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Geography A Level > Physical geography exam: (Water, Coasts, Carbon) > Flashcards

Physical geography exam: (Water, Coasts, Carbon) Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the pros and cons of water transfer projects?

Example of the the South-North Water Transfer project, China

A
  • it can provide water for the Bejing region of China, to keep up with demand and help their worsening water scarcity
  • will boost economic development in Bejing
  • will reduce abstraction of groundwater, helping to protect the falling water table

But…

  • cost is 70 billion
  • will submerge land and means that 345,000 will be displaced
  • risks draining too much water from the South, which is also experiencing scarcity
  • some routes run through heavy industry so is likely to be more polluted
  • critics suggest that with better water management this project is not needed (better irrigation techniques, rainwater harvesting would improve water supply)
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2
Q

What are the pros and cons of mega dams?

Example of the 3 Gorges Dam, China

A
  • power generated by 34 generators is equivalent to large amounts of crude oil or coal, generates HEP for China’s economic growth
  • designed to control flooding, improve water supply by regulating river flow
  • enables surplus water to build up and be diverted to northern china (via SN Transfer project)

But….

  • expensive
  • huge amounts of land were flooded to form the reservoir, displacing people and villages (1.3 million)
  • decomposing vegetation not cleared out from the reservoir when it was drained produces methane (GG)
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3
Q

What are the pros and cons of desalinisation plants?

Example of Israel’s desalinisation project

A
  • can provide a reliable supply for large settlements, large amounts of potable water produced
  • aims to provide 70% of Israels domestic water supplies by 2020
  • some plants use solar power to boil the water

But…

  • produces vast amounts of brine that has to be released back into the sea which can harm ecosystems
  • each plant requires its own power station to boil water, CO2 emissions
  • they still have to import water on Turkey so still somewhat reliant
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4
Q

What is Smart irrigation and where is it used as an example?

A

Smart drip irrigation/micro-irrigation
Gives crops just enough water (sub optimal water levels, fertigation uses less fertilisers to reduce env. impacts) to be high yielding without wasting water, no overwatering or over fertilising
in Australia, 60% less water is used with no effect to the yield
Example is ISRAEL (ISRAEL IS VERY HOLISTIC)
- drip systems allow water to move slowly into plant roots using pipes
- also have charged ‘real value’ prices for water to reflect supply costs which include ecosystem management, discourages waste

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5
Q

What is Water recycling and where is it used as an example?

A

Using recycled sewage water for agriculture or purified water for drinking
Example is SINGAPORE
- water scarcity as much of their 80% of water supplied by Malaysia
- NEWater scheme, used water that is treated and further purified making it ultra-clean and safe to drink, can meet up to 30% of water needs
- also do collect rainwater through local catchment areas

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6
Q

What is Rainwater Harvesting and where is it used as an example?

A

Can be done on any scale, households collect rainwater
Example in UGANDA
- WaterAid initiative, builders construct rainwater harvesting jars on roofs, made from local materials
- can allow them to store water for drier periods
- sustainable and successful, can provide stable water source for many years, bottom up
(1,500 litres of water stored)
- has social benefits as children have more schooling time, equity and fairness, community benefits

  • but does not help agriculture or industry, relies on rainy season still being reliable, suffers from an arid climate
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7
Q

What are some other sustainable water management strategies?

A

ATTITUDINAL FIXES: price of water control to reduce consumption, charges to reflect actual costs
VIRTUAL WATER: involves importing water in the form of crops instead of using their own water for irrigation

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8
Q

What are the three main causes of meteorological drought?

A
  • Global Atmospheric circulation system and ITCZ
  • Mid latitude blocking anticyclones
  • ENSO cycle
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9
Q

Physical reasons for the Millennium drought in Australia

CASE STUDY

A

El Nino events:
- in 2002/03 and 2006/07, partly responsible for these conditions (2/3rds of rainfall deficit)

STR:

  • strengthening of high pressure belt called the STR may have accounted for 80% of the rainfall decline.
  • high pressure ridge blocked depressions reducing frontal rain
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10
Q

How can Global Atmospheric circulation/STR lead to drought-like conditions?

A
  • the migrations of the ITCZ can bring dry and wetter seasons to the tropics of Cancer + Capricorn
  • the Sub tropical high pressure zone (STR) associated with the descendHadley cell air can block the rain bearing air masses that arrive with the ITCZ
  • dense and stable, can bring drought to areas like the Sahel
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11
Q

How can Mid Latitude Blocking Anticyclones increase drought?

A
  • high pressure areas can move northwards when loops of the Jet Stream break up, moving to the 30 - 60 degree areas
  • very stable and not easily moved, can last for up to 2 weeks
  • rain bearing depressions are then forced around them causing drought for countries like the UK
  • bring dry weather, heatwaves, reduced rainfall
    EXAMPLE: Summer 2018 in the UK
    hosepipe bans, temps. in excess of 30 degrees
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12
Q

What happens during an El Nino event?

A
  • trade wind patterns are disrupted and trade winds reduce or slacken (happens around December) which affects the push of water in the sea
  • may even reverse, effecting ocean currents in the Pacific
  • cool water normally moving west/south america then reverses and moves eastwards, towards Asia and Australia
  • creates dry conditions in the East and wet conditions in the West
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13
Q

How can El Nino events lead to drought?

A
  • Indonesia gets drier, increased forest fires, struggle to grow crops due to water shortages
    -> rice and grain harvests face droughts leading to food shortages
  • Peru gets wetter, typhoons and cyclones fuelled, fisheries in S America suffer
  • Monsoon rains in India and SE Asia often fail
    > can cause Teleconnections: (climate anomalies connected over large distances) affects droughts elsewhere e.g. Sahel
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14
Q

How will climate change affect rates of runoff?

A
  • in the NH, earlier arrival of springlike conditions is leading to earlier peaks in snowfall and river flows
  • more low flows and high flows
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15
Q

How will climate change affect stores such as permafrost and soil moisture?

A

Permafrost: increase in air and oceans temps. leading to permafrost deregulation + degradation in northern areas
deepening of active layer is releasing more groundwater
Soil moisture: increased drying of land surface in some areas due to higher temps., increased severity of droughts (Sahel)
- in certain areas, soil moisture has increased (Southern SA and USA)

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16
Q

How will climate change affect inputs such as precipitation?

A
  • lower atmosphere is becoming warmer, evaporation rates increase, increased amount of moisture circulation
  • high water vapour concentrations increasing frequency of intense precipitaion events
  • more precipitation falling as snow
  • length and intensity of drought periods has increased
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17
Q

How will climate change affect stores such as Ice and Lakes/wetlands, snow?

A

Ice: glacial reatreats, downwasting (thinning of glacier) has accelerated, less snowfall, dwindling cryosphere supply (Andes have seen most rapid changes/tropical high lat. glaciers)
Snow: length of snow cover season has decreased, melt occurring earlier (affecting river regimes)
Wetlands: decreasing water volumes, higher temps., cannot always be directly linked to climate change
Lakes: regional changes here are linked to regional climate changes

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18
Q

Why is there uncertainity of future climate change?

A
  1. sheer complexity of the atmospheric system (ENSO cycles + sunspots increase data complexity)
  2. uncertainty over role of tipping points (positive feedback affects, rate of sea ice disappearing and SLR)
  3. inconsistent results from climate models, changes in rise of population demography (plateau expected but when?)
  4. insufficient and incomplete data
  5. uncertainty over the amount of carbon that will be released (new reserves, pop., tech) and the affects of these on temperature
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19
Q

What happens during a La Nina event?

A
  • the strengthening of normal trade winds so normal conditions are made more extreme
  • increases upwelling of cooler water in the West
  • can lead to stronger drought problems in the Americas
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20
Q

What is Integrated drainage basin management?

A

= aims to establish coordination whereby all players are involved in management and it creates a strategy that meets all needs
(leads to a balanced and accepted approach)

21
Q

What is the UN water sharing framework?

A

United nations economic commission for Europe
established in Helsinki in the 1990s
helps with cooperating and resolving issues
says water resources are a natural resource/socio-economic good/integral for ecosystems

22
Q

What is the EU water sharing framework?

A

Water framework Directive (WFD) and Hydropower
Berlin, 2000
sets targets to restore rives, lakes, canals etc, to good conditions
all members need to ensure the status of their water bodies

23
Q

COLORADO RIVER Case Study: What have been the successes and possible failures of IDBM

A

in 2014, thanks to the 2012 Minute 139 agreement with USA + Mexico, the river reached the sea for the first time in 16 years, shows the success
The Minute 139 plan:
- sustained base flows
- advanced restoration by releasing a pulse flow
- tried to make allocations fairer: everyone had to cut down
- Drought contingency plan: trying to plan for future reductions and restore the delta
(but only a temporary plan/ not fitting futurity element of sustainability)

But could they be doing more as many agreement are signed but to what extent are actions taken?

  • could reduced allocation/water use for farming by making practices more sustainable e.g. smart irrigation
  • possible attitudinal fix needed as US see water as a right
24
Q

COLORADO RIVER Case study: Why is IDBM difficult?

A
  • river tamed by 14 dams and resevoirs
  • basin includes some of the driest land in the US
  • legal pacts in the past (1922/44) have allocated more water to states in upper basin despite more being needed in Mexico and lower states
  • more water is allocated than there are flows in the river, even without the threat of drought so it rarely flows to the Gulf of California
  • no single authority has control over distribution
25
Q

General knowledge about the Colorado River?

A
  • most endangered river in the USA
  • source is in the Rocky Mountains
  • shared between Mexico + USA
  • provides water for large areas of farmland
  • heavy pumping of groundwater has lead to declining aquifers
  • many years of drought have affected the river’s flow
  • Lake Mead near Vegas is the largest reservoir but its waters are declining
26
Q

Successful Sustainable Coastal Management: Essex Abbots Hall Farm

A

Managed retreat scheme = where erosion is allowed to happen in a controlled way, but slowed down/maintained sustainably
Breaches in the embankments put in, got rid of old sea wall
Carried out a CBA, it was negative as maintaining the embankments was unsustainable
soil and land quality was not good enough to be saved

CONFLICTS:
Fishermen who do oyster fishing are worried sediment could choke oysters and water cover habitats
RSPB concerned about erosion affecting their site
Both conflicts were resolved (did tests and surveys on sediment levels, salt marsh better for wetland birds)

Essex wildlife trust allowed sea water to cover arable field - 80ha of fields and the farmer was compensated
Land reverted back to original salt marsh state, wildlife returned

27
Q

Successful sustainable Coastal Management: Namibia

A

Launched in 2013, coastline of varying value
Therefore used a ICZM = a holistic strategy for a long coastline to consider impacts

Skeleton Bay has low cost management options like to monitor SLR, conserve habitats, stabilise and protect sand dunes, make communities resilient

Tourist settlements like Henties Bay have moderate cost options like beach nourishment, early warning systems

Walvis Bay and important industry and trading areas have expensive options like sea walls, raising of ports and roads, barriers and relocation of vulnerable communities

28
Q

Coast management in a developing country: Chittadong, Bangladesh

A

Trying to climate proof the area
Asian development bank funded
Improve road connections and raise embankments (protect against SLR and coastal erosion)
Create new market areas, improve cyclone shelters
Training in adaption and resilience

+ Could alleviate poverty by 10% due to income opportunities
+ adapt to climate change
+ reduce disaster risk
+ planting trees

  • relocation of 200 people
  • not as sustainable environmentally: removal of some natural vegetation, disturbance of habitats
  • slow progress in some areas
29
Q

Conflict coastal management decisions: Happisburgh, NE Norfolk

A
  • originally a managed retreat scheme, then changes to no nothing/ no active intervention
  • failed to quality for govt. grants as it wasn’t economically viable anymore, CBA against need for hard engineering
  • > promontory affect would have occurred
  • many homes were lost to the sea as the coast retreated

CONFLICTS:

  • campaigning from residents in 2009 led to the Pathfinder project which helped out with granting residents half the un-blighted value of their homes
  • purchase and leaseback of properties, demolished houses to create a buffer zone
  • gave people the chance to relocate

Possibility for more coastal defences in future, but only if the funding can be found

30
Q

What is NPP?

A

Net primary productivity

  • the rate of photosynthesis in an ecosystem and therefore gives a measure of the size of the carbon sink
  • the rate of this is controlled by climate and the availability of nutrients
31
Q

What ecosystems have the highest NPP?

A

Ocean, tropical rainforests, taiga, grasslands

- highest in warmest and wettest parts of the world

32
Q

What are some of the threats to Biomes?

A

> tropical rainforests - deforestation, logging, mining
swamps and marshes - drainage and conversion to agriculture
tundra and open ocean - rising temps.
coral reefs - ocean acidification
desert - fire
grasslands -> conversion to arable and pastoral farming
temperate deciduous forest - development

33
Q

How does carbon enter the soil?

Why does its amount differ?

A

Dead organic matter stays in a litter layer when plants and animals die and excrete
This then decomposes to create humus and eventually CO2 is released when it breaks down

carbon stores will differ dependent on the biome: its inputs and outputs, so the remains and nutrients vs. decomposition, uptake by plants

34
Q

Why is having a high organic carbon content important in the soil? (4 reasons)

A

1) Helps to give it structure by maintaining the pore spaces and allowing water to infiltrate, allowing for water retention
2) It is a natural fertiliser, providing nutrients which is the basis for plant growth
3) encourages biodiversity (earthworms + microbes to help decompose)
4) maintains a strong structure which is less likely to be eroded away

35
Q

Why is carbon important for soil?

How is climate change affecting it?

A
  • without it, the nutrient and water cycles cannot operate properly
  • healthy soils will be dark and crumbly, containing organisms and will retain water, allowing for soil temperature regulation and better resilience to wetter weather

-> if winters become shorter due to CC, then co2 could be released more
could also go the other way, CC creates a natural response and more CO2 is absorbed which will alter the balance

36
Q

Why has the balance of carbon pathways and stores been altered?

A
  • > it is balanced when the sources of atmospheric carbon are balanced with the sinks
  • it is not balanced currently due to the industrial revolution which released carbon
  • continues to be altered due to fossil fuel combustion and deforestation
37
Q

What is a Carbon Pathway?

A

= refers to the flows or fluxes of carbon in the cycle, (flowing from gaseous carbon -> organic)

38
Q

What are the main implications of fossil fuel combustion on Climate?

A
  • oceanic thermohaline circulation may weaken and shut down
  • extra tropical low pressure systems (depressions) will move northwards
  • the Sahel, Mediterranean, South Africa and generally the tropic will become drier
  • temperate and tropical zones may experience stronger storm activity due to more heat + evaporation
  • Arctic temperatures are increasing at double the rate , (Artic amplification), with a reduction in sea ice, reduction in snow cover and ablation of glaciers
39
Q

What are the main implications of fossil fuel combustion on the Hydrological cycle?

A
  • rivers will dry up in regions where precipitation is reduced or less effective due to increased evaporation
  • drier climates in the Mediterranean will create a reduction in water availability
  • permafrost areas will thaw adding more water to arctic rivers in the short term
  • flash flooding more likely due to more extreme rainfall events as a result of greater evaporation rates and formation of storms
  • droughts and floods driven by ENSO could become more intense
  • precipitation will increase at high latitudes and decrease at lower latitudes
40
Q

What are the main implications of fossil fuel combustion for Ecosystems?

A
  • habitats shift polewards or to higher altitudes, reducing in biodiversity as some species struggle to migrate
    (those that do migrate also face competition from other species e.g. Arctic and Alaskan red fox)
  • ocean and coastal bird habitats are threatened by shifting temps. and salt water encroachment
  • plant changes lag behind animals, more pests and diseases to kill them due to less cold weather
  • ocean acidification and increasing temperatures could affect phytoplankton + its ability to sequester carbon as well as the food web
  • 10% of land animals with limited adaptability face extinction as their climates change (polar regions esp.)
  • 80% of coral reefs could be lost through coral bleaching and acidification
41
Q

What is an Energy Pathway?

A

= the route by which energy is transferred from the production area to the consumption area

42
Q

What are the main physical threats to energy pathways?

A

> Terrain and topography: mountainous regions increase construction difficulty
Climate and permafrost disruption: pipelines have too be built above ground + insulated
Construction + maintenance in vast remote areas
Challenging extraction from deep sea areas e.g. Gulf of Mexico
Physical chokepoints = narrow sea channels that can be blocked (half of worlds oil through 8 chokepoints)

43
Q

What are the main human threats to energy pathways?

A

> Piracy problems: at chokepoints especially e.g. Straits of Malacca (second largest chokepoint for oil and gas, in 2015 criminal gangs frequently seized ships for hostage payments)
500 attacks between 2009-2015
Political tensions and conflict leading to disruptions in supply
Supplies diverted for greater profit or political reasons
Technical problems like pipelines leaks: must be organised and pipelines monitored

44
Q

CASE STUDY: Energy Pathway disruption when there was conflict between Russian gas to Europe

Problems for Russia / Europe
2014 conflict

A
  • most of Russia’s gas exports go to Europe via pipelines, 3 of which out of 4 cross Ukraine which means they are in a position to cause problems for Russian gas industries by increasing the prices they charge for allowing gas transfer
  • could also prevent the transfer of gas altogether
  • Russia could ether reduce gas through Ukraine or annexe the country
  • For Europe, being reliant on Russian gas has the risk of being involved in political and economic blackmail

2014: Russia cut Ukraines oil supplies after they failed to pay their debts
Ukraine was reliant, 50% of their supplies
started a wider row: EU was warned about their security because prolonged disruption could lead to private households “out in the cold” in Finland, Slovakia, Hungary

45
Q

MINI CASE STUDY: Deepwater oil spills

2010 Deepwater Horizon disaster

A
  • oil spills due to the explosion of BP’s rig in the Gulf of Mexico
  • occurred due to the depth at which the mining has to happen, very deep sea as shallow oil resources have been exhausted
    > leak for 87 days
    -> 11 workers killed, 4m barrels of petroleum into the ocean
    > environmental tragedy
  • disasters like oil spills will happen again because of the high risk operations, particularly when drilling for oil and a lot of things can go wrong
    -> Trump decided to loosen Obama’s safety rules
  • meant that the supply for the US East Coast Industry was disrupted, many businesses limited
46
Q

What is the role of Mangroves?

A
  • a large store and they sequester lots of carbon
  • provide natural protection (coasts + tectonics topics)
  • they are submerged/ inundated with water most of the time
  • > creates aerobic conditions
  • > pore spaces filled with water, not oxygen
  • > dead litter is stored but not fully decomposed quickly
47
Q

What is the role of Tundra?

A
  • permafrost store is very important
  • stores get older the further down in the soil you go
  • rate of decomposition is very slow, as microbes/decomposers are frozen
48
Q

Why are terrestrial ecosystems important?

A

Help to regulate the carbon cycle
sequester carbon as they are carbon sinks and stores
leads to fluxes

Geography A Level (4 decks)

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