"Photography" 7th editions by London & Upton Flashcards
Chapters 2-5, 10-13, 15-17
What is a camera shutter and what does it do/control? (pg 18)
A camera shutter is a mechanism within the camera that controls how the amount of light by the length of time it remains open.
Older cameras often use mechanical shutters with physical curtains that open and close, while modern digital cameras can utilize electronic shutters that electronically control the sensor’s exposure time
What does the term `stop’ mean in photography? (pg 18)
In photography, a stop is a unit that describes the change or difference between exposure values.
Adding one stop doubles your exposure, but subtracting one stop halves your exposure.
A stop multiplies or divides your exposure by two depending on whether you’re adding or subtracting light.
Reminder - multiplying by half is the same as dividing by two
What type of camera shutters are there and what are their advantages/disadvantages? (pg 19)
There are two types of camera shutters: Leaf shutters and focal plane shutters.
A leaf of between-the-lens shutter is generally located inside the lens itself. A leaf shutter is quieter than a focal-plane shutter and can be used with flash at any shutter speed. But since the leaf shutter has to open, stop, and then reverse direction to close again, most have top speeds of 1/500 second.
A focal-plane shutter is built into the camera and is located directly in front of the film. The shutter consists of two overlapping curtains that form an adjustable slit of window. When the shutter is released, the window moves across the film, exposing the film as it moves. At slow shutter speeds, one edge of the slit travels across the film until the film is uncovered, then the over edge of the slit travels in the same direction, recovering the film.
Interchangeable lenses for a camera with focal-plane shutter can be less expensive than those with leaf shutters. A focal-plane shutter has a few drawbacks. It may be used with flash at a relatively slow shutter speed, which can cause exisiting light as well as light from the flash reigster on the film. This leaves a “ghost” or second image in the picture.
The maximum speed at which the shutter will work with flash on a 35mm camera, called “sync” speed, may be as slow as 1/60 secon, but up to 1/250 second with some models. At a faster shutter speed than the camera’s recommended sync speed, the slit in the focal-plane shutter does not completely uncover the film at any one time, before the first part of the shutter is fully open, the second part starts to close, so the flash will only illuminate part of the film.
What is a basic rule about shutter speed and camera shake? (no page)
A basic rule regarding shutter speed and camera shake is that to avoid noticeable blur from camera shake when hand holding your camera, your shutter speed should be at least as fast as the focal length of your lens; meaning if you’re using a 50mm lens, your shutter speed should be 1/50th of a second or faster.
What is a camera aperture and what does it do/control? (pg 24)
The camera aperture is the adjustable opening through which light passes into the camera. The wider the opening, the more light can reach the camera sensor, which impacts both the exposure of a photo and depth of field by determining how much of the scene is in focus at any given time.
How are aperture sizes denoted? (pg 24)
Aperture is expressed in f-stops. The f-number is not the actual size of the aperture but has an inverse relationship to it:
aperture diameter = focal length (f) divided by f-number
This is why f-stops are written with a slash, as in f/1.4 and f/16 – they are actually fractions. It also explains why the lower the f-number is, the larger the aperture – the f-number is the denominator of the fraction, and 1/4 is bigger than 1/16.
Each increment on the standard f-stop scale halves the amount of light that reaches the sensor – f/4 lets through half as much light as f/2.8, f/5.6 half as much as f/4, and so on. Each of these steps, halving the amount of light each time or doubling it going the other way, is described as one stop of light. In turn, this is why the f-stop scale comprises the numbers it does, such as f/2.8 and f/5.6, instead of whole numbers, which would not correspond to whole stops of light.
The term “stop” comes from early cameras, the aperture was adjusted by individual metal “stop” plates that had holes of different diameters.
What does it mean a lens is fast or slow? (pg 24)
Lenses are often described as either fast or slow, based on their maximum aperture openings. Essentially, faster lenses are those with large maximum apertures, and those that cannot open up as much are referred to as slower lenses. Faster lenses allow you to shoot more easily in low light or at higher shutter speeds. They are also more expensive than slower lenses.
What does depth of field mean?
In simplest terms, depth of field is how much of your image is in focus. In more technical terms, depth of field refers to the distance between the nearest and farthest points in a photograph that appear acceptably sharp, essentially defining the area in front of and behind the focused subject that is considered to be in focus; it is primarily controlled by the camera’s aperture setting, with a wider aperture creating a shallower depth of field and a smaller aperture creating a larger depth of field.
What is the relationship between shutter speed and aperture? (pg 28)
Shutter speed and aperture have an inverse relationship, meaning that when one increases, the other must decrease to maintain the same level of light exposure in a photograph. When making an exposure in any given light condition, the larger, or more open, the aperture is, the faster the shutter speed needs to be. When you allow a large amount of light to pass through the lens, you need to cut it off more quickly for a proper exposure. Conversely, an aperture that is closed, or stopped down in that same light condition requires a slower shutter speed to create the exact same exposure.
What type of cameras are there (film or digital)? (pg 30-33)
Single Lens Reflex (SLR) cameras show you the scene directly through the lens. You can frame the subject exactly, and with some cameras you can see how much of the scene will be sharp. Most SLRs use 35mm film. These cameras work well with all lenses, from wide angle to supertelephoto. An exposure meter built into the camera measures the light passing through the lens, with the area being metered defined in the viewfinder. They are heavier and larger than a rangefinder camera that uses the same size film. It has more compnonents that may need repair and has a comparatively loud click during exposure.
Rangefinder/viewfinder cameras show you the scene through a small window (the viewfinder). These camreas have a viewfinder, plus a coupled rangefinder, that lets you focus the camera manually instead of only relying on automatic focus. Most use 35mm film. They are compact, lightweight, and fast handling. It has fewer moving parts during an image makes it easy to focus quickly, particularly at low light levels. It suffers from an inherent defect called parallax that prevents you from seeing exactly what the lens sees because the viewfinder is in a different position that the lens that exposes the negative.
View cameras have a direct, through-the-lens viewing and a large image on a viewing screen. It is the simplest and oldest basic design for a camera. These cameras are heavy, bulky, requires a tripod, and is slow to operate. The image projected on the ground glass is the back of the camera. Also, the image appears reversed and upside down on the viewing screen. However, what you see is exactly what will be on the negative so there can be no parallax error. Additionally, the camera parts are adjustable, and you can change the position of the lens and film relative to each other so that you can correct problems of focus or distortion. Each picture is exposed on a separate piece of film so you can give negatives individual development.
Twin-lens reflex (TLR) cameras are quiet, reliable, and generally less expensive than other types of medium format cameras. Lenses are not interchangeable, and few models are manufactured anymore.
Point and shoot cameras, also called compact cameras, use 35mm film and are “auto-everything”. They are small, inexpensive, and easy to use.
Digital cameras do not use film to make images. They generate photographs by focusing a scene through a lens and the light rays excite a computer chip to capture a photograph onto a memory card in the camera. The resulting image can then be transferred to a computer for editing, printing, or distribution on the internet. Once you’ve taken the picture, you can view it on the LCD display, and immediately erase it if you don’t like it. Digital cameras that produce images comparable in quality to those made with film are more expensive than traditional cameras, and rapidly changing technology can make them obsolete relatively quickly.
Underwater cameras allow you to take pictures beneath the sea.
Panoramic cameras take wide views of a scene.
Instant cameras produce a print within a few seconds, if not instantly.
Stereo cameras take pictures at the same time through side by side lenses.
Why would you use a tripod? (pg 35)
A tripod is used to keep your camera completely still, which is crucial for achieving sharp images, especially in low light situations where slower shutter speeds are needed, or when taking long exposures, as it eliminates camera shake and allows for precise framing and composition; essentially, it provides stability for your camera, leading to better quality photos.
What is a photographic lens and what is it’s purpose? (pg 39)
A photographic lens is an optical component within a camera that is used to bring light to a fixed focal point. In a film camera, the lens sends the light to the film strip, while in a digital camera (like DSLRs or mirrorless cameras), the lens directs light to a digital sensor. The primary purpose of a lens is to gather light from a subject and project it onto the camera’s sensor, creating a focused image.
What type of lens are most photographic lenses? (pg 41)
Most modern photographic lenses are based on the convex lens, which is thicker in the middle than at the edges. A convex lens can collect a large number of light rays from a single point an object and refract, or bend, them towards each other so that they converge at a single point (called the focal point).
Basically, how does a lens work? (pg 41)
A lens works by bending light rays through refraction, which occurs when light passes from one medium to another with a different density, like from air into glass, causing the light to converge or diverge depending on the lens’s curvature, thus allowing it to focus light to create an image; essentially, a lens manipulates light rays to either bring them together at a focal point (convex lens) or spread them apart (concave lens) depending on its shape.
What is focal length? (pg 42)
Focal length is the distance (measured in millimeters) between the point of convergence of your lens and the sensor or film recording the image. The focal length of your film or digital camera lens dictates how much of the scene your camera will be able to capture.
What does it mean ‘normal lens’? (pg 44)
A “normal lens” in photography refers to a lens with a focal length that closely replicates the field of view seen by the human eye, essentially creating a perspective that appears “natural” to the viewer, with minimal distortion; on a full-frame camera, this is typically around a 50mm lens.
What are the advantages/disadvantages of a long focal length lens? (pg 46)
Advantages of a long focal length lens:
* Magnification: The primary benefit is the ability to bring distant subjects closer, ideal for wildlife photography, sports, and capturing details from a distance.
* Background compression: A long lens compresses the background, creating a more blurred and aesthetically pleasing effect, effectively isolating the subject.
* Discreet shooting: Allows you to stay further away from your subject, which can be beneficial in situations where getting too close might disturb wildlife or people.
Disadvantages of a long focal length lens:
* Narrow field of view: Due to the high magnification, only a small area of the scene is captured, limiting wide shots or group photos.
* Limited maneuverability: Can be difficult to frame your shot precisely, requiring more careful composition.
* Size and weight: Long focal length lenses are often bulky and heavy, making them cumbersome to carry for extended periods.
* Lower depth of field: Generally, a longer focal length results in a shallower depth of field, meaning less of the scene will be in focus at a given aperture.
What are the advantages/disadvantages of a short focal length lens? (pg 48)
Advantages of a short focal length lens:
* Wide field of view: Captures a large area of the scene, perfect for landscapes, architecture, and group photos.
* Can capture more of a scene in tight spaces: Allows you to get closer to a subject while still including a wider surrounding area.
* Depth of field: Generally has a larger depth of field, meaning more of the scene will be in focus at a given aperture.
Disadvantages of a short focal length lens:
* Distortion: Can significantly distort straight lines near the edges of the frame, making objects appear wider or taller than they actually are.
* Perspective exaggeration: Can make objects closer to the camera appear larger than objects farther away, which may not be desired in certain situations.
* Less magnification: Cannot zoom in on distant subjects as effectively as a long focal length lens.
What is a ‘Zoom’ lens? (pg 50)
A zoom lens is a camera lens that allows you to change the focal length, meaning you can “zoom in” or “zoom out” to capture a wider or closer view of a subject without physically moving the camera, unlike a prime lens which has a fixed focal length; essentially, it provides a range of focal lengths within one lens.
How do you determine the f-stop of a lens? (pg 58)
To determine a lens’s f-stop, you calculate it by dividing the focal length of the lens by the diameter of its aperture.
What is the definition (in this book) for perspective? (glossary)
The apparent size and depth of objects within an image.
Does focal length change or alter perspective? (pg 62)
No, changing the focal length of a lens does not directly change perspective; perspective is solely determined by the camera’s position relative to the subject, not by the focal length itself; therefore, to alter perspective, you need to move the camera closer or further from the subject, not just zoom in or out.
What is the difference between photomacrography and photomicrography? (glossary)
Photomacrography is close up photography that is life size or larger why photomicrography is photography taken trhough a compound microscope.
What are some of the challenges in macrophotography? (pg 66-67)
To get an accurate close up exposure, you first need to get an accurate light reading, but the small size of a close up subject can make metering difficult.
Placing bellows or extension tubes between the lens and the camera body moves the lens father from the film. The farther the lens extends, the dimmer the light that reaches the film, and the more you must increase the exposure so that the film will not be underexposed. However, the bellows or extension tubes may break the automatic coupling between lens and camera, so you have to manaully set exposures.
Very long exposures need to be increased even more, because of the need to compensate for reciprocity effect if the final shutter speed is longer than one second.
Blur can be caused by camera movement at a slow shutter speed. This can be mitigated by using an electronic flash.
Why should you not use the widest aperture on a lens? (pg 69)
A wide aperture means only a very thin plane will be sharply focused, making it challenging to capture subjects with multiple depth levels in focus. Precise focusing becomes more critical with a wide aperture, and slight focus errors can lead to noticeable blurriness. At the widest aperture, lens imperfections like distortion and chromatic aberration can be more pronounced, impacting image quality.
What is the visible spectrum in nanometers? (pg 71)
The visible light spectrum is the range of wavelengths of light that humans can see, and it is between 400 and 700 nanometers (nm). The colors of the visible spectrum are violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red.
What does ISO stand for? (pg 74)
ISO stands for International Organization for Standardization, which sets standards for camera sensor sensitivity. ISO is a camera setting that controls how much light enters the camera. A higher ISO number means the camera is more sensitive to light. A lower ISO number means the camera is less sensitive to light. ISO is one of three key elements in the exposure triangle, along with aperture and shutter speed. The ideal ISO number lets the right amount of light hit the camera’s image sensor.
What does equivalent exposures mean? (pg 98)
Equivalent Exposure is a term used in photography to describe different combinations of camera settings (aperture, shutter speed, and ISO) that result in the same overall exposure.
What kinds of light meters are there and how do they differ? (pg 99)
A light meter is a tool used to measure the intensity of light within a scene or on a subject. This device helps photographers and cinematographers determine the optimal exposure settings for their images or footage, by providing accurate readings of light levels in terms of shutter speed, aperture (F-stop), and ISO sensitivity.
There are primarily two types of light meters: incident and reflective. Incident light meters measure the amount of light falling directly onto the subject, offering readings uninfluenced by the subject’s color or texture. Reflective light meters, on the other hand, assess the light bouncing off the subject, which can be influenced by the subject’s characteristics.
Light meters calculates an exposure to equal what value of gray? (pg 100)
A light meter calculates an exposure to equal 18% gray; this is considered the “middle gray” value, meaning it represents an average level of brightness and is the standard that most camera meters aim for when determining exposure.
What are the different exposure modes on a camera? (pg 101)
The main exposure modes on a camera are: Program (P), Aperture Priority (A/Av), Shutter Priority (S/Tv), and Manual (M), where Program mode automatically selects aperture and shutter speed, while Aperture Priority lets you choose the aperture and the camera adjusts shutter speed, Shutter Priority lets you choose the shutter speed and the camera adjusts aperture, and Manual mode allows you to control all settings (aperture, shutter speed, and ISO) yourself.
What does under/overexposed mean? (pg 102)
“Underexposed” means a photo is too dark because it didn’t receive enough light, while “overexposed” means a photo is too bright because it received too much light
What is a CCD? (pg 205)
CCD stands for charge coupled device and is a light-sensitive integrated circuit that captures images by converting photons to electrons.
A CCD contains millions of light-sensitive cells arranged in a grid, like squares on a sheet of graph paper. During an exposure, the lens focuses light on the CCD, just as it does on film in a conventional camera. Each cell on the CCD measures the intensity of the light that falls on it. Red, green, or blue filters in front of each cell allow it to record color information as well. Each position on the grid is recorded as a solid toned pixel with its position, brightness, and color given as a series of numbers.
Imagine a CCD as a tiny paint-by-numbers picture where you paint in number 5 blue for the sky, number 3 brown for the rocks, etc - except with a CCD you have 16 million colors to
What is a bit? Byte? Kilobyte? Megabyte? Gigabyte? (pg 205)
A BIT is a “binary digit” – the smallest piece of information a computer can use. It is expressed as a ‘0’ or ‘1’.
A Byte is equal to 8 Bits. A Byte can represent 256 states of information, for example, numbers or a combination of numbers and letters. 1 Byte could be equal to one character. 10 Bytes could be equal to a word. 100 Bytes would equal an average sentence.
A Kilobyte is approximately 1,000 Bytes, actually 1,024 Bytes depending on which definition is used. 1 Kilobyte would be equal to this paragraph you are reading, whereas 100 Kilobytes would equal an entire page.
A Megabyte is approximately 1,000 Kilobytes. In the early days of computing, a Megabyte was considered to be a large amount of data. These days with a 500 Gigabyte hard drive on a computer being common, a Megabyte doesn’t seem like much anymore. One of those old 3-1/2 inch floppy disks can hold 1.44 Megabytes or the equivalent of a small book. 100 Megabytes might hold a couple volumes of Encyclopedias. 600 Megabytes is about the amount of data that will fit on a CD-ROM disk.
A Gigabyte is approximately 1,000 Megabytes. A Gigabyte is still a very common term used these days when referring to disk space or drive storage. 1 Gigabyte of data is almost twice the amount of data that a CD-ROM can hold. But it’s about one thousand times the capacity of a 3-1/2 floppy disk. 1 Gigabyte could hold the contents of about 10 yards of books on a shelf. 100 Gigabytes could hold the entire library floor of academic journals.
What is BIT depth? (pg 207)
BIT depth is the measurement of how much color information is available to display in each pixel of an image
What does ppi stand for? dpi? (pg 207)
Pixels per inch (PPI) refers to the number of pixels contained within each inch of a digital image. It also refers to the set number of pixels a screen can display. Generally speaking, the higher the PPI, the better the image quality.
Lower resolution images contain larger pixels in fewer numbers. This creates a blocky, granular effect — hence the term ‘pixelated’. Higher resolution levels benefit from greater numbers of smaller pixels. These create depth, clarity and smoothness.
What does a high ISO setting on a digital camera produce? (pg 212)
ISO is a number that represents how sensitive your camera sensor is to light. The higher the ISO number, the higher your camera’s sensitivity, and the less light you need to take a picture. The trade-off is that higher ISOs can lead to degraded image quality and cause your photos to be grainy or ‘noisy.’
What types of digital scanners are there? (pg 222)
Flatbed scanners are a common type that can scan documents, photos, and 3D objects.
Drum scanners are used in the publishing industry to print high-quality images
Film scanners are designed to digitize transparencies or negatives.
What is resampling? (pg 225)
In photography, resampling is the process of changing the number of pixels in an image. This can be done by adding or removing pixels.
What are the different kinds of Main Lighting used in portrait photography? (pg 268)
Front lighting - the light is placed as near the lens axis as possible, producing only thin shadows from the camera position. This kind of lighting seems to flatten out the volume of the subject and minimize textures.
Side lighting - sometimes referred to as “hatchet” lighting because it can split a subject in half. This type of lighting emphasizes facial features and reveals textures like that of skin. The light is at subject level, directly to the side.
High side lighting - a main light is placed at about 45 degrees to one side and 45 degrees above the subject. This has long been the classic angle for portrait lighting, one that seems natural and flattering. It models the face into a 3D form.
Under lighting - light from below produces off-looking shadows because light in nature seldom comes from below. Firelight is one of the few natural sources.
Back lighting - a light pointing at the back of the subject outlines its shape with a rim of light like a halo. Care needs to be taken so the light does not shine into the camera lens and fog the film overall.
What is fill lighting? (pg 270)
Fill lighting is a technique in photography and videography where a secondary light source is used to soften or reduce the shadows created by the main light, essentially “filling in” dark areas to create a more balanced and even illumination on a subject; it’s typically positioned opposite the key light and is less intense to maintain a controlled contrast ratio.
When doing copy photography of flat objects what should the angle of the light sources be? (pg 294)
When doing copy photography of flat objects, the ideal angle for light sources is typically around 45 degrees from the subject, positioned slightly off to the side, to minimize shadows and reflections while still providing enough detail on the surface of the object; however, depending on the material and desired effect, you may need to adjust this angle slightly.
What is the ‘Zone System’? Who conceived the process? (pg 329)
The Zone System is a photographic technique for determining optimal film exposure and development, formulated by Ansel Adams and Fred Archer. The Zone System provides photographers with a systematic method of precisely defining the relationship between the way they visualize the photographic subject and the final results. Although it originated with black-and-white sheet film, the Zone System is also applicable to roll film, both black-and-white and color, negative and reversal, and to digital photography.
What is a daguerreotype? (pg 368)
Daguerreotype was the first publicly available photographic process, widely used during the 1840s and 1850s. “Daguerreotype” also refers to an image created through this process.
What was Eastman’s contribution to photography? (pg 372)
Eastman introduced the Kodak camera in 1888. Thanks to his inventive genius, anyone could now take pictures with a handheld camera simply by pressing a button. He coined the slogan, “you press the button, we do the rest,” and within a year it became a well-known phrase.
