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Physiology 001 > Physiol Lab Quiz 4: Labs 10,11,12 > Flashcards

Physiol Lab Quiz 4: Labs 10,11,12 Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the following volumes: tidal volume

A

Tidal volume (TV): The amount of gas inspired or expired in an unforced respiratory cycle
— In other words… the normal amount of air in and out at rest
* = 500 mL

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2
Q

Describe the following volumes: inspiratory reserve volume

A

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): The maximum volume of gas that can be inspired during forced breathing in addition to tidal volume
— In other words… after a normal breath in, the IRV is the EXTRA air that could be breathed in

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3
Q

Describe the following volumes: expiratory reserve volume

A

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): The maximum volume of gas that can be expired during forced breathing in addition to tidal volume
— In other words… after a normal breath out, the ERV is the EXTRA air that could be breathed out

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4
Q

Describe the following volumes: residual volume

A

Residual volume (RV): The volume of gas remaining in the lungs after a maximum expiration
— In other words.. the air that still in the airway

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5
Q

Describe the following capacities & name the volumes of air each capacity consists of: total lung capacity

A

Total lung capacity (TLC): The total amount of gas in the lungs after a maximum inspiration
TLC = TV + IRV + ERV + RV

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6
Q

Describe the following capacities & name the volumes of air each capacity consists of: vital capacity

A

Vital capacity (VC): The maximum amount of gas that can be expired after a maximum inspiration
VC = TV + IRV + ERV

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7
Q

Describe the following capacities & name the volumes of air each capacity consists of: inspiratory capacity

A

Inspiratory capacity (IC): The maximum amount of gas that can be inspired after a normal tidal expiration
IC = TV + IRV

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8
Q

Describe the following capacities & name the volumes of air each capacity consists of: functional residual capacity

A

Functional residual capacity (FRC): The amount of gas remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal expiration
FRC = ERV + RV

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9
Q

Calculate percentage change (percent increase or percent decrease)

A

% change = [ (new-old)/old ] x 100
- % increase = positive number
- % decrease = negative number

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10
Q

Calculate percent predicted

A

% predicted = (actual/expected) x 100

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11
Q

Distinguish hypoxemia vs. hypoxia

A

Hypoxemia: When oxygen partial pressure goes below 60 mmHg in the BLOOD; deficiency of O2 in blood
Hypoxia: Hypoxia is the lack of oxygen in tissues

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12
Q

Memorize the carbonic acid reaction

A

CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3-

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13
Q

Describe the law of mass action

A

— If we have A LOT of CO2 (hypoventilation), the chemical equation (carbonic acid reaction) will be driven to the RIGHT, forming more H+ ions, which will decrease pH, making it more acidic (pH < 7); higher concentration

— But if we have TOO LITTLE CO2 (hyperventilation), it will drive the equation to the LEFT, reducing the amount of H+ ions (increasing the pH) and making it more basic (pH > 7); lower concentration

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14
Q

Memorize the pH range classified as acidosis vs. alkalosis

A

Normal blood pH is 7.4
* Acidosis: anything LOWER than 7.35
* Alkalosis: anything GREATER than 7.45

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15
Q

Which muscles contract during eupnea?

A

ONLY your diaphragm and external intercostal muscles are contracting and relaxing

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16
Q

Which additional muscles contract during forced respiration and during what part of forced respiration?

A

Forced respiration: when you are breathing deeply and rapidly
— Forced inspiration:
* Scalenes
* Sternocleidomastoid
* Pectoralis minor (elevates the ribs/widen the rib cage)
~ This increase the thoracic volume, while decreasing the pressure of the thoracic cavity
— Forced expiration:
* Internal intercostals (depress and decrease the lateral volume of the rib cage)
* Abdominal muscles (push the abdominal viscera against the diaphragm, further reducing the volume of the thoracic cavity)
~ This increases the pressure and forces air to flow out of the lungs

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17
Q

With the following values: TV=500ml; IRV=1.5L; ERV=2L; RV=1L ; what are the different lung capacities? (Show your work)
* L for capacities
* mL for volume

A

Vital Capacity (VC) = TV + IRV + ERV
→ 500ml = 0.5L
→ 0.5L + 1.5L + 2L = 4L

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) = ERV + RV
→ 2L + 1L = 3L

Inspiratory Capacity (IC) = TV + IRV
→ 500ml = 0.5L
→ 0.5L + 1.5L = 2L

Total Lung Capacity (TLC) = TV + IRV + ERV + RV
→ 500ml = 0.5L
→ 0.5L + 1.5L + 2L + 1L = 5L

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18
Q

What are the differences between restrictive vs obstructive disorders?

A
  • Restrictive disorders: a decrease in vital capacity since the lungs cannot fully fill with air or there is damage that decreases the vital capacity. Even though the vital capacity is decreased, the rate of forced exhalation is normal
  • Obstructive disorders: a slower rate of forced exhalation because of bronchoconstriction but can have a normal vital capacity
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19
Q

What test will you perform to test each type of disorder?
a. Restrictive disorder:
b. Obstructive disorder:

A

a. Restrictive disorder - Spirometry (vital capacity)
b. Obstructive disorder - By measuring the patient’s forced expiratory volume (FEV1), which is the percent of vital capacity that is exhaled within the first second

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20
Q

What is the chemical equation to form carbonic acid?

A

CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3-

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21
Q

What happens to the chemical equation when you hold your breath?

A

Holding our breath = LOTS of CO2; the chemical equation will be driven to the RIGHT, forming more H+ ions, which will decrease pH, making it more acidic
H2O + ↑CO2 → (↑) H2CO3 → (↑)H+ + (↑)HCO3-

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22
Q

Distinguid hypocapnia vs hypercapnia

A

Hypocapnia - not enough CO2; less than 37 mmHg
Hypercapnia - too much CO2; greater than 43 mmHg

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23
Q

What condition(s) might occur if you hold your breath for too long in regards to:
a. pH
b. CO2
c. O2

A

a. pH - ↓ pH ; Respiratory acidosis
b. CO2 - ↑ ; Hypercapnia
c. O2 - ↓ ; Hypoxemia

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24
Q

What are the normal values for pH, CO2, and O2? What is normal saturation of oxygen in hemoglobin in arterial blood?

A
  • pH - 7.4
  • CO2 - 37-43 mmHg in arterial blood
  • O2 - 95 mmHg in arterial blood; around 40 mmHg in venous blood
    — The hemoglobin of erythrocytes is typically at 97% or 98% saturation of oxygen in arterial blood
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25
Q

Name the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction to form carbonic acid

A

Carbonic anhydrase

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26
Q

How does breathing deeply and quickly affect the chemical equation for carbonic acid when we breathe deeply and quickly?

A

Decrease in CO2 concentration, decreases carbonic acid concentration, which decreases concentration of H+ & HCO3- , which increases pH.
H2O + ↓CO2 ← H2CO3 ← (↓)H+ + (↓)HCO3-

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27
Q

Why is breathing in a paper bag helpful when someone has been breathing too quickly and deeply?

A
  • The person loses too much CO2 when breathing too quickly and deeply
  • The paper bag will catch the CO2 being breathed out and the person can rebreathe the CO2 in the bag back into their blood
  • Increase CO2 in blood
28
Q

Distinguish eupnea vs. apnea vs. Dyspnea

A

~ Eupnea: normal breathing
~ Dyspnea: difficult time breathing; subjective
~ Apnea: No breathing

29
Q

Identify the spirometry test used to assess if a person has an obstructive disorder & memorize the value used to make this assessment

A

Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV1) test: Individual breathe in as much as they can and breath out as quickly as the can
— Measures % of vital capacity exhaled in 1st second
— Criteria: <80% = PRESENCE of obstructive pulmonary disease

30
Q

Identify the spirometry measure used to assess if a person has a restrictive disorder & memorize the value used to make this assessment

A

Tested through: Spirometry; Vital capacity
— Vital capacity low (<80%) of predicted value on repeated tests
* NOTE: vital capacity forcibly exhaled is normal

31
Q

Compare the relative response time (from fastest to slowest) for chemical buffers vs. respiratory system vs. urinary system when it comes to pH changes

A

Fastest → Slowest
Chemical buffers (w/n fraction of a second), Respiratory System (minutes), Urinary system (hours to days)

32
Q

Name the 3 parts of the nephron where H+ secretion occurs

A
  1. PCT
  2. DCT
  3. CD
33
Q

Name the 2 parts of the nephron where filtered bicarbonate is indirectly reabsorbed

A
  1. PCT
  2. Ascending limb of nephron loop
34
Q

Memorize the normal range for urine pH

A

Normal: urine pH 5-7

35
Q

Name the 2 substances that help buffer H+ in urine & describe why they are needed

A
  1. Phosphates
  2. NH3 (ammonia): from amino acid catabolism
    ~ Buffers are needed to get excess H+ into urine.
    * If H+ is free/not attached to a buffer, it will contribute to pH
    * But if H+ is attached to buffer, it will NOT contribute to pH
    ~ Having buffers also excretes excess H+ into urine
36
Q

Which particles are reabsorbed vs secreted in the PCT?

A

Reabsorbed:
* Na+
* Cl-
* Glucose
* Urea
* HCO3- (indirectly)
* Water
* Other ions and molecules

Secreted:
* H+
* Other ions and molecules

37
Q

What is reabsorbed in the ascending limb of the nephron loop?

A

Reabsorbed (thick segment):
* Na+
* K+
* Cl-
* HCO3- (indirectly)

38
Q

Which particles are reabsorbed vs secreted in the DCT?

A

Reabsorbed:
* Na+
* Cl-
* H+
* HCO3-
* Water

Secreted:
* H+
* HCO3-

39
Q

What is NOT directly reabsorbed/secreted by the DCT and why?

A

HCO3- is indirectly reabsorbed and secreted since the apical surface of our DCT cells do not have channels to transport HCO3-

40
Q

What is reabsorbed by the collecting duct?

A

Reabsorbed:
* Water
* Urea
* H+
* HCO3-

41
Q

What are the cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus and what does each cell do?

A
  • Juxtaglomerular (JG)/granular cells: vasoconstrict or vasodilate controlling the amount of blood entering the glomerulus and forming the filtrate
    — Vasoconstriction = decrease in glomerular filtration rate
    — Vasodilation = increase in glomerular filtration rate
    — Also secretes renin when it detects a decrease in blood pressure, which will ultimately cause an increase in blood pressure through the activation of angiotensin II and aldosterone
  • Macula densa: detect the ion concentration of the filtrate and release paracrine molecules to regulate the glomerular filtration rate; cells part of nephron loop
    — If there is too much ions in the filtrate, it will send paracrine molecules to JG cells to vasocontrict (decrease glomerular filtration rate), allowing more time for reabsorption to occur
42
Q

What is the RAA/RAAS system? What is its purpose?

A

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone-System (RAAS): Increase blood pressure
— If the JG cells detects low blood pressure, it releases renin. Renin will convert angiotensinogen within the blood into angiotensin I. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) within the lungs and within the endothelial cells of the blood vessels will convert angiotensin I into angiotensin II

43
Q

What does angiotensin II do? (5)

A

~Activating the cardiac and vasomotor centers of the medulla oblongata to increase heart rate and stroke volume and vasoconstriction.
~ Vasoconstricting the afferent and efferent arterioles (a decrease in the glomerular filtration rate); allowing more time for reabsorption of ions and water within the nephron, increasing the blood volume and blood pressure; but decrease our urine output.
~ Targeting the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone, which targets the DCT and CD to increase Na+ reabsorption, causing reabsorption of water by osmosis, which increases blood volume and blood pressure. This will decrease our urine output
~ Targeting the hypothalamus to stimulate the thirst center to increase water intake, increasing blood volume and blood pressure.
~ Targeting the hypothalamus to release ADH at the posterior pituitary, which targets the CD of the kidneys to increase the amount of aquaporins for water reabsorption, increasing the blood volume and blood pressure. This will decrease our urine output.

44
Q

What does ADH do? Include the target structure that it will affect.

A

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Increases blood volume and blood pressure; targeting the CD
— When there’s a decrease in blood pressure or increase in blood osmolarity, the blood pressure is detected by the baroreceptors of the carotid sinus and aorta and the osmolarity is detected by the osmoreceptors of the hypothalamus.
— ADH is then released from the posterior pituitary. ADH targets the CD to increase the amount of aquaporins, so more water reabsorption can occur, increasing blood volume and pressure. It also causes vasoconstriction in addition to increasing blood pressure. This will decrease our urine output.

45
Q

Which hormone helps lower blood pressure? How does it do this? (5)

A

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP): Decrease blood pressure; released when there is high blood pressure and stretching of the heart
— Effects:
~Targets the cardiac center and vasomotor center of the medulla oblongata to decrease heart rate and stroke volume and vasodilation to lower blood pressure.
~ Vasodilating the afferent arteriole and vasoconstricting the efferent arteriole to increase the glomerular filtration rate, preventing the filtrate to be reabsorbed, decreasing blood volume and pressure. This will increase our urine output.
~ Inhibits renin and aldosterone secretion. This will decrease our blood pressure. In regard to aldosterone, this will decrease our Na+ reabsorption, decreasing water reabsorption, decreasing blood volume and blood pressure. This will increase our urine output.
~ Inhibits ADH secretion, decreasing water reabsorption, decreasing blood volume and blood pressure. This will increase our urine output.
~ Targets collecting ducts to inhibit Na+ reabsorption, decreasing water reabsorption, decreasing blood volume and blood pressure. This will increase our urine output.

46
Q

What three ways does our body regulate our pH?

A
  • Buffers
  • Ventilation
  • Kidneys
47
Q

Which is quicker to adjust our blood pH: by ventilation or by our kidneys? Which is more effective?

A
  • Ventilation can occur much QUICKER than the effects of the kidneys.
  • The kidneys are MORE EFFECTIVE in regulating the pH, since its effects are longer lasting.
48
Q

What term is used to analyze our urine?

A

Urinalysis

49
Q

How much blood should we see in our urine? Why?

A

Blood should NOT appear in urine since the renal corpuscle should prevent erythrocytes from passing through
— However, the presence of blood may be because of kidney disease or damage OR from menstruation if occurring on a women

50
Q

What is specific gravity? What might affect that?

A

Specific gravity: The ratio of the density of a particular substance compared to distilled water; Distilled water has a specific gravity of 1.000
—The normal urine specific gravity should be between 1.001 (diluted urine) – 1.028 (concentrated urine)
— Depending on what the person ate or drank, more solutes ingested will increase the specific gravity.

51
Q

How much glucose should we see in our urine? Why?

A

Glucose should NOT appear in our urine since glucose should have been reabsorbed in the PCT
— However, the presence of glucose in urine (glycosuria), means that the amount of glucose in the filtrate was greater than the ability to reabsorb it in the PCT, which usually occurs with people with diabetes mellitus.

52
Q

Memorize the normal range for urine specific gravity & interpret what it means if the specific gravity is closer to the lower end vs. higher end

A

Normal urine specific gravity:
1.001 (diluted urine) – 1.028 (concentrated urine)

53
Q

Distinguish the type of monomer that makes up the following macromolecules: Glycogen

A

Glucose

54
Q

Distinguish the type of monomer that makes up the following macromolecules: Starch

A

Glucose

55
Q

Distinguish the type of monomer that makes up the following macromolecules: Proteins

A

Amino acids

56
Q

Distinguish the type of monomer that makes up the following macromolecules: DNA

A

Nucleic acids

57
Q

Distinguish the type of monomer that makes up the following macromolecules: Nucleic acids

A

Nucleotides

58
Q

What will happen to the enzymes if the temperature get too hot or if they are not in their optimal pH?

A

If the body temperature gets too hot, or the pH differs too much, these enzymes will denature and stop functioning

59
Q

What is another word for deglutition?

A

Swallowing (of food)

60
Q

What does bile do? Where does it get produced vs stored?

A

Bile: Helps EMULSIFY triglycerides; makes the fats into smaller fatty droplets
~ Produced - Hepatocytes (liver)
~ Stored - Gallbladder

61
Q

Distinguish what biomolecule does the following enzyme test for: Lugol’s Iodine

A

Starch (Polysaccharides)

62
Q

Distinguish what biomolecule does the following enzyme test for: Benedict’s solution

A

Monosaccharides (glucose)

63
Q

Distinguish what biomolecule does the following enzyme test for: Biuret reagent

A

Peptide bonds (Protein)

64
Q

Distinguish what biomolecule does the following enzyme test for: Sudan IV

A

Triglycerides (Lipids)

65
Q

Distinguish what biomolecule does the following enzyme test for: Litmus

A

Triglycerides (Lipids) ; OR pH [H+]

66
Q

Distinguish what biomolecule does the following enzyme test for: Paper towel

A

Lipids

67
Q

What is total minute volume? Know how to calculate it.
EX: Patient has a respiratory rate of 12 breaths/min and a tidal volume of 500 ml

A

Total minute volume or total pulmonary ventilation = TV x Respiratory Rate

12 breaths/min x 500 ml/breath
= 6,000 ml/min OR 6L / min

Physiology 001 (8 decks)

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