substances are important to exclude from the brain?

A

A

238
Q

Which CNS structures exist outside the BBB?

A

A

239
Q

What proportion of CO does the brain receive?

A

A

240
Q

What is CPP?

A

A

241
Q

What is cerebral autoregulation?

A

A

242
Q

What happens to neurons when CPP falls below 50ml/100g/min?

A

A

243
Q

What is meant by ‘flow- metabolism coupling?’

A

A

244
Q

What factors affect global CBF?

A

A

245
Q

How can CBF be measured?

A

A

246
Q

What is ICP?

How can it be measured?

A

A

247
Q

What is the Monro-Kelly doctrine?

A

A

248
Q

Explain Cushing’s triad

A

A

249
Q

How may ICP be reduced?

A

A

250
Q

How is head injury classified?

A

A

251
Q

How is brain injury classified?

A

A

252
Q

How can traumatic brain injury be managed?

A

A

253
Q

Describe the anatomy of the spinal cord

A

A

254
Q

Describe the cross-sectional anatomy of the spinal cord

A

A

255
Q

Describe the blood supply to the spinal cord

A

A

256
Q

Describe the main sensory afferent pathways

A

A

257
Q

Describe the course of the corticospinal tract

A

A

258
Q

How can acute spinal cord injury be classified?

A

A

259
Q

How does the level of a complete spinal cord injury affect the different body systems?

A

A

260
Q

Describe the common patterns of incomplete spinal cord injury

A

A

261
Q

Describe the initial management of spinal cord injury

A

A

262
Q

How is the membrane potential produced?

A

A

263
Q

What is the Nernst equation?

A

A

264
Q

How may the Nernst equation be applied to explain the RMP?

A

A

265
Q

What is the Goldman equation?

A

A

266
Q

How does the Na/K ATPase contribute to RMP?

A

A

267
Q

What is an action potential?

A

A

268
Q

Describe the events that lead to a nerve action potential

A

A

269
Q

How are action potentials propagated along nerve axons?

A

A

270
Q

How are nerve fibres classified?

A

A

271
Q

What is meant by the term ‘refractory period’?

A

A

272
Q

What is a synapse?

A

A

273
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

A

274
Q

How are neurotransmitters released into the synaptic cleft?

A

A

275
Q

What is the difference between an ionotropic and metabotropic receptor?

A

A

276
Q

What is the mechanism for ionotropic receptor signalling?

A

A

277
Q

How is neurotransmission terminated?

A

A

278
Q

What is the NMJ?

A

A

279
Q

What are the functions of skeletal muscle?

A

A

280
Q

Describe the anatomy of skeletal muscle

A

A

281
Q

What is a sarcomere?

A

A

282
Q

Describe the key structural features of thick and thin muscle filaments

A

A

283
Q

What is meant by excitation-contraction coupling?

A

A

284
Q

How does skeletal muscle contract?

A

A

285
Q

What is the motor unit?

A

A

286
Q

How is the force of muscle contraction determined?

A

A

287
Q

What is proprioception?

A

A

288
Q

What is a muscle spindle?

A

A

289
Q

How are muscle spindles innervated?

A

A

290
Q

What is a Golgi Tendon Organ?

A

A

291
Q

What is a reflex arc?

A

A

292
Q

Describe the knee jerk reflex

A

A

293
Q

How is muscle tone controlled?

A

A

294
Q

Where is smooth muscle found in the body?

A

A

295
Q

What are the two types of smooth muscle?

A

A

296
Q

How do smooth muscle cells differ from skeletal muscle cells?

A

A

297
Q

How is smooth muscle excited?

A

A

298
Q

Describe how excitation-contraction coupling occurs in smooth muscle

A

A

299
Q

How does smooth muscle contract?

A

A

300
Q

How is smooth muscle adapted for its function?

A

A

301
Q

Describe the structural features of cardiac muscle

A

A

302
Q

What is the RMP in cardiac muscle cells?

A

A

303
Q

How do cardiac and nerve action potentials differ?

A

A

304
Q

Outline the phases of the cardiac action potential

A

A

305
Q

What are the refractory periods of the cardiac action potential?

A

A

306
Q

Where are action potentials generated in the heart?

A

A

307
Q

What is meant by the term ‘pacemaker potential’?

A

A

308
Q

Describe the action of the pacemaker currents

A

A

309
Q

How are action potentials conducted through the heart?

A

A

310
Q

Describe excitation-contraction coupling in the cardiac myocyte

A

A

311
Q

How does cardiac muscle contract?

A

A

312
Q

How is cardiac contraction terminated?

A

A

313
Q

How does the ANS influence the heart?

A

A

314
Q

Describe the normal ECG

A

A

315
Q

How does cardiac electrophysiological activity generate ECG signals?

A

A

316
Q

What is meant by an ECG lead?

A

A

317
Q

Explain the QRS waveform

A

A

318
Q

What is the cardiac axis?

A

A

319
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system?

How is it divided?

A

A

320
Q

What are the visceral effects of the ANS?

A

A

321
Q

Describe the anatomy of the ANS

A

A

322
Q

What types of AChR exist?

A

A

323
Q

What types of adrenergic receptor exist?

A

A

324
Q

What is pain?

Is it the same as nociception?

A

A

325
Q

How is pain classified?

A

A

326
Q

What is a nociceptor?

A

A

327
Q

How is pain sensation transmitted?

A

A

328
Q

How is pain modulated?

A

A

329
Q

Define hyperalgesia and allodynia

How do they occur?

A

A

330
Q

What is neuropathic pain?

A

A

331
Q

How is the ANS involved in development of pain?

A

A

332
Q

Describe the anatomy of the eye

A

A

333
Q

Describe the vascular and nervous supply to the eye

A

A

334
Q

What is the optic disc?

A

A

335
Q

What is intraocular pressure?

How is it related to aqueous humour production?

A

A

336
Q

What are the functions of saliva?

A

A

337
Q

How is saliva produced?

A

A

338
Q

What is the innervation of the salivary glands?

A

A

339
Q

What are the phases of swallowing?

A

A

280

340
Q

Describe the functional anatomy of the oesophagus

A

A

281

341
Q

What are the functions of the stomach?

A

A

283

342
Q

Which substances are secreted by the stomach?

A

A

283

343
Q

How do the parietal cells secrete gastric acid?

A

A

284

344
Q

What are the phases of gastric activity?

A

A

285

345
Q

How is gastric emptying controlled?

A

A

285

346
Q

How long does gastric emptying take?

A

A

286

347
Q

What is vomiting?

How is it controlled?

A

A

287

348
Q

Describe the sequence of events involved in vomiting

A

A

288

349
Q

Which gastrointestinal organs are involved in digestion?

A

A

289

350
Q

How is the small intestine anatomically and histologically arranged?

A

A

289

351
Q

How are carbohydrates digested and absorbed?

A

A

290

352
Q

How are proteins digested and absorbed?

A

A

290

353
Q

How are lipids digested and absorbed?

A

A

291

354
Q

What are the functions of the pancreas?

A

A

291

355
Q

How are pancreatic secretions involved in digestion?

A

A

291

356
Q

How are pancreatic secretions controlled?

A

A

293

357
Q

How does intestinal motility differ in fed and fasting states?

A

A

293

358
Q

How is intestinal motility controlled?

A

A

293

359
Q

Describe the blood supply to the liver

A

A

295

360
Q

How is hepatic blood flow regulated?

A

A

295

361
Q

How does the respiratory cycle affect hepatic venous blood flow?

A

A

295

362
Q

Describe the macroscopic anatomy of the liver

A

A

296

363
Q

Describe the microscopic anatomy of the liver

A

A

296

364
Q

What are the different cell types within the liver?

A

A

297

365
Q

What are the functions of the liver?

A

A

299

366
Q

What physiological changes occur in liver cirrhosis?

A

A

367
Q

What are liver function tests?

A

A

304

368
Q

What are the functions of the kidney?

A

A

307

369
Q

Describe the anatomy of the kidney

A

A

307

370
Q

Describe the structure of the nephron

A

A

307

371
Q

What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus?

A

A

308

372
Q

How is renal blood flow regulated?

A

A

309

373
Q

How can renal blood flow be measured?

A

A

311

374
Q

How does filtration occur in the kidney?

A

A

313

375
Q

What happens to the filtrate in renal tubules?

A

A

313

376
Q

Other than filtration, how may substances be renally excreted?

A

A

314

377
Q

What is meant by the term ‘clearance’?

A

A

378
Q

What is GFR?

How is it related to Starling’s forces?

A

A

315

379
Q

How is clearance used in the measurement of GFR?

A

A

316

380
Q

What is meant by the term ‘filtration fraction’?

A

A

317

381
Q

How is water distributed in the body?

A

A

318

382
Q

How is the volume of water in different body compartments measured?

A

A

318

383
Q

How is plasma volume regulated?

A

A

318

384
Q

Contrast molarity, osmolarity and osmolality

A

A

319

385
Q

Why must plasma osmolarity be regulated?

A

A

319

386
Q

How is plasma osmolarity controlled?

A

A

320

387
Q

How does ADH act at the kidney?

A

A

320

388
Q

How is the osmolarity of the renal medulla generated?

A

A

320

389
Q

How does the kidney regulate Na excretion?

A

A

323

390
Q

Summarise the physiological response to low plasma volume

A

A

324

391
Q

Is it more important to regulate plasma volume or osmolarity?

A

A

325

392
Q

Summarise the physiological response to high plasma volume

A

A

325

393
Q

How is plasma potassium regulated?

A

A

326

394
Q

What is an acid?

A

A

329

395
Q

What are the Brønsted Lowry definitions of acid and base?

A

A

329

396
Q

What is pH?

A

A

329

397
Q

What is kA?

What is pKA?

A

A

329

398
Q

What is the Henderson Hasselbalch equation?

A

A

330

399
Q

How are acid-base disorders classified?

A

A

330

400
Q

What is base excess?

A

A

331

401
Q

What is the anion gap?

A

A

331

402
Q

How is pH regulated?

A

A

332

403
Q

What are the consequences of acid-base disturbance?

A

A

334

404
Q

What is the Stewart approach to acid-base physiology?

A

A

336

405
Q

How is urine stored and excreted from the body?

A

A

338

406
Q

How is urinary continence achieved?

A

A

338

407
Q

What happens to intravesicular pressure as the bladder fills?

A

A

338

408
Q

What is haemostasis?

A

A

341

409
Q

How does the vascular endothelium prevent haemostasis?

A

A

341

410
Q

Outline the steps involved in haemostasis

A

A

341

411
Q

How is haemostasis initiated?

A

A

342

412
Q

Describe the steps involved in platelet activation and aggregation

A

A

342

413
Q

Describe the steps of the coagulation cascade

A

A

342

414
Q

What is the cell-based model of coagulation?

A

A

345

415
Q

What are the main lab tests of clotting?

A

A

346

416
Q

What is thromboelastography?

A

A

348

417
Q

What is the fibrinolytic pathway?

A

A

348

418
Q

What are red blood cell antigens?

A

A

350

419
Q

Why does the immune system develop antibodies to RBC antigens?

A

A

350

420
Q

What are the serious complications of blood transfusion?

A

A

351-353

421
Q

How are blood products stored?

A

A

352

422
Q

What is cell salvage?

A

A

353

423
Q

What is massive transfusion?

Why is it relevant?

A

A

354

424
Q

Are there alternatives to blood transfusion to increase O2 carrying capacity?

A

A

355

425
Q

What are the stages of red blood cell production?

A

A

356

426
Q

What are the possible causes of anaemia?

A

A

356

427
Q

What are the potential consequences of anaemia?

A

A

357

428
Q

How is iron managed by the body?

A

A

357

429
Q

What is polycythaemia?

A

A

358

430
Q

Contrast antigen, hapten and allergen

A

A

360

431
Q

How is the immune system organised?

A

A

360

432
Q

What is inflammation?

A

A

361

433
Q

What substances are involved in inflammation?

A

A

362

434
Q

What are the roles of complement?

A

A

362

435
Q

What is lymphoid tissue?

How is the thymus involved in lymphocyte maturation?

A

A

363

436
Q

What are antibodies?

How are they produced?

A

A

363

437
Q

What is the difference between the primary and secondary immune response?

A

A

365

438
Q

Contrast active and passive immunisation

A

A

365

439
Q

What is cell-mediated immunity?

A

A

366

440
Q

What is immunodeficiency?

A

A

367

441
Q

What is hypersensitivity?

A

A

368

442
Q

What are the components of blood?

A

A

371

443
Q

What are the plasma proteins?

A

A

371

444
Q

What are the functions of albumin?

A

A

371

445
Q

What does ‘cellular respiration’ mean?

A

A

373

446
Q

From what substrates can ATP be produced?

How?

A

A

373

447
Q

Describe the glycolytic pathway

A

A

374

448
Q

Describe the citric acid cycle

A

A

375

449
Q

Describe the electron transport chain

A

A

376

450
Q

Compare ATP production from glucose in aerobic Vs anaerobic metabolism

A

A

377

451
Q

How are fats metabolised?

A

A

378

452
Q

How are proteins catabolized?

A

A

378

453
Q

How are energy sources stored in the body?

A

A

380

454
Q

What is gluconeogenesis?

A

A

380

455
Q

What is the pentose phosphate pathway?

A

A

381

456
Q

What are the effects of insulin and glucagon?

A

A

381

457
Q

What is meant by ‘basal metabolic rate’?

A

A

383

458
Q

What changes occur during starvation?

A

A

384

459
Q

What is the usual mode of death in starvation?

A

A

384

460
Q

What is refeeding syndrome?

A

A

385

461
Q

What is the stress response?
How is it initiated?
What are its effects?

A

A

387

462
Q

What are the adverse consequences of the stress response?

A

A

388

463
Q

How may anaesthetists reduce the stress response to surgery?

A

A

388

464
Q

What is a hormone?

A

A

391

465
Q

What are the functions of the hypothalamus?

A

A

391

466
Q

Describe the anatomy of the pituitary gland

A

A

392

467
Q

What is meant by the term HPA axis?

A

A

393

468
Q

Which hormones are secreted by the pituitary gland?

A

A

393

469
Q

Which hormones are secreted by the thyroid gland?

What are their physiological effects?

A

A

396

470
Q

How are T3 and T4 synthesised?

A

A

396

471
Q

How is the plasma concentration of thyroid hormones regulated?

A

A

397

472
Q

What is Graves’ disease?

How is it managed?

A

A

398

473
Q

What are the physiological functions of calcium?

A

A

399

474
Q

What is the distribution of body calcium?

A

A

399

475
Q

How is Calcium concentration regulated?

A

A

399

476
Q

Describe the anatomy of the adrenal glands

A

A

401

477
Q

Discuss the physiology of aldosterone

A

A

401

478
Q

What are the functions of cortisol?

A

A

402

479
Q

How is cortisol secretion regulated?

A

A

402

480
Q

How are catecholamines synthesised?

A

A

402

481
Q

How is catecholamine secretion controlled?

A

A

403

482
Q

What are the physiological effects of adrenaline and noradenaline?

A

A

403

483
Q

How are catecholamines metabolised?

A

A

404

484
Q

How does endocrine function alter in pregnancy?

A

A

405

485
Q

What are the physiological changes in pregnancy?

A

A

406

486
Q

What are the functions of the placenta?

A

A

411

487
Q

How does the anatomy of the placenta pertain to its functions?

A

A

411

488
Q

What are the mechanisms by which substances cross the placenta?

A

A

412

489
Q

What factors affect foetal oxygen delivery?

A

A

413

490
Q

What is the double Haldane effect?

A

A

414

491
Q

How is foetal oxygenation affected by labour?

A

A

414

492
Q

Describe the foetal circulation

A

A

415

493
Q

What are the physiological changes that occur at birth?

A

A

416

494
Q

What are the main physiological differences between children and adults?

A

A

418

495
Q

What makes surgery and anaesthesia in older people higher risk?

A

A

422

496
Q

What are the causes of ageing?

A

A

425

497
Q

What is obesity?

A

A

427

498
Q

What are the physiological consequences of obesity?

A

A

427

499
Q

What is the role of leptin in appetite?

A

A

428

500
Q

What are the problems associated with altitude?

A

A

431

501
Q

How does altitude affect alveolar O2 tension?

A

A

431

502
Q

How does the body adapt to life at altitude?

A

A

431

503
Q

Discuss high altitude illness

A

A

433

504
Q

What is the diving reflex?

A

A

434

505
Q

What physiological changes occur in ‘head out immersion’?

A

A

434

506
Q

What happens to air in the lungs during a breath-hold dive?

A

A

434

507
Q

How does breath-hold diving compare to SCUBA?

A

A

435

508
Q

What is decompression sickness?

A

A

435

509
Q

How is body temperature regulated?

A

A

436

510
Q

How does general anaesthesia disturb thermoregulatory mechanisms?

A

A

436

511
Q

What are the effects of hypothermia?

A

A

437

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