Physiology Flashcards
white blood cells function?
Fight infection
Red Blood cells
Transport Oxygen bound to haemoglobin
Platelets function?
Blood clotting mechanism
Blood plasma function?
Liquid part of the blood. Carries dissolved nutrients and waste products as well as other blood components mentioned above.
- What systems in our bodies gives us our sense of balance?
Sight
Touch
Prioproception
- Describe the 5 effects of gas bubbles on your tissues.
Produce an immune response
b) Bubble attracts white blood cells and mast cells
c) Protein cells release fatty acids from cell producing fat emboli
d) Mast cells release histamines, which increase blood flow by dilating venules and capillaries, and make endothelium ‘sticky’, which causes white blood cells to stick to blood vessel walls (margination).
e) Margination causes endothelial cells to ‘separate’, leading to leakage of fluid from capillaries, which can also allow gas bubbles to permeate cell walls and enter lymphatic system.
f). Mechanical damage to cells occurs, and injured cells release chemicals that attract platelets, promoting formation of clots.
g). Platelets can attach themselves to bubbles thus creating a larger mass and increasing chances of blockages.
What substance lines the alveoli?
surfactant
What is one of the functions of surfactant in the alveoli?
To keep tissues moist,
allow gaseous exchange
to even out surface tension to maintain shape
What gas plays the major role in the control of breathing?
co2
How does the body detect Co2
Chemoreceptors in the carotid arteries and aortic arch
- List 3 of the most important ‘systems’ in our bodies that are affected by diving.
Circulatory system;
Pulmonary system;
Vestibular system
- List two major causes of Hypercapnia (CO2 build up) for a scuba diver
Skip breathing; Tight equipment, Poorly performing regulator
- Carbon dioxide toxicity predisposes the diver to two other diving ailments – what are they?
: DCI; Narcosis; Hypothermia; O2 toxicity. NB: Don’t accept ‘Headache’. Not diving specific.
- Define respiratory dead-space.
That section of the airway that does not take part in gas exchange. Can include airway ‘extensions’ such as snorkels.
- List 4 causes of lack of oxygen to the body
Need any four diving illnesses, or anything else that might prevent breathing such as equipment failure, near drowning, etc!
- List 2 causes of saltwater aspiration syndrome
NEED TWO OF:
Hole in exhaust diaphragm of regulator; hole in mouthpiece of regulator; improper breathing technique, or snorkelling in windy weather where spume/spray is being lifted off water surface so it can be inhaled.
- List 4 signs and/or symptoms of salt water aspiration syndrome?
NEED FOUR OF:
Shortness of breath
Coughing
pain behind breastbone
uncontrollable shivering
hot and cold flushes, fever
loss of appetite
nausea
vomiting
Also rarely, bronchiospasm where patient appears to have asthma or an allergic reaction restricting respiration
- Why is it important to hospitalise an apparently recovered victim of near drowning?
Because of the potential for complications (blood chemistry changes/lung complications), which can lead to difficulty breathing/unconsciousness at a later stage after the event.
Pneumothorax location and symptoms derived from it
in chest cavity
chest pain, short breath, difficulty breathing, cyanosis
subcutaneous emphysema?
List symptoms
under ther skin
Crackling sensation, voice changes, fullness of throat, deviated trachea, shortness of breath
Mediastinal emphysema
Air escaping from lungs as part of ascending too fast
Middle of chest (usually below sternum)
Heart irregularities, low blood pressure, pain behind breastbone, cyanosis
Air embolism?
Symptoms?
Arterial circulation (being blocked by bubbles)
Sudden unconsciousness, confusion, visual disturbances, convulsions, pink frothy sputum, signs of shock and other CNS symptoms
- List the appropriate first aid for pulmonary barotrauma.
DRABC
Provide 100% O2
Treat for shock:
Lay patient down flat; Reassure; Protect from elements or further exposure; monitor conscious state
Seek medical aid as soon as possible
If conscious:
Ascertain relevant details regarding the dive
e.g. depth/time, ascent rate
controlled or not, equipment faults, previous activities, buddy comments etc.
If unconscious:
Patient should be postured laying flat or left lateral (coma position)
If on-site recompression is available, this should be utilised where appropriate
Arrange transport for further medical attention
Preferably where recompression
facilities are available.
- List the 4 major components of blood.
(a) Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
(b) White blood cells (leucocytes)
(c) Platelets
(d) Plasma
- (a) List 2 major properties of arteries.
NEED TWO OF:
Carry oxygenated blood from the heart (except pulmonary artery)
High pressure vessels
Have thick elastic muscular walls
List 2 major properties of veins.
NEED TWO OF
Generally carry deoxygenated blood to the heart (except pulmonary vein);
Thin walled and less elastic than arteries
Low pressure
Have valves
Generally closer to surface of skin than arteries
List 2 major properties of capillaries.
NEED TWO OF:
Very small (0.2mm diameter);
Act as a reservoir of blood (contain 1/6 of total circulating blood volume)
Site of diffusion/gas exchange
Capable of vasodilation/vasoconstriction
- Which artery carries deoxygenated blood
Pulmonary artery
carotid artery is located
Neck
- What is the primary O2 transport mechanism in our circulatory system
O2 molecules bonded to haemoglobin
Brachial artery located
upper arm
Femoral artery located?
Thigh
Aorta located?
Chest
Tachycardia?
elevated heart rate
Bradycardia?
Decreased heart rate
Oxyhaemoglobin?
Haemoglobin bonded with O2 molecule
define shock
lack of effective circulating blood volume
- List 4 major signs and/or symptoms of shock.
Decreased conscious level
Pale skin / cyanosis
Shivering (may be uncontrollable)
Cold sweaty skin
Weak ‘thready’ pulse
- Give 2 factors that may increase the severity of shock.
Unchecked blood loss
Not ensuring thermal
comfort of patient
Not offering reassurance
Telling patient they look terrible!
Handling patient roughly
- What is carboxyhaemoglobin?
Haemoglobin bonded with CO molecule
- Why may the effects of carbon monoxide not be as readily noticeable at depth
Increased ambient pressure means more O2 can be carried in blood plasma, and oxygen partial pressure is also increased. Both can mask symptoms of CO poisoning
- What is the major cause of carotid sinus syndrome in divers?
Tight suit hood putting pressure on baroreceptors in neck.
- As the pressure on a given amount of gas increases, so the volume:
decreases
- What is the pressure at a depth of 15m in seawater?
2.5ATA
- The greatest volume change of a gas occurs between depths of:
0-10M
- When should you start to clear your ears?
IMMEDIATLY
describe anatomy and function of the middle ear
Middle ear: Air-filled cavity in the temporal bone, separated from the external ear by the eardrum.
Eustachian tube: Connects the middle ear to the throat/nasopharynx, equalizing air pressure.
Ossicles: Three linked, movable bones in the middle ear.
Hammer (malleus): Joins the inside of the eardrum.
Anvil (incus): Middle bone, connecting the hammer and stirrup.
Stirrup (stapes): Connects to the anvil and fills the oval window.
Oval window: Opening leading to the inner ear.
describe anatomy and function of the inner ear
Maze of fluid-filled tubes in the temporal bone.
Bony labyrinth: Two major sections: cochlea (hearing) and semicircular canals (balance).
Oval window and
round window: Membrane-covered outlets connecting the inner ear to the air-filled middle ear.
- List the first aid for middle ear barotrauma
DRABC
Observe and assess signs and symptoms
Cover ear/s with hand/s and hold on to something until dizziness passes
Surface
Dry and cover ear
Do not attempt to equalise
Do not place anything in ear canal
Seek expert medical advice immediately
Not essential that they have ‘give 100% O2’ here, but still wouldn’t hurt.
- What is the cause of an inner ear barotrauma?
Over-forceful equalisation (especially valsalva)
- List five ways a diver can avoid ear barotrauma
Equalise as often as possible during descent
Don’t dive with cold or flu congestion
Slow descent
Feet first descent
Ensure hood allows water to get into external ear
- If you were having difficulty clearing your ears list three techniques you could employ.
Ascend to a shallower depth
Move jaw/’yawn’
Gentle valsalva – pinch nostrils closed and blow gently
Block one nostril and gently blow out other nostril (on affected side)
- Describe the anatomy and function of the ear (outer
The external ear (or pinna) serves to protect the tympanic membrane (eardrum), as well to collect and direct sound waves through the ear canal to the eardrum
List three symptoms that failure to equalise the air space in the middle ear would produce
Pain
Feeling of ‘fullness’ in the ear
Impaired hearing
Tinnitus
Dizziness
Nausea
Bleeding from ear
- At what depth would a diver breathing air reasonably expect to be affected by nitrogen narcosis?
27-30m
- List four factors that are likely to predispose a diver to nitrogen narcosis (apart from
going deeper).
Elevated CO2 levels
Rapid descent
Hard work at depth
Cold water
Poor visibility
Inexperience
Hangover
Alcohol
Drugs
- How do you cure nitrogen narcosis?
ascend to shallower water
- What is chronic oxygen toxicity and how is it caused?
Long term (several hours) exposure to elevated levels of O2 at >0.6 ATA concentration. Can result in irritation to or breakdown of lung tissue.
- What is acute oxygen toxicity and how is caused?
Short term exposure to elevated levels of O2 at >1.6 ATA concentration. Characterised by CVENTID signs and symptoms.
- Define hyperventilation.
more than 3 breaths before a breath - hold dive
- What is the treatment for carbon monoxide poisoning
DRABC; Give 100% O2; Seek medical aid urgently
O2 recompression treatment
blood transfusion may be required in serious cases
- List five causes of carbon monoxide poisoning.
External contamination of air going into HP compressor (e.g. filling tanks during peak traffic periods)
External contamination of air going into LP compressor (e.g. incorrectly placed intake, or inadequate intake length)
Poor compressor maintenance causing oil flashing (worn piston rings)
Use of incorrect oil in compressor causing oil flashing
Inadequate filtration allowing contaminants to enter compressor and causing oil flashing
Direct inhalation of exhaust fumes
Which system is primarily responsible for the transport of venom within the body?
lymphatic
What is the major factor involved in transport of venom in lymphatic system?
movement
List 2 marine animals where pressure immobilisation technique can be used?
blue ring octopus
sea snake
cone shell
box jelly
list 2 animals where you should not use the immobilisation technique?
stonefish
stingray
other fish
spine injury
lacerations
Briefly describe the pressure immobilisation technique.
Apply a broad crepe pressure bandage over the bite site as soon as possible, bandaging upwards from the lower portion of the bitten or stung limb to as high as possible up the limb. Splint the limb, then keep the patient still.
What morphological feature do cnidarians (sea jellies, corals, and anemones) possess as a means of immobilising prey?
Nematocysts
What specific first aid procedure is recommended for cnidarian envenomation?
BOX JELLYFISH: DRABC; Apply vinegar (before removing tentacles); Seek medical aid; Scrape off any tentacles adhering to the skin; Apply pressure immobilisation bandage
OTHER JELLYFISH: Scrape off any tentacles adhering to the skin; apply ice; seek medical advice if required, and give analgesics as directed.
What is the primary consideration in the first aid of a blue ringed octopus bite?
DRABC; Seek medical aid; apply pressure immobilisation bandage; maintain EAR until help arrives.
What effect may the blue ringed octopus toxin have on a victim?
paralysis
- List the recommended first aid procedure for stonefish envenomation
DRABCD; 100% O2
Immerse puncture site in water as hot as the patient can stand.
Seek medical aid asap
- How is an open airway maintained in an unconscious person
Assuming an unconscious breathing patient, check airway and lay in left lateral (recovery) position.
- List the checks one can make to ensure the patient is breathing
(a) Look for rise and fall of chest
(b) Listen for sound of breathing
(c) Feel for rise and fall of chest, or breath on your ear.
- How would you deal with the following problems
jaw not opening?
mouth to nose ventilation
- How would you deal with the following problems
Airway obstruction:
Reach into mouth and clear if possible; back slaps then chest thrusts if still present; if these don’t clear it then try and ventilate around the obstruction (using 100% O2 if possible). Seek medical aid urgently.
How would you deal with the following problems
Vomiting:
roll onto side
clear with finger in sweep motion
how would you deal with a patient with air in their stomach?
check your cpr technique, then continue
list 4 signs of cardiac arrest?
no pulse
cyanosis (blue skin)
crushing chest pain
unconciousness
- What important information must be passed on to anyone who is sent for help?
Location of emergency
Nature of emergency
No. of persons affected
No. of persons attending, and their qualifications
Ask person to find out how long ambulance will be, and tell them to come back and assist you after the call.
- When administering CPR to an adult the ratios and rates are:
(a) One operator: 2 breaths to 30 compressions at at least 5 cycles every 2 minutes.
(b) Two operators: 2 breaths to 30 compressions at at least 5 cycles every 2 minutes.
- List 4 signs of recovery after successful CPR
Pulse returns
Breathing returns
Colour improves
Become responsive / regain consciousness
- List 4 important constituents that a diver’s first aid kit must have
Schools
Surf lifesaving facilities
Swimming pools
Veterinary clinics
Old people’s homes
Auto workshops
Engineering workshops
- List 2 sources of warm water for therapy use
Engine coolant water
Thermos
Allow anything else you think is practical/reasonably possible.
list sign and symptoms, and first aid to a patient in this temp range:
<37C to 36C
Shivering, feeling cold; complaining of cold; rubbing arms; hugging body; goosebumps
DRABCD; Remove from exposure; remove wet clothing and put on dry clothing; get out of wind/rain; warm sweet drinks/food
list sign and symptoms, and first aid to a patient in this temp range:
35C to 34C
Controllable but strong shivering; cyanosis; poor coordination; slurred speech; responsive, but ‘slower than normal’!
DRABCD; Remove from exposure; remove wet clothing and put on dry clothing; get out of wind/rain; warm sweet drinks/food if patient can swallow and is clear-headed; gentle rewarming (body heat/car heater etc)
- List 4 ways of preventing hypothermia
Adequate food/snacks and warm drinks before diving and between dives
Wear adequate exposure protection
Terminate dive as soon as anyone starts to feel cold
Remove wet gear as soon as possible after dives; be aware of wind chill
What is heat exhaustion?
Heat exhaustion is an acute condition that occurs when the body produces or absorbs more heat than it can dissipate.
list first aid for heat exhaustion
Remove from heat and cease exercise
Cool rapidly – shower, cold bath etc
Give cool/cold drinks if patient clear headed and able to swallow easily
- List 4 diving ailments where the use of pure oxygen would be beneficial
CAGE - Convulsions, Amnesia, Gait disturbance, and Emotional instability
DCI
CO poisoning
Near drowning
- List 2 ways in which oxygen therapy can be applied
non rebreather mask
demand inhalation valve
pocket mask
SEVERE HYPOTHERMIA
<30C
Progressive loss of consciousness; cardiac arrhythmias; pupils fixed and dilated; may appear dead
DRABCD; Remove from exposure; remove wet clothing; handle extremely gently; rewarm with body to body contact or body core re-warmer only; Seek medical aid – transport to hospital IF advised.
- List 2 precautions that must be taken when using oxygen
ensure proper ventialtion
ensure away from naked flames
- In the event of a workplace diving accident, to whom should accident reports be sent?
diving officer
ohs unit
insurance office
workplace standards office
hr
describe inflammation
Inflammation is the body’s response to injury or infection. It serves to protect the body by increasing blood flow to the area, which brings immune cells and nutrients to the affected tissues. Signs of inflammation include redness, heat, swelling, and pain. It’s essentially the body’s way of trying to heal itself.
describe loss of blood plasma
When there’s a loss of blood plasma, such as in cases of severe burns or injury, the body responds by moving fluid from the cells and tissues into the bloodstream to maintain blood volume and pressure. The kidneys also conserve water and salt to help maintain blood volume. However, excessive loss of plasma can lead to shock, which is a life-threatening condition that requires immediate medical attention.
describe fever
Fever is a controlled increase in the body’s normal temperature set-point, in response to infection or other conditions. It is driven by chemicals called pyrogens, which are either produced by the body or by invading organisms. The increase in body temperature can help fight infections by speeding up the body’s metabolism and stimulating the immune response. The body may also make the environment less favorable for bacteria or viruses to replicate. It is essentially a defense mechanism that helps the body fight off infections or diseases.
define laryngeal spasm?
closing of vocal chords when in contact w water, can effect divers when diving. can cause drowning
