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Physiological Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe the two-factor theory of emotion

A

An emotional state may be considered a function of a state of physiological arousal and of a cognition appropiate to this state of arousal.

i.e. emotion results from a combination of two things: (i) a state of arousal, and (ii) an interpretative cognition that labels the state of arousal as an emotion

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2
Q

State the three propositions/hypotheses made by Schachter & Singer

A
  1. Given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has no immediate explanation, he will ‘label’ this state and describe his feelings in terms of the cognitions available to him.
  2. Given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has a completely appropiate explanation, no evaluative needs will arise and the individual is unlikely to label his feelings in terms of the alternative cognitions available.
  3. Given cognitive cirsumstances similar to that which had previously produced emotion, the individual will only react emotionally only to the extent that he experiences a state of physiological arousal.
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3
Q

Describe the method and groups used in Schachter and Singer’s study

A
  • Lab experiment with observation & self-report questionnaires
    • ​IV(injection and stooge behaviour)/groups: EPI INF (anger/euphoria), EPI MIS (euphoria), EPI IGN (anger/euphoria), Placebo (anger/euphoria)
    • DV: subject behaviour with stooge (objective), questionnaire response (subjective)
  • Independent groups

EPI MIS were told they would feel numb, have an itching sensation and a slight headache. Placebo were told nothing (like EPI IGN).

No EPI MIS anger condition as this was a control condition to evaluate possible artifactual effect of EPI INF instructions

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4
Q

Explain the predicted outcomes of each of the groups used in Schachter & Singer

A
  • Epi Inf: should have completely appropiate explanation for bodily state and should not be influenced by stooge
  • Epi Ign: no explanation for bodily state so should be influenced by stooge
  • Epi Mis: no explanation for bodily state so should be influenced by stooge
  • Placebo: no change in bodily state so not influenced by stooge
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5
Q

Describe the sample used in Schachter and Singer’s study

A
  • 184 male students
    • ​studying introductory psychology
    • given two extra points on final exam (demand characteristics)
    • records cleared with Student Health Service
    • originally 185, 1 rejected the injection
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6
Q

Describe the procedure of Schachter and Singer’s study

A
  1. Taken to a private room, told the study was of the effects of vitamin supplement Suproxin on vision (deception)
  2. Instructions/info given depending on condition
  3. Pulse taken, injected with epinephrine/placebo
  4. Placed in room with stooge (euphoria/anger) for 20 mins (for ‘Suproxin’ to be ‘absorbed into bloodstream’), observed through one-way mirror
  5. Pulse taken, questionnaire given
  6. Debriefed, answered questionnaire on experiences with adrenaline and knowledge/suspicion of experiment
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7
Q

Describe the stooge’s behaviour in the euphoria and anger conditions in Schachter & Singer’s study

A

note: the stooge did not know which condition the subject was in

Euphoria

  • doodles, crumples and throws paper, basketball game, asks participant to join
  • paper plane, throws it multiple times, throws at subject
  • slingshot, manila folder tower, shoots at tower
  • hula hoop, hula hoop on arm, then sit with feet on table

Anger

  • introduction, stooge says he wished they’d told them about the shots
  • given 5-page questionnaire with personal/insulting questions (e.g. father’s income, mother’s extramarital relationships)
  • stooge’s comments become increasingly angry
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8
Q

Describe how the behaviour of subjects was coded in the anger and euphoria conditions of Schachter & Singer’s study

A

Coded into categories, scored:

  • Euphoria: joins activity, initiates new activity, ignores stooge, watches stooge
    • two observers independently coded 2 sessions
    • sum weighted scores for duration spent on activities – represents extent to which subject joined stooge’s activities
  • Anger: agrees, disgreses, netural, intiates dis/agreement watches, ignores
    • two observers indepdently coded 3 sessions
    • Positive anger index indicates subject agrees with stooges, negative indicates disagreement
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9
Q

Describe the self-report questionnaire given to the subjects after their time with the stooge in Schachter & Singer’s study

A
  • Mock questions about hunger, fatigue
  • 5-point Likert scale:
    • irritated/angry/annoyed
    • good/happy
    • palpitations
    • tremors
  • 4-point scale:
    • numbness
    • itching
    • headache
  • Open questions:
    • other physical & emotional sensations
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10
Q

Describe the results of the effects of epinephrine on bodily state in Schachter & Singer’s study

A
  • Increased pulse rate, palpitations & tremors
  • However, not equal effectiveness with all subjects
  • Epi Mis condition – mostly did not experience false symptoms (numbness, itching, headches)
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11
Q

Describe the results of emotions shown by the subjects in Schachter & Singer’s study

A

Euphoria

  • Epi Mis happiest (self-report score almost twice than Epi Inf): no explanation for state
  • then Epi Ign: comes up with own explanation of bodily state ∴ less susceptible
    • Subjects who made connection between injection and bodily state:
      • ​Epi Ign: 28%
      • ​Epi Mis: 16%
  • then Epi Inf - had explanation for bodily state

Anger

  • Self-report unreliable – subjects refused to endanger points gained for final exam, thus not admitting irritation until after experiment
  • willing to manifest anger when ‘alone’ with the stooge
  • Anger index for Epi Ign – positive and large
  • Epi Ign significantly angrier than Placebo – epinephrine leads to angrier state

Additionally:

For Epi Ign and Epi Mis, answers to open ended questions clearly attributed their physical state to their injection e.g. “the shot gave me the shivers”.

Thus the experimental procedure of injecting the subjects , by providing an alternative cognition, has, to some extent, obscured the effects of epinephrine.

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12
Q

Evaluate Schachter & Singer’s study

A
  • Generalisation: no for all states of physiological arousal; yes for any pronounced internal state for which no appropriate explanation is available, no; all male from same uni
  • Reliability: high; inter-rater reliability, standardised procedure, observation and self-report can be compared
  • Validity: low; demand characteristics in self-report, likert scale used, not assesed for emotion before the study, some subjects were suspicious; high; one-way mirror observation reduces demand char.
  • Ecological validity: low; lab
  • Ethics: yes; health checked, debriefed, right to withdraw; no; deception
  • Usefulness: yes; scientific knowledge
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13
Q

Describe the four stages of NREM sleep, and the stage of REM sleep

A

These stages progress cyclically from 1 through REM then begin again with stage 1. A complete sleep cycle takes about 90-110 minutes.

  • 1 & 2 - light sleep, irregular EEG
  • 3 - deeper sleep, regular wave patterns (delta waves)
  • 4 - deep sleep
  • REM - high energy, low voltage brain waves, eye movements, increased pulse, relaxed skeletal muscles
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14
Q

Describe 3 theories for why we dream

A
  1. Freud: reveals unconscious desires, enabling wishes to be fulfilled in the dream
  2. Cognitive: time is spent organising mental structures, reflecting on the day’s information
  3. Physiological: random firing of neurons create images we add meaning to
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15
Q

Describe the background of Dement & Kleitman

A
  • Aserinksy & Kleitman (1955) observed periods of rapid, conjugate eye movements during sleep
  • High incidence of dream recall when awoken during these periods & low incidence at other times
  • Confirmed in both normal Ss and schizophrenics
  • Wanted to test relation between eye movements and dreaming
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16
Q

List 3 methods of measuring sleep activity

A
  1. EEG: records brain activity
  2. EOG: records eye activity
  3. EMG: records muscle activity (not used in Dement & Kleitman)
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17
Q

What were the aims of Dement & Kleitman’s study? (see ‘approaches’ in original study)

A
  1. Test dream recall during rapid eye movement without direct contact between E and S
  2. Test the subjective estimate of the duration of dreams compared with the length of eye movement periods before awakening
  3. Relate the pattern of eye movements to the dream content to test whether they represented a specific expression of the visual experience of dreaming
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18
Q

Describe the method and sample of Dement & Kleitman’s study

A
  • Lab quasi-experiment with self-report
    • ​qualitative data: dream content
    • quantitative data: instances of dream recall, length estimate, no. of words used to describe dream
  • 7 adult males, 2 adult females
    • ​5 were studied intensively
    • minimal data from other 4 to confirm results
19
Q

Describe the procedure for Dement & Kleitman’s study

A
  1. Report to lab a while before their usual bedtime; instructed to eat normally but to avoid beverages containing alcohol or caffeine.
  2. Electrodes attached to face and scalp; connected to an EEG to record electrical changes caused by eye movement and to measure brain activity
  3. First test - dream recall: woken by a loud doorbell next to their bed; spoke into a tape recorder near the bed.
    1. State whether dreaming or not; if possible, report dream content. (only considered to have been dreaming if they could relate a coherent, fairly detailed description of dream content)
    2. Different waking schedules: two were woken up randomly, one was randomly woken but told he would be woken only during REM, one was woken three times during REM followed by three in N-REM, and so on.
    • To avoid experimenter effects, the experimenter did not communicate with participants at night. To avoid bias, the participants were not told about their eye movement after they were woken up.
  4. Second test - dream length: woken up either 5 or 15 minutes into an REM period; estimated dream length for 5 or 15 minutes.
  5. Third test - eye movement: woken if eye movement pattern lasted for at least one minute; asked to describe their dream content in detail
    • Mainly vertical movements
    • Mainly horizontal movements
    • Both vertical and horizontal movements
    • Very little or no movement
20
Q

Describe the results in Dement & Kleitman for the occurence of REMs

A
  • Observed in all Ss every night
  • Low-voltage, relatively fast EEG pattern
  • High-voltage, slow activity or spindles with a low-voltage background between REMs - deeper sleep
  • REM never occurred at the beginning of a sleep cycle.
  • REM periods that were not terminated by an awakening varied between three minutes to 50 minutes (mean: 20 minutes) and tended to increase as the night progressed.
  • REM periods occurred at regular intervals but each participant had their own pattern.
  • One REM every 70 to 104 mins (mean 92mins)
  • Frequency & regularity almost exactly comparable to uninterrupted sleep
21
Q

Describe the results in Dement & Kleitman for dream recall during REM vs NREM

A
  • High incidence of dream recall in REM awakenings (152/191 i.e. 80%)
  • Low incidence of dream recall in NREM (11/160 i.e. 7%)
  • 5/17 recalled in NREM 8 mins after REM
  • 6/132 recalled in NREM >8mins after REM
22
Q

Describe the results in Dement & Kleitman for the subjective dream duration estimates

A
  • All participants were able to choose the correct dream duration fairly accurately
    • 45/51 correct after 5mins
    • 47/60 correct aftere 15mins
  • Except for one participant who underestimated the duration - the dream was longer but he could only remember the latter fraction of it
  • Dream narratives after 30-50mins of REM not much longer than after 15mins - inability to remember details of long dreams
23
Q

Describe the results in Dement & Kleitman for the relation of eye movement patterns and the visual imagery of the dream

A
  • Periods of only vertical or horizontal eye movements were rare.
  • Virtual eye movements: standing at the bottom of a cliff to operate a hoist and looking up at the climbers, then down at the machinery; climbing up a series of ladders; throwing basketballs at a net
  • Horizontal eye movements: watching two people throwing tomatoes at each other.
  • In the 21 awakenings that occurred after a mixture of eye movements, participants were always looking at people or objects close to them (e.g. talking to a group of people or looking for something) and there was no recall of distant or vertical activity.
  • In the 10 incidents where participants showed little or no eye movements, the dreamers recalled watching something at a distance or just staring fixedly at an object.
  • In order to check the meaningfulness of the above relationships, 20 new naïve participants and five of the experimental participants were asked to observe distant and close-up activity while awake. Measurements from all these cases were comparable to those that occurred during dreaming.
24
Q

What conclusions were made from Dement & Kleitman’s study?

A
  • Dreaming + REM + low-voltage EEG occured periodically in discrete episodes during a night’s sleep (intrinsic part of sleep)
  • Eye movements correspond to dream imagery
  • Dreams occur at a rate similar to real life
25
Q

Evaluate Dement & Kleitman’s study

A
  • Generalisation: no; more males than females, all adult, however; argued that sleeping is physiological so should be generalisable
  • Reliability: high; supported by previous research, use of controls
  • Validity: low; no. of words used not a good measure of dream length, something else could affect low dream recall in NREM, cause-and-effect identification, high; use of EEG is objective
  • Ecological validity: low; lab, unnatural to sleep with wires connected
  • Ethics: high; ​right to withdraw, informed consent
  • Usefulness: yes; REM used as an objective measure of dreaming, investigate effects of variables on dreaming
26
Q

Define

semantic memory

A

Concept-based knowledge in our long-term memory. Is not related to our personal experiences, it simply includes general knowledge.

27
Q

Define

episodic memory

A

Specific and personal knowledge. A recollection of our personal past experiences in life and specific events that happened.

28
Q

Define

topographical memory and sequencing

A

Topographical: the ability to remember routes previously used and recognise familiar places.

Sequencing: the recollection of experiences or events in an ordered sequence.

29
Q

Describe the background of Maguire’s study

A
  • Humans use posterior areas of the brain in navigation, particularly using the hippocampus
  • London taxi drivers must train for around 3 years, so have extensive topographical knowledge
  • Previous studies indicate that experienced taxi drivers differ with respect to novices and the general public in their knowledge of shortcuts and minor streets, but not in the cognitive strategies used in way-finding
30
Q

Describe the aims of Maguire’s study (1997)

A
  • To examine semantic topographical memory retrieval.
  • To determine whether the recall of well-established spatial layouts activates similar brain regions found in other studies to subserve episodic topographical memory, particularly to the medial temporal region.
  • To assess the neural instantiation of landmark knowledge without any location information within a large-scale spatial layout.
  • To examine topographical memory (landmarks, spatial layouts) and non-topographic semantic memory retrieval to find out if common brain regions subserve semantic memory, regardless of the memory type.
31
Q

Describe the method and sample used in Maguire’s study

A
  • Lab, quasi experiment with repeated measures
  • Eleven qualified and licensed male London taxi drivers
    • self-selecting volunteers
    • right-handed
    • mean age 45 years (+-7)
    • no history of psychiatric/neurological illness
    • mean 14.55 years working (shortest 3 years)
    • all gave informed consent
    • approved by ethics commitee and Administration of Radioactive Substances Advisory Commitee
32
Q

Describe the experimental tasks used in Maguire’s study

A
  1. Baseline: repeating two 4-digit numbers
  2. Topographical sequencing: given start and destination in London, describe shortest legal route
  3. Topographical non-sequencing: recall & describe appearance of landmarks the subjects had never visited
  4. Non-topographical sequencing: recall & describe film plots between given points in the story line
  5. Non-topographical non-sequencing: recall & describe individual film frames
33
Q

Describe the brain scanning techniques used in Maguire’s study

A
  1. PET:
    • H215O bolus (20s) followed by saline flush (20s)
    • radioactivity measured over 90s
    • indicated regional cerebral blood flow, i.e. more active brain areas
  2. MRI:
    1. ​indicated brain structure
34
Q

Describe the procedure in Maguire’s study

A
  • Before experiment, completed questionnaire on which areas of London they were most familiar, very familiar films, individual landmarks
  • Pilot study with non-participating taxi drivers
  • Tasks each performed twice, with task order counterbalanced
  • PET & MRI scans used
  • Subjects were blindfolded throughout
35
Q

Describe the results shown in Maguire’s taxi driver study

A
  • All participants spoke for approximately the same amount of time.
  • There was a high level of accuracy in all tasks
  • Routes chosen by participants were very similar.
  • Participants said that they could visualise the paths, landmarks and films.
  • In every comparison of an experimental task against the baseline task, the cerebellum and the left temporal lobe became activated regardless of which experimental task was taking place.
  • The right hippocampus was only activated during the Routes Recall task.
  • Topographical: occipitotemporal areas, posterior areas, parahippocampal gyrus
  • Right hippocampus for complex environments
  • Semantic, non-topographical memory activated left inferior frontal gyrus, not hippocampus
36
Q

Evaluate Maguire’s study

A
  • Generalisation: no; all middle-aged male Londonders
  • Reliability: high; use of controls, backed by previous research
  • Validity: high; brain scans, counterbalancing
  • Ecological validity: high; real taxi drivers, routes recall task similar to real experience
  • Ethics: so ethical you cannot even imagine
  • Usefulness: yep; medical applications, scientific knowledge
37
Q

Describe the background and aim of Dematte’s study

A
  • Previous research involving attractiveness
    • facial symmetry
    • average prototype
    • relation of odor and rated sexiness / pleasantness
    • women rely on olfactory cues for mating more than men
  • Aim: investigate if olfactory cues affect judgements of attractiveness, and if odors easily associated with males have more effect than other odors not typically associated with males
38
Q

Describe the method and sample of Dematte’s study

A
  • Lab experiment with repeated measures
    • ​counterbalanced
    • IV: odours, facial attractiveness combination
    • DV: ratings of attractiveness (1-9)
  • 16 females
    • naive - deception
    • ​University of Oxford
    • mean age 26 years (20-34)
    • completed a confidential questionnaire to ensure normal sense of smell, no olfactory dysfunction, normal vision, general health & ability to perceive odours and colours
39
Q

Describe the apparatus used in Dematte’s study

A
  • Forty male faces (13x17cm)
  • Four odours chosen on the basis of pilot research, diluted in terms of perceived intensity:
    • male fragrence ‘Gravity’
    • synthetic body odour
    • rubber
    • geranium
  • Clean air
  • Computer-controlled olfactometer to deliver odourants
40
Q

Describe the procedure for Dematte’s study

A
  • sit 70cm from computer screen, chin on rest
  • look at fixation cross at centre of screen
  • quiet tone, 200ms, exhale
  • louder tone 1500ms later, also 200ms, inhale
  • odour delivered 500ms after tone
  • decide whether or not odor had been presented
  • 1000ms after, face appeared for 500ms
  • screen went black, odour terminated
  • 2000ms after, 9-point rating scale shown
  • rest for 5 min after every 40 trials
  • after sessions, rated odours on several dimensions from 1 to 100 on LMS
41
Q

Describe the presentation of faces and odours within trial blocks in Dematte’s study

A
  • 3 blocks of 40 randomised trials
  • divided into 4 subgroups of 10 faces each (5 attractive, 5 unattractive)
    1. clean air, geranium, body odor
    2. clean air, perfume, rubber odor
    3. clean air, geranium, rubber odor
    4. clean air, perfume, body odor
  • same odor never presented on consecutive trials
  • each face seen 3 times overall
42
Q

Describe the results found in Dematte’s study

A
  • Male faces less attractive when paired with an unpleasant odour
  • Unaffected by whether the odour was body relevant or not
  • Both pleasant and unpleasant odours perceived as smelling more intense
  • No significant difference between pleasant odours and clean air
  • All three were of equal familiarity
43
Q

Define

halo dumping

and suggest why Dematte is not an example of this

A

Referring to other sensory experiences when evaluating a sensory quality, i.e. expressing their like or dislike of the odour on the attractiveness scale

  • by making presentations of the odours brief they avoided any influence on the odours on mood interfering with face preferences
  • halo dumping mainly occurs with flavour perception where smell and taste are both important,smell and vision are not confused in the same way
  • the odour was detected at the beginning of the trial, attractiveness was rated at the end
  • attractiveness is an easy characteristic to consider with human faces
44
Q

Evaluate Dematte’s study

A
  • Generalisation: no; all females from Oxford
  • Reliability: high; many controls, standardised
  • Validity: high; counterbalancing, pilot study to choose odours, low; demand characteristics (would have figured out the task), possible halo dumping, very subjective
  • Ecological validity: low; static images, lab
  • Ethics: low; deception
  • Usefulness: high; advertising, however this may be reductionist

AS Psychology (8 decks)

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