Physiological Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
neuron
A
specialized cell directly involved in mental processes and behavior
present at birth
die at a rate of 10,000/day
neurogenesis = creation of new neurons
2
Q
State the three distinct components of a neuron
A
dendrite
cell body
axon
3
Q
dendrite
A
part of neuron
branch-like structure that receives information from other cells and conduct it toward cell body, which integrates info received
4
Q
cell body
A
receives input from dendrites and integrates and sends information to the axon
5
Q
part of the cell body
A
nucleus
mitochondria
ribosomes
Golgi complex
6
Q
mitochondria
A
sites where cell performs metabolic activities
7
Q
ribosomes
A
cell synthesizes new protein molecules
8
Q
Golgi complex
A
system of membranes that prepare neurotransmitters and other substances for secretion
9
Q
axon
A
transmits information from all body to other cells
usually only 1
covered by myelin sheath (fatty substance that acts as an insulator and speeds up conduction of nerve impulses)
made up of glial cells (hold neurons together, providing neurons with nutrients, remove cellular debris
10
Q
conduction
A
electrical process of transmitting messages from neuron’s dendrite to axon
there are resting states ( negatively charged on inside) and active states (where sodium channels open which allows for positively charged sodium to enter cell and creates depolarization
11
Q
action potential
A
electrical impulse that travels quickly through the cell
12
Q
repolarization
A
sodium channels close and potassium channels open, which allows charged K to leave the cecll
13
Q
all or nothing principle
A
whenever stimulation received by neuron exceeds a given threshold, resulting action potential will be same intensity
14
Q
chemical mediation
A
occurs when an action potential reaches axon terminal (synaptic transmission)
synaptic cleft- small gap between the axon terminal of presynaptic cell and receptor on the dendrite of postsynaptic cell
15
Q
List 7 different types of neurotransmitters
A
acetylcholine (Ach) dopamine norepinephrine serotonin gramma-aminobutyric acid glutamate endorphins
16
Q
acetylcholine
A
found in peripheral and central nervous systems and acts on 2 different receptors (muscarinic and nicotinic)
17
Q
how does acetylcholine act in the peripheral nervous system?
A
Ach is released in neurotransmitter junction where it causes muscles to contract
autoimmune disorder called myasthenia gravis attacks Ach receptors at neurotransmitter junctions resulting in profound weaknesses of skeletal muscles
18
Q
how does acetylcholine act in the central nervous system?
A
involved in REM sleep, regulation of sleep-wake cycle, and learning and memory
nicotine might enhance alertness by mimicking Ach @ nicotine receptor sites
degeneration of cholinergic cells in entorhinal cortex and other areas that communicate irectly with hippocampus is believed to underlie memory deficits with AD
19
Q
name a few examples of cholinesterase inhibitors used to slow memory decline and the mechanism of action
A
mechanism of action: slowing down the breakdown of Ach -tacrine (cognex) -donepezil (aricept) galantamine (reminyl) -rivasstigmine (exelin)
20
Q
dopamine
A
type of catecholamine (w/ epinephrine and norepinephrine)
involved in mood, memory, sleep, personality
21
Q
dopamine hypothesis
A
predicts that schizophrenia is due to elevated dopamine levels OR oversensitivity of dopamine receptors
22
Q
name a few disorders that are linked to dopamine
A
Tourette’s - oversensitivity to or excess DA in caudate nucleus
PD- degeneration of DA receptors in substantia nigra, and nearby areas, underlies the tremors, muscle rigidity, and other motor sx’s
-stimulant drug action (opiates, alc, nicotine) increase DA in mesolimbic system
e.g., cocaine blocks reuptake of DA at synpases
23
Q
norepinephrine
A
role in mood, attention, dreaming, learning, and certain autonomic fx’s
catecholamine hypothesis predicts that some forms of depression are due to lower than normal levels of it
24
Q
serotonin
A
exerts inhibitory effect
implicated in mood, hunger, temperature regulation, sexual activity, arousal, sleep, aggression, migraine headache
25
increased levels of serotonin --d/o
decreased levels of serotonin --d/o
increase levels --- schizophrenia, autistic d/o, food restriction 2/2 anorexia
decreased levels-- aggression, depression, SI, bulimia, PTSD, PCD, possibly social phobia too
26
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
plays a role in eating, seizure, anxiety disorders, motor control, vision, and sleep
evidence for role of GABA in motor control is provided by studies showing degeneration of cells that secrete GABA in basal ganglia contributes to motor sx's in Huntington's disease
decreased levels-- anxiety disorder, benzos, and other CNS depressants reduce anxiety by enhancing GABA
27
glutamate
excitatory neurotransmitter
roles in learning and memory- long-term potentiation (LTP): brain mechanism believed to be responsible for formation of LTM
excitotoxicity (excessive glutamate receptor activity)-- can lead to seizures and may contribute to stroke-related brain damage, Huntington's disease, AD, etc.
28
endorphines
inhibitory neuromodulators that lower sensitivity of postsynaptic neurons to neurotransmitters
analgesic properties, may be responsible for pain relief produced by acupuncture
may be due to ability to prevent release of P( transmission of pain impulses)
implicated in certain pleasurable experiences "runner's high", emotions, memory and learning, sexual behavior
29
what is the central nervous system made up of?
Brain structures
| spinal cord
30
brain structures in CNS
```
thalamus
pineal gland
cerebral cortex
corpus callosum
caudate nucleus
midbrain
cerebellum
medulla oblongota
pons
hippocampus
pituitary gland
hypothalamus
```
31
spinal cord (CNS)
made up of bundles of myelinated axons (nerve tracts) and dendrites, axons, and interneurons
carries information between brain and PNS, coordinates activities and L and R sides of body, and controls simple reflexes that do not involve brain
32
list and specific the types of nerve fibers that are in the spinal cord
dorsal horns-- carry sensory (afferent) message and are in the superior portion of the spinal cord
ventral horns-- carry motor (efferent) messages and are i the inferior portion of the spinal cord
33
how many segments is the spinal cord consist of and the 5 groups it is divided in
31 segments
from top to bottom: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal
34
quadriplegia
loss of sensory and voluntary motor fx in arms and legs
damage at cervical level
aka tetraplegia
35
paraplegia
loss of sensory and voluntary function in legs
| damage at thoracic level
36
complete transection
lack of sensation ad voluntary movement below level of injury
37
incomplete transection
some sensory motor function below level of injury are maintained
e.g., may have sensation in 1 limb or parts of body cannot be moved or may be able to move 1 limb more than other
38
peripheral nervous system
made up of nerves (bundles of axons) that relay messages between CNS and body's sensory organs, muscles, glands
12 pairs of cranial nerves that connect directly to brain
31 sets f sensory and motor nerves - spinal nerves that connect with spinal cord
39
what are the two divisions of the peripheral nervous system?
somatic nervous system (SNS)-
| autonomic nervous system (ANS)
40
somatic nervous system
sensory nerves that carry information from sense receptors to CNS and motor nerves that carry information from CNS to skeletal muscles
governs activities that are ordinarily voluntary
41
autonomic nervous system
comprised of sensory nerves that convey signals from receptors in viscera to CNS and motor nerves that carry signals from CS to smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands
associates with involuntary activities, biofeedback, hypnosis, and other techniques
42
what are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system?
sympathetic
| parasympathetic
43
sympathetic nervous system
arousal and expenditure of energy
e.g., reaction to external threat0 sympathetic branch causes dilation of pupils, inhibition of peristalsis, dry mouth, sweating, high BP, increased heart rate
44
parasympathetic nervous system
conservation of energy, active during digestion and periods of ret and relaxation
meditation, hypnosis, biofeedback, and other responses foster "relaxation response"
45
the sympathetic and parasympathetic NS usually function _______________
cooperatively
e.g., during sex, parasympathetic mediates erection in males while sympathetic stimulations ejaculation
46
Name the five main stages of development of the human brain
1. proliferation
2. migration
3. differentiation
4. myelination
5. synaptic genesis
47
proliferation
new cells produced inside neural tube beginning when embryo is 2.5 weeks old
48
migration
immature neurons migrate to their final destination at around 8 weeks
once cells reach their destination, they begin to aggregate with other cells to form structures of the brain
49
differentiation
neurons initially look very much like other cells of the body, but following migration develop axons and dendrites
50
myelination
axons of some neurons myelinate, which occurs when glial cells form an insulating sheath around cell's axon
occurs postnatally
51
synaptic genesis
forming of synapses
depends on specific area of brain, but most occur postnatally
appears to be influenced by BOTH endogenous (genetic) and exogenous (experience) factors
52
apoptosis
natural pruning process in which neurons that are initially overproduced are pruned during prenatal development and for several years following birth
53
List and briefly describe the steps to evaluate spinal cord injuries and disease
1. initial starts with a spinal x-ray (can identify fractures, dislocations, or other injuries to bone/spine
2. MRI (permits evaluation of soft tissues of spinal column
3. computer tomography with myelogram (injecting a dye into spinal canal may be used to obtain more detail about the extent of the injury)
4. electromyography (EMG), somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEP), or other electrodiagnostic monitoring (to determine if injury or disease has impacted conduction of nerve signals in spinal cord
54
List the two major types of neuroimaging techniques
- structural
| - functional
55
list and briefly describe the 2 types of structural neuroimaging
A. computed tomography (CT) AKA computerized axial tomography (CAT)
-utilizes X-rays to obtains images of horizontal slices of brain tissue
B. MRI
-provides cross sectional images of brain by using magnetic fields and radio waves
56
Advantages and disadvantages of MRI vs. CT
Advantages: does not use X- ray, better resolution and more detailed images, images at any angle (not just in horizontal plane), 3-D pictures of brain
Disadvantages: more $$, may require sedation
57
Name and briefly describe the three main types of functional neuroimaging
1. Positron-emission tomography (PET)-- injected with radioactive trace substance that is taken up by active brain cells
images provide information on regional cerebral blood flow, glucose metabolism, and oxygen consumption
correlates with neural activities and used to determine cerebrovascular disease (although early stages of AD may not be detected with it)
identify brain areas that are active during performance of ordinary tasks and experience of ordinary emotions
2. Single proton emission computed tomography (SPECT)-- similar to PET but has lower resolution
3. fMRI-- MRI + info on brain activity (blood oxygenation); images have better temporal and spatial resolution
58
List the three major divisions of the brain
hindbrain
midbrain
forebrain
59
name the three major structures of the hindbrain
medulla (in brainstem)
pons (in brainstem)
cerebrellum
60
medulla
(in hindbrain)
flow of information between spinal cord and brain
coordinates swallowing, coughing, sneezing
regulates vital functions: breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure
damage = fatal
61
pons
(hindbrain)
| connects 2 halves of cerebellum and plays role in integration of movements to R and L sides of body
62
cerebellum
(hindbrain)
important for balances and posture
vital for performance of coordinated and refined movement (along with basal ganglia and motor cortex)
timing and coordination of motor movements and correct of errors
also impacted by sensorimotor learning and some aspects of cognitive function
**abnormalities linked to: autism, schizophrenia, ADHD
**ataxia
63
ataxia
damage to cerebellum
slurred speech, severe tremors, loss of balance
mimics the effects of EtOH consumption
64
what is the major function of the midbrain and list the three major structures
send neural information between brain and spinal cord
1. superior and inferior colliculi
2. substantia nigra
3. reticular formation
65
superior and inferior colliculi
superior--- routes for VISUAL information
| inferior--- routes for AUDITORY information
66
substantia nigra
motor activity; plays a role in the brain's reward system
67
reticular formation
extends from spinal cord through the hindbrain and midbrain into the hypothalamus in forebrain
consists of over 90 nuclei that are involved with: respiration, coughing, vomiting, posture, locomotion, and REM sleep
contains the reticular activating system
68
reticular activating system
(in reticular formation in midbrain)
vital to consciousness, arousal, wakefulness
screens sensory input (esp during sleep)
arouses higher centers in brain when important information must be processed
damage can disrupt sleep/wake cycle and produce permanent coma-like state
69
What are the two major divisions of the forebrain?
cortical vs subcortical structures
70
name the subcortical structures of the forebrain
thalamus
hypothalamus
basal ganglia
limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate cortex)
71
name the cortical structures of the forebrain
Cerebral cortex (which is comprised of L and R lateralization and the 4 lobes- frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital)
72
thalamus
(part of forebrain)
motor activity, language, memory
"relay station" that transmits incoming sensory information to appropriate areas of cortex for all senses EXCEPT olfaction
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome can occur if there is damage to this area
73
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
damage to thalamus
due to thiamine deficiency (usually caused by EtOH); causes atrophy to certain areas
begins with Wernicke's encephalopathy (mental confusion, abnormal EMs, ataxia)
then followed by Korsakoff's encephalopathy (severe anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia, confabulation)
74
hypothalamus
small brain structure
vital fxs: thirst, sex, sleep, body temperature, movement, and emotional reactions
emotions--- damage may cause uncontrollable laughter or intense rage/ aggression
monitors body's internal states and initiates responses needed to maintain homeostasis thorugh influence on ANS, pituitary, and other endocrine glands
75
name the two structures in the hypothalamus
suprachiasmatic nucleus
| mamillary bodies
76
suprachiasmatic nucleus
in hypothalamus
| regulates sleep-wake cycle and circadian rhythym
77
mamillary bodies
memory and learning
78
name the three structures of the basal ganglia
caudate nucleus
putamen
globus palladus
79
describe the primary functions of the basal ganglia
planning, organizing, coordinating voluntary movement, regulating amplitude and direction of motor action
plays a role in sensorimotor learning and in stereotyped, species-specific motoric expression of emotional states (e.g., smiling when happy, frowning when sad, running when afraid)
disorders: Huntington's disease, PD, Tourette's, OCD, ADHD, mania, depression, O-C like sx's, psychosis
80
list the three main structures in the limbic system
amygdala
hippocampus
cingulate cortex
81
amygdala
integrates, coordinates, directions motivational and emotional activities, attaches emotions to memories, involved in recall of emotionally charged experiences
involved in formation of flashbulb memories (vivid, detailed memories of highly emotion-arousing event)
acquisition of classically conditioned emotional responses
82
Describe Kluver and Bucy's (1938) research on the amygdala in chimps
bilateral lesions in amygdala and temporal lobes of primates
lead to decreased fear and aggression, increased docility and compulsive exploratory behaviors, altered dietary habits, and hypersexuality
**Kluver-Bucy syndrome aka "psychic blindness"-- inability to recognize significant or meaningful events or objects
83
hippocampus
learning and memory
processing spatial, visual, and verbal information and consolidating declarative memories (converting STM to LTM)
may be in charge of forming visual images
84
what is a form of treatment for severe epilepsy?
bilateral removal of temporal lobes (which includes the hippocampus)
side effects- can cause anterograde and retrograde amnesia for events occurring up to 3 years before surgery
85
cingulate cortex
surrounds the corpus callosum
attention, emotion, perception ,and subjective experience of pain
anterior cingulate cortex- transmission of pain signals, role in emotional response to pain
86
what is the primary brain structure associated with the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex?
corpus callosum--- several bundles of fibers that connect the R and L hemispheres
allows information sent directly to 1 hemisphere to be available to other hemisphere is severe and the 2 hemispheres would then operate separately
87
describe contralateral representation of the brain
L hemisphere controls the function of the R side of the body and vice versa
the EXCEPTION is olfaction, in which olfactory signals from the R nostril go directly into R hemisphere and signals from L nostril go into L hemisphere
VISION- crossed pathways, in which visual information from each eye goes to BOTH sides of hte brain
- info from R visual field in each eye--- L hemisphere
-info from L visual field in each eye -- R hemisphere
88
describe brain lateralization
aka hemispheric specialization; apparent to some degree at birth
95-99% of R handed people and 50-60% L handed people are L hemisphere dominant
```
Dominant hemisphere (usually L)--- logical and analytical thinking, written and spoken language
Non-dominant (usually R)--- understanding of spatial relationships, creativity, and facial recognition
```
89
split-brain patients
people whose corpus callosum has been severed as a tx for severe epilepsy
surgery reduces seizures and produces no significant change in intelligence, memory, motivation, or ross motor skill
90
describe Sperry and Gazzinga's (1967) study on split-brain patients
when a picture of an object was projected to their L visual field, (information going to R hemisphere only), only patient could pick the object out of 10 hidden behind a screen using L hand
patient unable to name or describe the object and was unable to pick 10 objects with R hand
BUT--- when picture was projected to patient's R visual field (so info goes to L only), the patient could name the object and pick it out with R hand but unable to select object with L hand
91
describe dichotic listening task
study language lateralization and presents the individual with 2 sequences of digits, 1 sequence to each ear
people typically recall more digits heard by the ear that is contralateral to their dominant hemisphere
92
neuroimaging studies on hemipsheric dominance with GENDER
on language-related tasks, only L hemisphere was active for male participants
L an R hemisphere were active for majority of female participants
93
Name the 4 lobes of the cortex
frontal
occipital
temporal
parietal
94
Name the five major areas of the frontal lobe
```
primary motor cortex
supplementary motor area (SMA)
premotor cortex
Broca's area
prefrontal cortex
```
95
primary motor cortex
(frontal lobe)
located on precentral gyrus
associated with execution of movement
large portion of neurons are dedicated to movement in fingers, lips, and jaw
damage can result in loss of reflexes and flaccid hemiplegia (loss of muscle tone) in areas of body contralateral to damage
96
supplementary motor area
planning and control of movement
role in learning new motor sequences in conjunction with primary motor cortex, prefrontal cortex, inferior parietal cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum, mediates motor imagery (mental representation of movement)
97
premotor cortex
anterior to primary motor cortex
| important for control of movement in response to external (sensory stimuli)
98
Broca's area
major motor speech area and located in inferior frontal region (usually on the L)
damage to this area produces Broca's (expressive) aphasia--- difficulties in producing spoken and written language
99
prefrontal cortex
variety of complex behaviors --- emotions, memory, attention, self-awareness, and higher-order cognitive (ex fx)
damage to cognitive functions: may impair performance on problem-solving and creativity but little to no effect on IQ
linked to schizophrenia, ADHD, dementia
100
name the three major areas of the prefrontal cortex
dorsolateral area
orbitofrontal area
mediofrontal area
101
damage to the dorsolateral area of the prefrontal cortex
dorsal convexity dysexecutive syndrome
impaired judgment, insight, planning, and organization
sx: concrete and perseverative, trouble learning from experience, neglect hygiene, decreased sexual interest
102
damage to the orbitofrontal area of prefrontal cortex
orbitofrontal disinhibition syndrome aka pseudopsychopathy
emotional lability, distractibility, poor impulse control, impaired social insight
may exhibit explosive aggressive outbursts or inappropriate jocularity, engage in unusual or inappropriate sexual behaviors, make lewd comments
103
mediofrontal area damage in prefrontal cortex
mesial frontal apathetic syndrome aka pseudodepression
impaired spontaneity, reduced emotional reactions, diminished motor behavior and verbal output, LE weakness, sensory loss
describe selves as bored or lacking in motivation. may seem depressed but don't have vegetative symptoms, negative cognitions, or dysphoria
104
parietal lobe
contains somatosensory cortex
located on postcentral gyrus and governs pressure, temperature, pain, proprioception, and gustation
electrical stimulation elicits warmth, tingling, and other sensations to different parts of the boddy
105
parietal lobe damage symptoms
```
disturbances in spatial orientation
apraxia (inability to perform skilled motor movements in absence of impaired motor function)
somatosensory agnosia (inability to recognize certain components of the senses)
```
106
tactile agnosia
damage to parietal lobe
| inability to recognize familiar objects by touch
107
asomatognosia
damage to parietal lobe
| failure to recognize parts of one's own body
108
anosognosia
damage to parietal lobe
| inability to recognize one's own neurological symptoms
109
lesions on R (non-dominant) parietal lobe
contralateral neglect-- loss of knowledge about or interest in left side of boddy
110
lesion on L (dominant) hemisphere of parietal lobe
a. ideational apraxia- inability to carry out a sequence of actions
b. Gerstmann's syndrome- finger agnosia, R-L confusion, agraphia (inability to write), acalculia (inability to perform simple math problems)
111
list the two major areas of the temporal lobe
auditory cortex
| Wernicke's area
112
auditory cortex
in temporal lobe
| lesions can cause auditory agnosia, auditory hallucinations, and other disturbances in auditory sensation and perception
113
Wernicke's area
located in temporal love
| lesions: severe deficits in language comprehension and abnormalities in language production
114
temporal lobe information in general
certain areas of temporal lobe mediate encoding, retrieval, and storage of LT declarative memories
electrical stimulation can elicit complex, vivid memories that have been previously forgotten
lesions: retrograde and anterograde amnesia for semantic and episodic memories
115
occipital lobe
contains visual cortex, so in charge of visual perception, recognition, and memory
posterior portion: high-resolution macular vision (i.e., visual signals received by area in central retina)
anterior portion: peripheral vision
116
damage to occipital lobe
visual agnosia, visual hallucinations, cortical blindness
```
specifics:
apperceptive visual agnosia
associative visual agnosia
simultagnosia
prosopagnosia
```
117
apperceptive visual agnosia
damage to occipital lobe
| when person is unable to perceive objects despite intact visual acuity
118
associative visual agnosia
damage to occipital lobe
when person is unable to recognize objects he/she is focusing on as result of impaired memory or inability to access relevant semantic knowledge
119
simultanagnosia
L occipital lobe damage that results in inability to see 1+ things or aspects of an object at a time
120
prosopagnosia
lesion at junction of occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes
inability to recognize familiar faces
121
Name the two primary theories of color vision
Young-Helmholtz's trichromatic theory
| Hering's opponent-process theory
122
Young-Helmholtz's Trichromatic Theory of color vision
3 types of color receptors (red, blue, green)
| colors are produced by variations in activity of these 3 receptors
123
Hering's opponent process theory of color vision
there are three types of bipolar color receptors (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black)
some cells are excited by red and inhibited by green, etc. so overall pattern of stimulation of cells produces various colors we perceive
**supported by phenomenon of negative after images- seeing an image in its complementary color after staring at it for a period of time and then looking at a neutral background
124
color blindness
often the result of a genetic defect and can be caused by injury and disease
affects 1+ of the 3 cone types (red-green**most common, blue-yellow, complete)
the inherited form results from a gene on the X chromosome in which females who are colorblind need to inherit it from BOTH parents whereas males who are colorblind inherit it from their mother (colorblind or carrier)
125
congenital vs central achomatopsia
congenital: inherited form of complete color blindness caused by lack of function of cone cells
central: complete colorblindness caused by a lesion in the brain, usually the occipital-temporal region
126
depth perception
combination of binocular and monocular cues
binocular- convergence and retinal disparity
responsible for depth perception of objects at relatively close distances
monocular- depth perception for objects at greater distances; includes relative size of objects, interposition (overlap of objects), linear and atmospheric perspective, and motion parallax
127
define both convergence and retinal disparity (features of binocular cues)
convergence- turning inward of eyes as object gets closer, and vice versa
retinal disparity- 2 eyes see objects in world from 2 different views. the closer the object the greater the disparity of the two images
128
motion parallax (monocular cue in depth perception)
relative movement of objects at different distances when perceiver chcanges position
129
Describe the 3 major steps in which olfaction occurs
1. airborne molecules are received by olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity
2. sends signals through olfactory nerve to the olfactory bulb--- acts as a relay station for olfactory info
3. olfactory bulb forwards info to several areas of brain (primary olfactory cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala)
130
the function of the primary olfactory cortex in olfaction
processing and integrating olfactory signals
131
the function of the orbitofrontal cortex in olfaction
conscious perception of odors
132
the function of the amygdala in olfaction
olfactory memory
133
cutaneous senses include:
pressure (touch), warmth, cold, and pain
focus on: dermatomes and pain
134
dermatomes
area of body innervated by dorsal root of segment of spinal cord
axons that carry information from cutaneous receptors gather together in nerves that enter spinal cord through dorsal roots
e.g., ring an little fingers represent 1 dermatome and innervated by 8th cervical nerve
**adjacent dermatomes overlap so that damage to a nerve usually causes diminished sensation vs. complete loss of sensation in corresponding nerve
135
pain
not linked with a single type of stimulus but is elicited by several kinds of stimuli including pressure, heat, and cold
may be affected by other phenomena--- like depression, anxiety
can be reduced by--- relaxation, hypnosis, distractions
affected by age: older adults with chronic pain tend to report lower intensity and fewer symptoms of depression
136
Gate Control Theory of Pain (Melzack, 1973)
nervous system can only process a limited amount of sensory information at any given time
too much information receive can lead to cells in spinal cord acting as a gate that blocks incoming pain signals
phenomena that can close gate: massaging injured area, applying heat/cold, engaging in distractive mental activities
137
active vs. passive coping strategies for pain
active - exercise, physical therapy, distractions, ignoring pain
passive- restricting social activities, resting in bed, taking meds for immediate relief, "wishful thinking"
**active strategies usually associated with decreased levels of reported pain and increased improvement in psychological and physical functioning**
138
synesthesia
"joining senses"
rare condition where stimulation of 1 sensory modality triggers a sensation in another sensory modality
e.g., hearing a color, tasting a shape
may be attributed to: limbic system "cross-wiring" or excessive neural connections in sensory regions of brain
139
psychophysics
study of the relationship between physical stimulus magnitudes and corresponding psychological sensations
140
name the two primary psychophysical laws
absolute threshold (minimum stimulus needed to produce sensation)
```
difference threshold (smallest increment in stimulus intensity needed to recognize discrepancy between 2 stimuli)
AKA just noticeable difference (JND)
```
141
state the three laws associated with the just noticeable difference (JND) of psychophysics
Weber's law
Fencher's law
Steven's Power law
142
Weber's law of JND
the more intense the stimulus, the greater the increase in stimulus intensity required for the increase to produce a JND
e.g., predicts that if 1 gram must be added to 10 g for an increase in weight to be detected, then 10 g would have to be added to 100 g for an increase to be perceived
143
Fencher's law of JND
extension of Weber's
physical stimulus changes are logarithmically related to psychological sensations
claims that it can determine precise relationship between magnitude of a stimulus and magnitude of an associated sensation
144
Steven's Power Law of JND
attempt to overcome Weber's and Fencher's inability to work for stimulus intensities that are extreme
makes it possible to describe a sensation as an exponential function of stimulus intensity
--- participant would assign numbers to stimuli proportional to relative sensations
e.g., possible to predict that doubling intensity of light less than doubles sensation of light's brightness; while doubling intensity of an electric shock more than doubles the physical sensation
145
Describe the case study of H.M.
had a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy in order to treat severe epilepsy
specific portions removed: medial portions of both temporal lobes, amygdala, and hippocampus
impairments: forming new long-term memories AKA anterograde amnesia
memory for events that occurred a few years before surgery AKA retrograde amnesia
146
List the 3 major brain mechanisms that are associated with memory
```
temporal lobes
hippocampus
amygdala
prefrontal cortex
thalamus
basal ganglia (with cerebellum and motor cortex)
```
147
temporal lobes as a mechanism of memory
also differentiate between R and L hemispheric temporal lobe functions
encoding, storage, and retrieval of long-term declarative memory
Right hemisphere- nonverbal memory (e.g., face recognition, spatial position, maze-learning, emotional memories)
Left hemisphere- verbal memory (recall of word lists and stories, recognition of words and numbers)
148
hippocampus as a mechanism of memory
consolidating LT declarative memories (transferring info from ST to LT) but NOT for subsequent storage of those memories
degeneration: memory loss with normal aging and with dementia AD
Alzheimer's Dementia- buildup of plaque here (as well as buildup in amygdala and entorhinal cortex)
chronic stress due to depression, poverty, and other factors may impair memory as a result of effects of cortisol and other stress hormones in this area
149
amygdala in memory mechanisms
fear conditioning and emotional significance to memories
| responsible for recall of traumatic events, may contribute to PTSD
150
prefrontal cortex as a mechanism of memory
episodic memory, prospective, constructive, and false recognition memories
damage: incorrectly think new info is familiar
damage to dorsolateral prefrontal is linked to schizophrenia
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thalamus as a memory mechanism
processing incoming information and transferring to cortex
damage- anterograde and retrograde amnesia, confabulation
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basal ganglia, cerebellum, and motor cortex as a memory mechanism
procedural memory and implicit memory
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Two major neural mechanisms in memory
long-term potentiation
| protein synthesis
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Long-term potentiation (LTP) of neural mechanism of memory
greater responsivity of postsynaptic neuron to low-intensity stimulation by presynaptic neuron for hours, days, weeks after presynaptic neuron has been barraged by high-frequency stimulation
-first observed a glutamate receptors (NMDA)--- in hippocampus but also in amygdala and cortex
may mediate LTM by causing changes in number and shape of cell's dendrites, promoting new synaptic connections and increasing glutamate receptors
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protein synthesis as a neural mechanism of memory
important for LTM during minutes or hours following learning
increased protein synthesis during post-training period and inhibiting synthesis of protein or RNA at time of training can prevent formation of LTM even when short-term and intermediate-term memory are unimpaired
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list the two major components to language as it pertains to brain anatomy
brain asymmetry
| aphasia
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brain asymmetry in language
L hemisphere-- typically dominant for language
R hemisphere- capable of some language functions, as damage can lead to impairments in prosody, syntax, and pragmatic (social) language skills
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define aphasia and the 5 main types
impaired language production and or comprehension as result of brain damage
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Broca's
Wernicke's
Conduction (associative)
transcortical
global
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Broca's aphasia
aka expressive, motor, nonfluent aphasia
damage to Broca's area (dominant hemisphere is usually L frontal lobe)
speak slowly and with great difficulty
speech is poorly articulate and lacks normal stress, intonation, or rhythm (disprosody)
frequently omit conjunctions, pronouns, prepositions, and endings of nouns/verbs
exhibit anomia--- inability to name a common or familiar object, attribute, or action
difficulty reading phrases, especially those with prepositions or conjunctions
***difficulty producing spoke and written language but comprehension is only somewhat impaired
**usually aware of impairments and experience frustration, anxiety, depression
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Wernicke's aphasia
(receptive, impressive, sensory, and fluent aphasia)
caused by damage to Wernicke's area- usually located in dominant (L) temporal lobe
trouble understanding written language and spoken language and generating meaningful language
speech is rapid, seems effortless, and exhibits appropriate syntactical structure but is largely devoid of content
usually exhibit anomia, paraphrasia (substitution of words related in sound or meaning to intended words)
problems with repetition
usually unaware that speech is meaningless
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conduction (associative aphasia)
anomia, paraphrasia, and impaired repetition
| damage to the arcuate fasciculus - connects Wernicke's and Broca's areas
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transcortical aphasia
lesions outside Broca and Wernicke's areas that disconnect these areas from other regions of the brain
include transcortical motor (damage to Broca's-- nonfluent, effortful speech, lack of spontaneous speech, and anomia with unimpaired repetition or comprehension)
and transcortical sensory (damage to only Wernicke's with deficits in comprehension, anomia, and fluent but meaningless speech)
and mixed transcortical (both Broca and Wernicke's are damaged; able to talk but have nothing to say and are unable to understand written and spoken language. can produce autonomic responses like singing familiar songs, repeat words/phrases/sentences spoken by others)
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global aphasia
widespread brain injury involving Broca's and Wernicke's areas as well as other areas in L frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes
extensive disruption in ability to produce automatic speech (especially emotional exclamations)
R hemiplegia, R hemisensory loss, and R hemianopia (loss of R visual field in both eyes)
164
list the 6 basic emotions
fear, anger, disgust, joy/happiness, surprised, sadness
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list the four major theories of emotion
James-Lange
Connon-Bard
Two-Factor (Schacter and Singer, 1962)
Cognitive-Appraisal (Lazarus, 1991)
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Describe the James-Lange theory of emotion
stresses the importance of peripheral factors and proposes that emotions represent perceptions of bodily reactions to sensory stimuli
support from this theory: quadriplegic and paraplegics who received limited neural information from bodies and often report feeling less intense emotions after injuries
167
Describe the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
greater emphasis on brain mechanisms that mediate emotion
proposes that emotional and bodily reactions to stimuli occur simultaneously as result of thalamic stimulation of the cortex and PNS
supported by research: showing bodily reactions are fairly similar for all emotions, which suggests that emotional experience does not reflect differences in bodily arousal
168
Describe the two-factor theory of emotion
describes subjective emotional experience as consequences of combination of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal and environmental context in which it occurs
"epinephrine study"- participants interpreted unexplained arousal in terms of behavior exhibited by confederate who waited with them for an experiment to begin
169
Describe the cognitive-appraisal theory
attempts to reconcile physiological universals with individual differences by proposing that emotions are universal but that there are differences in how emotion-arousing events are interpreted or appraised
psychobiological principle: if a person appraises his/her relationship to environment in a particular way, then a specific emotion which is tied to appraisal pattern always follows
implication of this principle: when 2 people make the same cognitive appraisal, they will experience the same emotion, regardless of the nature of actual environmental events
--when two people make different appraisals of the same event, they will experience different emotions
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Describe the three types of cognitive appraisals
1. Primary- a person's evaluation of a situation as irrelevant, positive benign, or stressful with regard to his/her well-being
when a situation is identified as stressful, will also be identified as harm-loss, threat, or challenge
outcome of primary appraisal depends on individual beliefs, values, and expectations
e.g., 1 event may be considered demeaning or dangerous by 1 individual but benign by another
2. Secondary- person's evaluation of resources he/she has o cope with a situation has been identified as stressful (e.g., social support, material resources, level of energy)
3. Re-appraisal- occurs when a person monitors the situation and modifies his/her primary and secondary appraisals
171
List the three major brain mechanisms in emotions
cerebral cortex
amygdala
hypothalamus
172
Describe what Paper's circuit is as it pertains to emotions
consists of the hippocampus, mamillary bodies, anterior nuclei of thalamus, and cingulate gyrus
it is suggested that this circuit mediates the experience and expression of emotion
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cerebral cortex and it's role in emotion
L and R hemispheres play different roles:
L hemisphere: happiness, positive emotions
damage to it (esp L frontal lobe) causes severe depression, anxiety, aggression, and paranoia
R hemisphere: mediates sadness, fear, and other negative emotions
damage (esp R parietal or temporal) results in indifference, apathy, emotional lability, and/or undue cheerfulness and joking
Cerebral cortex is usually dominant for recognition and expression of emotion and usually show more intense emotions on L side of face
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amygdala and it's role in emotion
KEY role in attaching emotion to memory, evaluates incoming sensory information, determines its emotional importance, ad mediates the emotional response to information
responsible for immediate feeling of fear we experience when faced with a dangerous or threatening situation
electrical stimulation can produce fear and/or rage response, while lesions can result in lack of response to situations that would ordinarily elicit strong emotions
175
hypothalamus and it's role in emotion
influence on ANS and pituitary gland
involved in translation of emotions into physical responses (physiological signs of fear and excitement)
damage to certain areas elicit rage response whereas others elicit uncontrollable laughter
176
List the three major stages to stress proposed by Selye's (1956) General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
alarm reaction
resistance
exhaustion
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alarm reaction (GAS) in stress
in response to stress, hypothalamus activated adrenal medulla to increase the release of epinephrine (adrenaline)
body's glucose level rises and heart and respiration rates accelerate, thereby increasing body's energy level
178
resistance (GAS) stress
if stress persists, breathing and heart rates return to normal levels, but hypothalamus signals pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
ACTH activates adrenal cortex to release stress hormone cortisol which maintains blood glucose levels and increases metabolism of fats and proteins
179
exhaustion in GAS theory of stress
pituitary gland and adrenal cortex lose ability to maintain elevated hormone levels with prolonged stress
physiological processes begin to break down fatigue, depression, and illness (leg ulcers HTN) and in extreme cases death may occcur
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what are some of the long-term effects of chronic stress
decreased resistance to disease (e.g., respiratory virus people are 2x more likely to develop cold symptoms when stressed
impact of prolonged stress is in part due to chronically elevated levels of corticosteroids
compromised immune system by decreasing production of lymphocytes (esp T cells) and antibodies (body's major defenses vs virus, bacteria, other antigens)
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Type A bx pattern that occurs in response to stress
highly competitive, achievement oriented, have a sense of time urgency, tend to be hostile, easily irritated, and impatient
cynical or antagonistic hostility is MOST associated with health problems ,especially CAD in males
