Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

Cell membrane

A

Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
Selectively permeable to ions
Can anchor cytoskeleton

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2
Q

Acid base balance - buffers

A

Bicarbinate
Proteins - 2/3 of the buffering in the blood and most within cells
Phosphate

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3
Q

Organs of acid base balance

A

Brain: sense elevation of CO2 via pH sensation at the respiratory centre in the brainstem
Lungs: ensure removal of carbonic acid (as CO2)
Kidneys: removal of H+ ions and regeneration of HCO3- due to presence of carbonic anhydrase

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4
Q

Henderson-Hasselbach equation

A

pH= 6.1 + log (HCO3/H2CO3)

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5
Q

Anabolism

A

constructive metabolic process in which a cell uses energy to construct molecules such as enzymes and nucleic acids

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6
Q

Catabolism

A

The purpose of catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by anabolic reactions

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7
Q

Standard processes of Aerobic respiration

A
Glycolysis
Pyruvate oxidation
Citric acid cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation via electron transport chain
Production of 38ATP from 1 glucose
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8
Q

Glycolysis

A

In the cytosol of cells
Substrates: Glucose, NAD, ADP and O2
Products: Pyruvate, NADH, ATP

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9
Q

Pyruvate oxidation

A

Cytosol of cells
Substrates: Pyruvate, CoA and NAD
Products: Acetyl-CoA, NADH and CO2

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10
Q

Citric acid cycle

A

Mitochondrial
Substrates: Acetyl-CoA, NAD, FAD, H2O and ADP
Products: CoA, NADH, FADH2, H, ATP, CO2

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11
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation

A

Mitochondrial via electron transport chain
Substrates: ADP, NADH FADH2 and O2
Products: ATP, NAD, FAD and H2O

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12
Q

Substrates for aerobic respiration

A

Fatty acids

Amino acids

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13
Q

Fatty acid metabolism

A

Lipolysis - triglycerides to free fatty acids and glycerol
Fatty acids in metabolising cells via beta oxidation to Acetyl-CoA
Glycerol in liver converted to glucose via gluconeogenesis

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14
Q

Amino acids

A

Converted to different substrates in the citric acid cycle or pyruvate and acetyl-CoA

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15
Q

Anaerobic respiration

A

Lactic acid fermentation in cell cytoplasm
Anoxic regeneration of NAD+ as a source of energy
Pyruvate to lactate producing ATP and regenerating NAD for glycolysis
Production of 2 ATP from 1 glucose

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16
Q

Mechanisms of capillary exchange

A

Diffusion
Transcytosis
Bulk flow

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17
Q

Diffusion

A

Passage of molecules from high concentration to low concentration

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18
Q

Transcytosis

A

Large lipid insoluble substances are endocytosed, cross the membrane and then exocytosed

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19
Q

Bulk flow

A

Movement dependent on pressure and the four Starling forces

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20
Q

Starling forces

A

Oncotic or colloid osmotic pressure in the capillary
Oncotic or colloid osmotic pressure in the interstitium
Hydrostatic pressure in the capillary
Hydrostatic pressure in the interstitium

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21
Q

Oncotic pressure

A

A form of osmotic pressure exerted by proteins either in the blood plasma or interstitial fluid

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22
Q

Hydrostatic pressure

A

A force generated by the pressure of fluid on the capillary walls either by the blood plasma or interstitial fluid

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23
Q

Osmolarity

A

Essentially the amount of solute in the solvent (water)
The higher the osmolarity, the more solute there is and the relative “concentration” of the water is low. The water mores from high concentration to low (area of low osmolarity to low)

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24
Q

Lymphatic system

A

Series of vessels andnodes that collect and filter excess tissue fluid (lymph), beforereturning it to the venous circulation

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25
Q

Functions of the spleen

A

Malpighian corpuscles
§ Periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths rich in T-lymphocytes and macrophages
§ Lymphoid follicles rich in naïve B-lymphocytes
Cords
§ Removal of old, damaged and dead red cells, antigens and opsonised microorganisms which are phagocytosed by macrophages
§ Sequestration of platelets
§ Storage of red cells

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26
Q

Normal values of CSF

A
Protein
§ 15-45
Glucose
§ 5-8 (2/3 Blood glucose)
Mononuclear cells
§ 0-5
Opening pressure 
§ 7-18 cmH2O
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27
Q

Normal value of pleural fluid

A

Protein
Fluid/serum <0.5
<30 g/l

LDH
Fluid/serum <0.6

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28
Q

Pleural fluid volume, production and absorption

A
  • Small volume (0.3ml/kg with turnover 0.15ml/kg/h)
  • Produced by the parietal pleura in less dependent areas and absorbed by the parietal pleural lymphatics in the more dependant areas, on the diaphragmatic surface and the mediastinal regions
  • The pleural mesothelial cells have oligolamellar surfactant molecules of a negative charge and so repulse each other assuring lubrication
  • Pleural fluid acts to both lubricate and the negative pressure allows the chest wall and lungs to move in synchrony
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29
Q

Pericardium

A

• Serosal cavity
• Two anatomical structures closely connected
○ external sac of fibrous pericardium
○ Internal sac of serous pericardium
• Product of ultrafiltration
• Drained by lymphatic capillary bed mainly and mesothelial cells lining the membrane may also have a role
• It provides lubrication during heart beating by
oligolamellar surface-active phospholipid surfactant molecules of a negative charge and so repulse each other assuring lubrication

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30
Q

Peritoneal fluid

A
  • An ultrafiltrate of plasma
  • A lubricant around abdominal organs and allows the diffusion of electrolytes and other substances to and from the serosal surfaces of the abdominal cavity
  • Produced by mesothelial cells in the membrane
  • Absorbed by capillary absorption
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31
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Endogenous chemicals that enable communication within the nervous system and between the nervous system and the rest of the body

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32
Q

Dopamine

A

Monoamine
D1, D2-like and TAAR receptors (all metabotropic G-protein)
Excitatory or inhibitory
Roles in exectutive function, motor control, motivation, arousal, reinforcement, reward, lactation, sexual gratification and nausea

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33
Q

Noradrenaline class

A

Catecholamine

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34
Q

Noradrenaline in the brain

A

attentiveness, emotions, sleeping, dreaming, and learning

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35
Q

Noradrenaline receptors

A
alpha1
alpha2
beta1
beta2
beta3
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36
Q

Noradrenaline receptors in the eye

A

Dilator pupillae - alpha1
Superior tarsal muscle (smooth muscle attached to levator palpebrae superioris) - alpha1
Ciliary epithelium - alpha2 - decreases aqueous humor production, beta2 - increases aqueous humor production

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37
Q

Noradrenaline receptors in the Salivary glands

A

Stimulates mucus secretion - alpha1

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38
Q

Noradrenaline receptors in the lungs

A

Bronchial muscle - relaxation - beta2

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39
Q

Noradrenaline receptors in the Heart

A

+ chronotropy - SA node - beta1
+ dromotropy - AV node - beta1
+ inotropy - Atria and ventricles (via increased intracellular Ca) - beta1

40
Q

Noradrenaline receptors in the Digestive tract

A

Decreased motility - a1, a2, b2
Inhibited secretions - a2
Contraction of sphincters - a1

41
Q

Noradrenaline receptors in the liver

A

Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis - a1, b2

42
Q

Noradrenaline receptors in the gallbladder and ducts

A

relaxation - b2

43
Q

Noradrenaline receptors in the pancreas

A

Inhibits acinar secretion - a
Inhibits b cell insulin secretion - a2, (during alpha blockade b2 increases secretion)
Stimulates a cell glucagon secretion - b2, (during beta blockade a decreases secretion)

44
Q

Noradrenaline receptors in the bladder

A
□ Bladder neck, prostate and urethral contraction - a1
Detrusor relaxation (small effect) - b
45
Q

Noradrenaline receptors in the vas deferens and seminal vesicles

A

Ejaculation - a1

46
Q

Noradrenaline receptors in the uterus

A

Nonpregnant - relaxation - b2

Pregnant - contraction - a1

47
Q

Noradrenaline receptors in the Large arteries, arterioles, cutaneous and large (not muscular) veins

A

Vasoconstriction - a1, a2 (a2 present both postjunction, causing vasocontriction but mainly prejunctional with negative feedback on noradrenaline release)

48
Q

Noradrenaline receptors in brown adipose tissues

A

Non-shivering Thermogenesis via decoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and production of heat rather than ATP - b1,2 and 3, a1 and 2

49
Q

Noradrenaline receptors in the immune system

A

Bone marrow, Thymus, Lymph nodes and Spleen

Modulates immune responses mainly via b2

50
Q

Noradrenaline receptors in the kidneys

A

Increased Renin secretion - b1
Decreased renal blood flow - a1
Increased renal tubular sodium absorption - a1

51
Q

Noradrenaline receptors in the sweat glands

A

Piloerection - a1

52
Q

Histamine neurons location

A

Histaminergic neurons have cell bodies in the tuberomammiliary nucleus in the posterior hypothalamus
Project to cerebral cortex, olfactory bulb, thalamus and spinal cord

53
Q

Histamine neurotransmitter function

A

Thought to influence arousal and sleep, learning, sexual behavour, regulation of anterior pituatary hormones, blood pressure, thirst and pain thresholds

54
Q

Serotonin alt name

A

5-hydroxytryptamine

55
Q

Serotonin receptors

A

7 5-HT receptors
Most metabotropic G-protein coupled
5-HT3 ionotropic

56
Q

Serotonin functions

A
Sleep
Mood
Pain
Circadian rhythms
Vomiting
57
Q

Glutamate nature

A

Most abundant neurotransmitter in the brain and spinal cord (75% of excitatory transmission in the brain)
Excitatory

58
Q

Glutamate receptors

A

NMDA
AMPA
Kainate
Metabotropic glutamate receptors

59
Q

Glutamate functions

A

learning and memory, particularly in the process oflong-term potentiation (long-term facilitation of transmission) as well as motor co-ordination

60
Q

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) origin

A

Synthesized from glutamate

61
Q

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) nature

A

Most abundant inhibitory neurotransmitter in brain

62
Q

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) receptors

A

GABA A - ionotropic

GABA B - metabotropic

63
Q

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) functions

A

regulating neuronal activity, anxiety and sleep

64
Q

Glycine nature

A

Used at the majority of inhibitory synapses in the ventral spinal cord and brainstem
Also has an excitatory role within the CNS as it is aco-agonistat glutamatergic NMDA receptors

65
Q

Glycine receptors

A

Ionotropic

66
Q

Glycine functions

A

motor and sensory functions, such as reciprocal inhibition of antagonistic muscles inspinal reflexes

67
Q

Aspartate

A

Excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain

Ionotropic

68
Q

D-serine

A

Co-agonist at NMDA receptors

69
Q

Opioid peptides

A

enkephalins, endorphins, heptapeptide, octapeptide

70
Q

Opioid peptides receptors

A

All metabotropic
mu
kappa
delta

71
Q

mu opioid receptors functions

A
Stress responses in the brain
. Analgesic
. Respiratory depression
. Euphoria
. Sedation
. Increased secretion of prolactin and growth hormone
. Miosis
Decrease GI motility
72
Q

kappa opioid receptor functions

A
Stress responses in the brain
. Analgesic
. Diuresis
. Sedation
. Miosis
. Dysphoria (unease)
73
Q

delta opioid receptor functions

A

Stress responses in the brain

. Analgesic

74
Q

Somatostatin

A

In the brain activates a hyperpolarising K+ current and inhibiting Ca2+ influx
Motor activity and cognitive function

75
Q

Oxytocin function in the brain

A

Regulation of breast feeding and childbirth
Sexual arousal
Bonding
Maternal behavour
Foetal actions (from maternal circulation) to protect from hypoxic damage at birth

76
Q

Vasopressin receptors in the brain

A

V1a
V1b
V2

77
Q

Function of Vasopressin in the brain

A

Memory retrieval
Learning
Circadian time keeping

78
Q

Acetylcholine nature

A

Acts in the central and peripheral nervous system (main neurotransmitter in the peripheral)
Mostly excitatory

79
Q

Acetylcholine receptors

A

Nicotinic receptors - ionotropic

Muscarinic receptors - metabotropic - in PNS is autonomic

80
Q

Nicotinic receptors

A

On postsynaptic membrane of the autonomic ganglia (sympathetic and parasympathetic)
On postsynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction
In the brain - affect memory

81
Q

Muscarinic receptors in the brain

A

Learning

82
Q

Muscarinic receptors in the eyes

A

Stimulates contraction of the circular muscle of the pupil

83
Q

Muscarinic receptors in the salivary gland

A

Stimulates watery secretion

84
Q

Muscarinic receptors in the heart

A

muscle - -ve inotropy

AV and SA nodes - -ve chronotropy and -ve dromotropy

85
Q

Muscarinic receptors in the lung

A

Bronchoconstriction

Stimulates secretion

86
Q

Muscarinic receptors in the digestive tract

A

Increased motility
Stimulates secretions
Relaxes sphincters

87
Q

Muscarinic receptors in the liver

A

Increased glycogen synthesis

Reduced gluconeogenesis

88
Q

Muscarinic receptors in the gallbladder

A

Stimulates contraction

89
Q

Muscarinic receptors in the pancreas

A

Stimulates secretion of both endocrine and exocrine glands

90
Q

Muscarinic receptors in the adrenal gland

A

Stimulate release of Adrenaline as part of the sympathetic nervous system

91
Q

Muscarinic receptors in the bladder

A

Contraction of detrusor

Relaxation of sphincter

92
Q

Muscarinic receptors in the penis

A

Vasodilation leading to erection

93
Q

Muscarinic receptors in the Sweat glands

A

Stimulates secretion (both sympathetic and parasympathetic)

94
Q

Adenosine receptors

A

A1, A2A, A2B, A3

95
Q

Adenosine functions

A

Brain - Sleep regulating, Modulates hearing
Heart (converted in the interstitium not neuronal)
Coronary vasodilation - Negative chronotrope, Negative dromotrope

96
Q

Nitric oxide in the brain

A

Long term depression and potentiation