Physio/Pshycopharm Flashcards
III. Oculomotor
Eye morvements
Temporal Lobes
Function: Receptive language, Long-term memory, emotion, Involves suditory cortex, hearing and speech
Damage: Problems with Auditory Perception, changes in sexuality, deficits in declarative memory (especially episodic), faulty judgement, impaired concentration and Wernicke’s aphasia
Serotonin
- Functions w/i the brain include:
- Mood control
- regulation of sleep
- sexual behavior
- anxiety
- pain perception
- body temp
- blood pressure
- hormonal activity
- Functions outside the brain
- Effects gastrointensinal and cardiovascular systems
- Located in midbrain and over the CNS
- Decreased amounts in depression
- Decreased amounts in anxiety
Nervous System - 3 Systems
- Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- Endocrine System
Neurotransmission at the synapse
Electrical signals are converted to chemical signignals at the synapse
Left Hamisphere
Function: Verbal, Logical
Damage: slow, cautious behavioral style
Action Potential
- An elaborate signaling mechanism neurons have that is based on their selective permeability to certain ions and their flow through channels and pumps in the plasma membrain. Resting neurons have a negative membrain protential, caused by steady outflow of potassium ions and impermeability to sodium ions, and the action potential represents transient changes in this resting membrain potential.
Synapse
- Tiny gap between neurons where information is passed from one to another
- Where neurotransmitters are released
- Neurons communicate with eachother at the synapse electrical signals are changed to chemical signals in the form of neurotransmitters, which diffuse across the synapse and become electrical sugnals one again upon reaching the neighboring neuron
- neurotransmission at the synapse
Cerebral Cortex
- The outer layer of grey matter covering the entire surface of the cerebral hemisphere
- Made of of euron and supporting cells (glial cells)
- Functions to correlate information from many sources to maintain cognitive function (all aspects of perceiving, thinking and remembering)
Peripheral Nervous System
- Nerves outside the skull and spine
- Cranial Nerves; Spinal Nerves; Autonomic Nervous System, Somatic Nervous System
- The PNS communicates sensory info to the CNS and then transmits commands from the CNS to the body
Occipital - Right Hemisphere
Concerned with perception
- contain right portion of primary visual cortex crucial for perception of left visual field
- neccessary for recognition of objects
- visuospacial perception and orientation to space
Norepinephrine (NE)
* Catecholamine
- Modulates behavioral and physiological processes such as mood, arousal, sexual behavior
- Decreased amounts on depression
- Excessive amounts in schizophrenia
Neuron
- Most important part of the nervous system
- The basic unit of the nervous system, each has a cell body, dendrites and an axon
- Specialized for the conduction and transmission of electrical sugnals
- Neurons do not function in isolation; they are assembled into circuits that innervate the body to transimit sensory and motor signals to all aread of the body
- The structure of neurons, including the axons and dendrites, help to form these circuits
Most important neurotransmitters
- Norepinephrine
- Dopamine
- Acetylcholine
- Glutamate
- GABA
- Serotonin
Action Potential Process
- The openning of voltage-sensitive channels in the membrain allows sodium ions to move down the concentration gradient to enter the cell
- This produces the rising phase of the action potential, and means that the membrain potential, and means that the membrain potential becomes positive for a short time
- The falling phase of the action potential is caused by the subsequent closing of the sodium channels, which reduce the sodium influx, and by oppening the voltage-gated potassium channels which alows incereased influx of potassium ions from the cell, to restore the resting membrain potential
- In most nerve cells, action potentials are followed by a transient hyperpolarization
- During this time, the influx of pottasium ions from the cell is greater than during the resting state and, as a consequence, the membrain is hyperpolarized with respect to its normal resting value.
IX. Glossopharyngeal
Sensory and motor nerve for the tongue and pharynx/throat, taste
Injurred: impaired swollowing; resonance disorder
Right Hempisphere
Function: Artistic and musical abilities
Damage: Quick, impulsive behavior style
Amygdala
- Responsible for anxiety, emotion, and fear
- Integrates and directs emotional behavior
- Attaches meaning to sensory experiences
- Mediates aggressive/defensive behavior
GABA
- Most commone inhibitory NT
- controls anxiety
- located in brain
- Agonists such a Valium can act as tranquilizers, drugs that block this can start seixures
Dendrites
- Input zone
- Specialized for receiving information and form synapitic contacts with the terminals of other nerve cells to allow nerve impulses to be trnasmitted
- Receives info from other cells through dendrites
- One of the extensions of the cell body that are receptive surfaces of the neuron
- tree-like extensions
Frontal Lobe - Left Hemisphere
Function: Language/verbal, speach and spelling and language comprihension and prodiction
Important in encoding information into memory, involved in spacial problem solving, task switching response production, and semantic processing of words, important for memory of verbal recency
Damage: pseudodepression apathy, lower verba outpu, lower emotional expression, and decreased sexual function
II. Optic
Sense of vision
The Endocrine System
- Interacts with many body organs including the brain
- Incoming sensory stimuli elicit nerve impulses that go to the several brain regions, including the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and hypothalamus
- If the stimulus requires action, energy is mobalized through hormonal routes (hypothalamus)
- Many behaviors require eural and hormonal communication.
IV. Trochlear
Eye movements
Action Potential Stages
- Resting Potential
- Depolarization - threshhold
- Action Potential
- Hyperpolorazation
- Resting Potential
Adrenal Glands
Influence the body’s response to stress
Depolarization
For most types of axons, depolarization iniciateds the action potential and causes a transient change in the membrain that briefly switches its permeability from that allowing the passage of potassium ions to that allowing the passage of sodium ions.
Glutamate
- An excitatory neurotransmitter dound in the central nervous system
- Generally concerned to be the most important neurotransmitter for normal brain function and it is estimated that over half of the neurons in the brain release glutamate
- Precursor of gamma acid in the brain
- Some receptors are associated with learning and memory; Glu - responsible for excitoxicity
- prolomged depolarization kills cells
Neurotransmitters
- A chemical messenger that enables neurons to pass signals to each other and thus allow the body to function properly
- Electrical signals are converted to chemical signignals at the synapse (this is known as neurotransmission at the synapse)
- they play an important role in the development of brain disorders and in their treatment
Corpus Callosum
- Allows communication between the right and left hemispheres
- Involve in language learning
Electrical vs. Chemical Signals
A biolelectrical signal (action potentil) is initiated at a synapse and travels along the axon to the axon terminal. Here the elsectical signal is converted to a chemical signal (neurotransmitter) that diffuses out of the neuron, across the synalse, to its neighboring neuron. at the postsynaptic neuron the chamical signial is converted back into and electrical signal once again. Together, these two signaling systems (action potentials and synapse signals) are the basis for all information processing capabilities in the brain.
Pineal Gland
Responds to exposure to light and regulates activity levels over the course of the day
I. Olfactory
Sense of smell
Occipital - Left Hemisphere
Concerned with perception
- neccessary for recognition of objects and words
- concernned with extraction of speech information from visual sources
- contains left protions of primary visual cortex crutial for perception of right visal field
Forebrain
- Function to control
- cognitive
- sensory and motor
- regulates temp, reproductive function, eating, sleeping and display of emotion
- Largest protion of the brain
- Consists of the cerebral hemisphere, the lymbic system, the thalamus and the corpus callosum
Thyroid Gland
Hormone that reduces concentration and leads to irritability when the thyroid is overactive, and can cause drowsiness and sluggish metabolism
Myelin
- The fatty insulation around the axon formed by glial cells, that improves speed of conduction of nerv impulses
- Prevents sodium (K+) from leaking out of axon so membrane is depolarized quickly and action potential regenerates at nodes of renvier
- In persons w/ MS, the mylelin becomes damaged or destroyed, and the impulse transmission is impaired.
Occipital Lobes
Controls vision
Dopamine (DA)
* Monoamine
- Controls arounsal level
- Located in CNS
- Excessive amounts in schizophrenia
- Decreased amounts in Parkinson’s
Cingulate Gyrus
- Concentrates attention on adverse internal stimuli such as pain
- Contains the feeling of self
- Located in corpus callosum
Gonads
Reproductive glands
Up-Regulation
Increase number of receptors
Receptor
- A membrane protein structure consisting of an electrical binding site for a neurotransmitter or hormone
- Binding for a specific substance to the receptor results in a specific physiological effect
Brain structure involved in memory
- Prefrontal
- Cortex (STM)
- Hippocampus (STM which leads to LTM)
- Temporal Lobe (LTM)
- Thalamus (spatial memory)
Cerebellum
Function:
- controls movement
- motor coordination
- posture and maintaining equalibrium
- balance
- muscle tone
- learning motor slills
- Walnut shaped structure situated at base of brain
Frontal Lobe - Bilateral Funnctions
Function: executive functioning, control of behvior, working memory functioning, facial motor and snesory functioning.
Ability to learn from experience (associative learning).
Has projections to amygdola and hypothalamus (cruicial for emotional functioning)
Resonpsible for self-awareness and autobiographical knowledge.
Implicated in spacially guided behavior.
XI. Spinal Accessory
Movement of the neck and sholders
Injury: Impaired posture and neck tonicity
Thalamus
Relays incoming information to the appropriate part of the brain for further processing
Frontal Lobe - Right Hemisphere
Function: Nonverbal facial expressions and verbal and design fluency - retrieval of episodic information from memory.
Involved in auditory discrimination, self-paced response production, task-switching, semantic processing of words, and spacial problem solving
Damage: gross social dysfunctio, immature behavior, lack of social restraint, hyper-motor activity, and promiscuity
Endocrine System: Many behaviors require neural and hormonal communication
Example: A stressful situation is percieved through neural sensory channels. Hormonal secretions then prepare the individual to respond with energy… Anxiety is a normal emotion under circumstances of threat. It is part of the evolutionary “fight or flight” survival reaction. The muscular movements are controlled neurally, while energy is mobalized hormonally.
Pituitary Gland
Controls blood pressure, regulates the smount of water in the body’s cells, Oxytocin triggers the action of other endocrine glands
X. Vagus
Sensory and motor nerve for the internal body organs (heart, blood, vessels, etc) and for the larynx/pharnx
Injury: voice disorder
Neurotransmitter
- electrical signal
- chamical signal
chamical signal
Hypothalamus
- Body homeistasis
- Circadian rhythm
- eating
- drinking
- sex
- Translation of strong feeling into responses
- Shallow breating; racing heart
- Control of autonomic and endocrine system
- It secretes corticotrophin releasing hormone, which helps to control the body’s metabolismby exerting an influence on the pituitary gland, and vasopressin, which is involved in the regulation of the sleep and wake states
Prefrontal Cortex
- Inhibits innapropriate action
- forms plans and concepts
- helps focus attention
- bestows meaning to perception
Frontal Lobe
Function: Voluntary movement, thinking, feeling, concentration, reasoning, expressive language. Orientation to time, person, place
Damage: Impulsivity, Broca’s aphasia
Action Potential
- electrical signal
- chamical signal
electrical signal
Parietal Lobe
Functions: Receiving and processing touch/pressure, kinesthesia and pain; contains the primary somatosensory area that manages skin sensation; integrates sensory information
Damage: Unusual complex-sensory and mortor problems; Unaware or unconcerned about problems ; apraxia; face and tactile agnosia; problems describing visual/spacial information.
Monoamine Hypothesis of Depression
States that there is a decreased concentration of monoamines (epinephrine, norepinepherine, thyroid hormones, melatonin) in brains of people with depression. Although it’s now thought that in deprssion there may be an increrase in the overall number of postsynaptic receptors, rather than a decrease in the number of monamine moecules. This upregulation of receptors would result in an increased concentration of monamines being needed to produce a response.
Parts of the brain in the Limbic System
- Caudate Nucleus
- Cingulate Gyrus
- Thalamus
- Pituitary Gland
- Amygdala
- Hypothalamus
- corpus Callosum
- Hippocampus
Alternative depression theories
- Antidepresents may cause an increase in the sensitivity of postsynaptic receptors, and that reduced concentration of neurotransmitter can produce a response that is closer to the norm
- Another theory is that depression increases the sensitivity of presynaptic autoreceptors that moderate monamine release via a feedback mechanism. As a result, less of the neurotransmitter needs to be released before production is “switched off”
- Some theories link depression to a lack of stimulation of the recipient neuron at the synapse. to stimulate the recipient cell, SSRIs inhibit the reuptake of seritonin. As a result, the serotonin stays in the synaptic gap longer than it normally would, and may be recognized again (and again) by the receptors of the recipient cell, stimulating it.
Caudate Nucleus
- Part of the brain linked with impulsivity, which is correlated with the size of the caudate nucleus
- Function:
- involved in movement
- emotions
- planning and integrating sensory information
- primary site of initiation of movement
Down-regulation
Decrease number of receptors
XII. Hypoglossal
Movement of the tongue
Injury: articulation disorder
